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Electrical Components:
1. Resistor
2. Inductor
3. Capacitor
4. Voltage Source 5. Current Source
DC AC
+ +
- - ~
Terminal
Terminal “A” Terminal “B”
Node Element
Node
Branch
Portion of the circuit between two nodes
Closed Path
Any path along various branches which finishes at
the point where it started
Mesh
Any path which contains no other paths within it,
is called a mesh.
Loop
A path which contains more than two meshes,
is called a loop.
a b c d e
+ +
- -
g g g g g
+ +
Rise -
Fall
-
a R b
+ -
I
+ = Higher Potential - = Lower Potential
From – to + = Voltage Rise, Vba = - IR
From + to - = Voltage drop, Vab = + IR
The equivalent I I
circuit is V
+ -
R1 R2 R3
a b c d
V1 V2 V3
I I
+ -
V
If current through R1 is I1, R2 is I2 and R3 is I3, then
Current through R1, R2 and R3 = I = I1 = I2 = I3
a R s d
The equivalent I I
circuit is V
+ -
R1 R2 R3
a b c d
V1 V2 V3
I I
+ -
By Ohm’s Law V
V1 = R1I, V2 = R2I, V3 = R3I,
Now, V = R1I + R2I + R3I
= (R1 + R2 + R3) I
V
= Rs
I
where Rs is total or equivalent resistance
R1 R2 R3
a b c d
V1 V2 V3
I I
+ -
Voltage Division V
Let us determine V1 , V2 and V3 in terms of V.
V R3
I= V3 = R3I = V
RS R
R1 S
V1 = R 1 I = V Theses are voltage
RS
R2 divider equations.
V2 = R 2 I = V No current in the equation
RS
Consider two resistors
First write down current equation
I
V
I=
+ R1 + R2
R1 V1 Now, Voltage equN
+ - 𝑅1
V - V1 = R1 I = 𝑅 + 𝑅 V
+
R2 1 2
V2
- 𝑅2
V2 = R 2 I = 𝑅 + 𝑅 V
1 2
Thus voltage across that resistor is equal to the applied
voltage times the ratio of that resistance to the total
resistance
Open Circuit and Short Circuit
Open means gap, break or interruption
Rs d
a
R
I I= 0
V
+ -
As per Ohm’s law 𝑉 𝑉
R= =
𝐼 0
Thus, open circuit may be considered as a resistor of
INFINITE resistance.
Open Circuit and Short Circuit
a Rs d
I I =High
V
+ -
Short circuited means
1. shorting by a wire (tree falling ,snakes, birds etc)
2. zero voltage (across short) regardless current value
𝑉 0
As per Ohm’s law R = = =0
𝐼 I
Thus, short circuit may be considered as a resistor of
ZERO resistance.
Thus in series circuit, the total resistance is equal to
The Arithmatic Sum of their individual resistances.
The following points may be noted:
1. Same current flows through the circuit.
2. Applied voltage is equal to the sum of voltage drops
across the different parts of the circuit.
3. Different resistors have their individual voltage
drops.
4. The voltage drops α resistance and current.
5. The voltage drops are additive.
6. Resistances are additive (resultant is always more).
7. Powers are additive.
Total Power
PT = I2 R1 + I2 R2 + I2 R3
Use:
1. All protective elements such as
Thermostat,
Fuse,
current limiting devices and
switches
are connected in series.
2. Series circuit is useful for decorative lighting.
Disadvantages
1. If a BREAK occurs in any parts of the circuit, then
NO CURRENT will flow and circuit becomes USELESS.
2. Series circuit is not practicable for home lighting.
+
_ V
V1 V2 V3
I = 1.5A I
+ -
V
V1 = R1I, = 2x1.5 = 3 V V= V1+ V2 +V3
V2 = R2I, = 3x1.5 = 4.5 V = 19.5 V
V2 = R3I, = 8x1.5 = 12 V
Example 2
In figure shown, R2= 100 Ω, V=30 V and output
voltage is 10 V. Calculate the resistance R1.
I = V/ (R1+R2)
R1 = 30/ (R1+100)
+
V V2 = R2I,
-
R2 10 V 10 = 100x[30/ (R1+100)]
R1 = 200 Ω
2. Parallel circuit: (loads are connected in parallel)
+
_ V
+
_ V
All elements I1 R1
will have same I2 R2
voltage across I3 R3
them I
V=V1=V2=V3
+ -
V
The same circuit can also be drawn as follows:
I I1 I2 I3 I
+ +
V R1 R2 R3 V RP
- -
V1 V2 V3
In terms of conductance
GP G1 G2 G3 .... GN
Thus equivalent conductance in parallel circuit is
equal to the sum of individual conductance.
Current Division Consider two resistors in parallel.
I Total resistance of the circuit
+ I1 I2 R1 R2
V RP = R R
- R1 R 2
1 2
𝑅𝑃 R1 I
IN = I I2 =
𝑅𝑁 R1 R2
Conclusions:
1. Same Voltage acts across all parts of the circuit.
2. Different resistors have their individual currents.
3. Total current is equal to the sum of individual
currents (Currents are additive)
4. Conductances are additive.
5. Powers are additive.
6. Resultant Resistance is always less.
( The reciprocal of resultant resistance is equal to the
sum of reciprocals of the resistances).
+ -
V
R2 and R3 are connected in parallel and that both
together are connected in series with R1.
For solving
First reduce parallel branch to an equivalent
Then solve simple series circuit
I2 R2
R1 RS
I R3
3
I1 I1
+ -
V
Then solve simple series circuit
R2 R3
For parallel combination, RS
R2 R3
R1 RS
I1 I1
+ -
V R2 R3
Total circuit resistance, RT R1
R2 R3
Voltage across parallel combination,
R2 R3
I1RS or I1
R2 R3
Now
V V
I1
R1 RS RT
R1 RS
I1 I1
+ -
V
R3 R2
I 2 I1 I 3 I1
R2 R3 R2 R3
Applications:
1. In automobile starting, lighting and ignition circuits
are joined to make series parallel circuits.
2. Radio and television receivers contain tuning circuit
amplifier, oscillator, detector and tube. The receiver
as a whole is a series parallel circuit.
3. Power supplies are connected in series to get
higher voltage and in parallel to get higher current.
Example 1:
A 150 Ω resistance coil AB is connected across 240V
dc supply. Calculate the value of resistance which,
when connected between the midpoint and end A,
will carry a current of 0.8A
0.8 A R
75Ω 75Ω
A B
I1 M
I I
+ -
240 V
Voltage across RMB =RMBI=75I
VAM=VAB-VMB=240 -VMB =240 -75I
Now, I = I1+0.8
VAM 240 - 75I
0.8 0.8 I I 2A
75 75
0.8 A R VAM=240 -75x2 = 90
VAM
R
75Ω 75Ω 0.8
A B
90
I1 M
I I 0.8
112.5
+ -
240 V
Example 2:
A DC circuit comprises two resistors, A of 25 Ω and B
of unknown value, connected in parallel, together with
a third resistor C of value 5 Ω connected in series with
the parallel group. The potential difference across C is
found to 90 V. If the total power in the circuit is 4320W
Calculate: a) the value of resistor B
b) the voltage applied to the end of the
whole circuit
c) the current in the each resistor
IB B
C=5Ω
IA A=25Ω
90V I
I
+ -
90
a) I 18A
5
If R is the total resistance of the circuit, then
I 2 R 4320 W 40 25 B
5
4320 40 3 25 B
R 2
18 3 B 12.5
IB B
C=5Ω
IA A=25Ω
90V I
I
+ -
b) Voltage applied to the ends of the whole circuit
40
RI 18 240 V
3
c) Current in C = I =18 A Current in B,
Current in A, 240 - 90
240 - 90 IB 12 A
IA 6A 12.5
25
Example 3: c
3Ω 5Ω
a b
Terminal C
4Ω 6Ω
3Ω 5Ω
a b
4Ω 6Ω
3Ω
a c
Example 3: c
3Ω 5Ω
a b
4Ω 6Ω
3Ω
a c
4Ω
Example 3: c
3Ω 5Ω
a b
4Ω 6Ω
3Ω 5Ω
a c b
4Ω
Example 3: c
3Ω 5Ω
a b
4Ω 6Ω
3Ω 5Ω
a c b
4Ω 6Ω
Example 3:
3 4 12
RAC
3 4 7
5 6 30
RBC
5 6 11
12 30
RAB RAC RBC 4.44
7 11
3Ω 5Ω
a c b
4Ω 6Ω
Kirchhoff’s Law
I
i 0
i 0
Kirchhoff’s First Law or Current Law or Point Law
The KCL is based on the conservation of charge at a
node.
The charge flowing into a node is equal to the charge
flowing out of a node.
Kirchhof’s Second Law or Voltage Law
At any instant, the algebraic sum of all the emf
(electromotive force) and the voltage drops in a
closed circuit is zero.
or
the algebraic sum of all the voltages around a closed
path is zero.
Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Voltage Law
V1
V -V1-V2 -V3 = 0
R1 +V
+ V= V1 2 +V3
V- R 2 V2 n
R3 Vi 0
i 0
V3
KVL is an alternative method of stating the law of
conservation of energy.
The dissipating energy in resistors must be supplied
by the battery.
W= W1 +W2 +W3
Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Voltage Law
W= W1 +W2 +W3
W W1 W2 W3
= + +
Q Q Q Q
Work per unit charge is voltage
V= V1 +V2 +V3
Application V1
C R3 R4 D
I2 I2
I3 R1 R2
B E
I1 I1
A R5 F
V2
Application V1
C+ - - R3 + - R4 + D
I2 I2
B
I3 + R1 - + R2 - E
I1 I1
+ -
A - R5 + F
V2
Application V1
C+ - - R3 + - R4 + D
I2 I2
B
I3 + R1 - + R2 - E
I1 I1
+ -
A - R5 + F
V2
For Kirchhoff’s Current Law, consider node B and E
I3 = I1+I2
For Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, consider closed ckt ABEFA
−V2 +I3(R1 + R2) +I1R5 = 0
V2 = I3(R1 + R2) +I1R5
V2 = R1(I1 + I2)+R2(I1 + I2) +I1R5 1
Application V1
C+ - - R3 + - R4 + D
I2 I2 By using eqNs
B
I3 + R1 - + R2 - E (1), (2) and (3),
I1 I1 I1, I2 and I3 are
+ - calculated.
A - R5 + F
V2
For Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, consider closed ckt BCDEB
V1 −I2(R3 + R4) −I3(R2 + R1) = 0
V1 = I2(R3 + R4) +I3(R2 + R1) (2)
Now consider closed circuit ABCDEFA
V1 −I2(R3 + R4) +I1R5 −V2 = 0
V1 −V2 = I2(R3 + R4) −I1R5 (3)
Kirchhoff’s Law for AC:
We have seen
Voltage source Battery Fixed magnitude
Constant current
Now consider Voltage source Time varying quantity
Time varying current - AC
iR i - instataneous
R value of current
i
𝑑𝑖 Voltage across resistor = i R
AC = e
~ L 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 Voltage across 𝑑𝑖
C
inductor = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
1 Voltage across 1
C
idt capacitor = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
Kirchhoff’s Law for AC:
By Kirchhoff’ law, we can write
𝑑𝑖 1
e= i R + 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
iR
i R
𝑑𝑖
AC = e
~ L 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
C
1
C
idt
Example 1: 4V
X B
2Ω - +
2V 3Ω 3Ω 5Ω
+ 5V -
A Y
Calculate the potential difference between X and Y
Solution:
Current flowing through 2Ω and 3Ω resistors
2Ω I2 3Ω 5Ω
I1 1-I1+I2
1A
A C
1-I1 1Ω
Find the current distribution in the network.
Solution:
Applying KVL to ABCA and BDCB
2I1 +3I2 −(1 − I1) = 0 and
4(I1 − I2)−5(1 − I1 + I2) −3I2 = 0
Solve the equations
4Ω I1 -I2
Example 2: B D 1A
2Ω I2 3Ω 5Ω
I1 1-I1+I2
1A
A 1Ω C
1-I1
11
Current in AB Current in BD A
21
4 10
Current in AC A Current in CD A
7 21
2
Current in BC I 2 A
21
Example 3: 7Ω B
I I- (I1+I2)
A C
I1 I2 7Ω
+
60V - 12Ω 6Ω
5Ω
D
Obtain a) total power supplied by 60V source and
b) power absorbed in each resistor
Solution: a)
Resistance between points C & D, RCD = 12 Ω
12 6
Resistance between points B & D, RBD= 4Ω
12 6
Example 3: 7Ω B
I I- (I1+I2)
A C
I1 I2 7Ω
+
60V - 12Ω 4 Ω6Ω 12 Ω
5Ω
D
Obtain a) total power supplied by 60V source and
b) power absorbed in each resistor
Solution: a)
Resistance between points C & D, RCD = 12 Ω
12 6
Resistance between points B & D, RBD= 4Ω
12 6
Example 3: 7Ω B
I I- (I1+I2)
A C
+
60V - 4Ω 3Ω 12 Ω
D
12 4
Resistance due to RCD & RBD = 3Ω
12 4
Example 3: 7Ω B
I
A C
+
60V - 3Ω
D
12 4
Resistance due to RCD & RBD = 3Ω
12 4
Total equivalent resistance, RT = 7+3 = 10 Ω
60
Total current flowing = 6A
10
Total Power absorbed = I2 RT= 62 x10= 360 W
Example 3: I=6A 7Ω B I- (I1+I2)
A C
4.5A
I1 I2 7Ω
+
60V - 12Ω 6Ω
5Ω
D
Solution: b)
RCD 12
Current flowing through BD = I 6
RBD RCD 4 12
=4.5A
Example 3: I=6A 7Ω B I- (I1+I2) =1.5A
A C
4.5A
I1=1.5A I1 I2=3A 7Ω
+
60V - 12Ω 6Ω
5Ω
D
Current flowing through CD = 6 - 4.5 =1.5A
6
Current I1= 4.5 1.5A
18
Current I2= 3A
Power absorbed in 7 Ω resistor = 62x7= 252 W
Example 3: I=6A 7Ω B I- (I1+I2) =1.5A
A C
4.5A
I1=1.5A I1 I2=3A 7Ω
+
60V - 12Ω 6Ω
5Ω
D
Power absorbed in 12 Ω resistor = (1.5)2x12= 27 W
Power absorbed in 6 Ω resistor = (3)2x6= 54 W
Power absorbed in 7 Ω resistor = (1.5)2x7= 15.75 W
Power absorbed in 7 Ω resistor = (1.5)2x5= 11.25 W
Total Power = 360 W
Example 4: R1=30 Ω
A C
B D
R3=10 Ω
B D
R3=10 Ω
Solution: A
a) From A there are
two paths AC and AD
Then from C to B D C
and from D to B
Hence RAB= R2+R3 ‖ R1+R4 B
=30 ‖ 40 =17.143 Ω
Example 4: R1=30 Ω
A C
B D
R3=10 Ω
b) C and D are A
short circuited
Hence RAB= R1 ‖ R2 + R3 ‖ R4
D C
=30 ‖ 20 + 10 ‖ 10
=17 Ω
B
Star ↔ Delta (or T ↔ Π) Transformation
There are some networks other than series & parallel
Three terminal network
Star (Y) network and Delta (Δ) network
A A
RA
RC RB
C B C B
RBC
C RC RB B C RBC B
RA RCA RAB
T Network
A A
A A Π Network
A A
RA
RC RB
C B C B
RBC
Equivalent resistance
Resistance between Resistance between
A & B of star A & B of delta
RAB (RBC+RCA)
RA+RB = (1)
RAB+RBC+RCA
A A
RBC
RA
RC RB
C B C B
Equivalent resistance
Resistance between Resistance between
B & C of star B & C of delta
RBC (RCA+RAB)
RB+RC = (2)
RAB+RBC+RCA
A A
RA
RC RB
C B C B
RBC
Equivalent resistance
Resistance between Resistance between
C & A of star C & A of delta
RCA (RAB+RBC)
RC+RA =
RAB+RBC+RCA (3)
A A
RA
RC RB
C B C B
RBC
Delta to star transformation Similarly
EquNs (1) – (2) + (3) RBC RAB
R = (5)
RAB RCA B RAB+RBC+RCA
RA = (4)
RAB+RBC+RCA
RCA RBC
RC = (6)
RAB+RBC+RCA
A A
RA
RA
RC RB RC
RB
C B C B
RBC
Delta to star transformation
Thus
Any arm of star Product of two adjacent arms of Delta
=
connection Sum of all arms of Delta
A A
RA
RA
RC RB RC
RB
C B C B
RBC
Star to Delta transformation
Consider equations 4, 5 & 6
Dividing eq 4 by 5
RA RCA
=
RB RBC
RA
RCA = RBC (7)
RB
Deviding eq 4 by 6
RA RAB
=
RC RBC
RA
R = RBC (8)
AB RC
Star to Delta transformation
RA RA
Substitute eqns 7 & 8 in 4 RBC RBC
RAB RCA RC RB
RA = = R RA
RAB+RBC+RCA A
RBC+ RBC+ RBC
RA 2 RC RB
RB R C
= RBC
RA RA
+1+
RC RB
RA 2
= RBC
RA RB+ RB RC+ RC RA
RA RB+ RB RC+ RC RA
RBC =
RA
R B RC A
RBC = RB + RC + (9)
RA
Similarly
R C RA RA
RCA = RC + RA + (10) RC
RB
RB
RA R B
RAB = RA + RB + (11) C B
RC RBC
Thus, equivalent Delta resistance betN two terminals =
Sum of two star resistances connected to those
terminals plus the product of the same two star
resistances divided by the third star resistance
Example 1 11Ω A
I 8Ω I2 I1
E 11Ω 15Ω
13Ω
B
C
A battery of unknown emf is connected across the
resistances as shown.
The voltage drop across 8Ω resistor is 20V. What will
be the value of I1 and I2? What is the emf of battery.
Solution:
The voltage drop across 8Ω resistor is 20V.
The current through 8Ω resistor is 20/8= 2.5A
Example 1 11Ω A
I 8Ω I2 I1
E 11Ω 15Ω
13Ω
B
C
11
Current I1= 2.5 0.705 A
11 28
Current I2= 1.8 A
11 28
Total circuit resistance, RT= 8 11 26.9
11 28
D D
A B
1Ω 0.6Ω
2Ω
D
Example 3
Find the current drawn from a battery of 10 V
connected to the circuit shown.
A
10Ω
10Ω
10Ω
C 10Ω B
10V
Example 3
Find the current drawn from a battery of 10 V
connected to the circuit shown.
A A
10Ω
10Ω
10Ω
30Ω
C 10Ω B C 10Ω B
RA RB
RAB = RA + RB +
RC
10V = 30 Ω
First convert inner star to delta
Example 3
30Ω
C 7.5Ω B C 10Ω B
300
= 7.5 Ω
10V 40
C 7.5Ω B C 5Ω B
10V 10V
Example 4
Find the resistance between 11’ of the circuit shown
A
1
2Ω
B C
1’
D
2Ω
B C
B C
1’
D 1’
D
RAB RCA 24 8
RA = RA = = 2Ω RB = = 0.66Ω
RAB+RBC+RCA 12 12
12
RC = = 1Ω
First convert ABC delta to star 12
Example 4
Find the resistance between 11’ of the circuit shown
1 A
Total resistance RT =
2Ω
10.66x15
2+ = 8.231Ω
10.66+15
B C
1’
D
Voltage Source:
An ideal independent voltage source is a 2 terminal circuit
element that maintains a CONSTANT voltage irrespective of
current drawn from it.
A constant voltage source is called dc source or an ideal
battery
A practical voltage
source is represented by SC
Dependent or Controlled Voltage Source
If the output voltage depends
on the other variables then
+
the source is called a kVs -
Controlled Voltage Source.
V=Es 1 1 1 1
Es = + + IT=3I
rP rvs rvs rvs
R RL
Es RL VL Is R VL
Es
Is = or Es = R Is
R
Example 1
Find current I with the use of source transformation
2Ω 5Ω 2Ω
- + 5Ω
+ I + I
10mV
20mV 3Ω 20mV 3Ω
- 2mA -
I = 3mA
Example 2
Find current I and voltage across the resistor 5 Ω
with the use of source transformation
3Ω 6Ω 3Ω
+ i
6V 6Ω 1.5A 5Ω
-
6Ω 3Ω
i
2A 3Ω 6Ω 1.5A 5Ω
6Ω 3Ω
i
2A 2Ω 5Ω
2Ω 6Ω 3Ω
+ i
4V 1.5A 5Ω
-
8Ω 3Ω
i
+
4V 1.5A 5Ω
-
3Ω
i
0.5A 8Ω 1.5A 5Ω
3Ω
i
2A 8Ω 1.5A 5Ω
8Ω 3Ω
i
+
16V 5Ω
-
16
i =
16
=1A Voltage across 5 Ω resistor
=5V