Module 2

• Why it is important to understand?

Series and parallel networks There are two ways in which
components may be connected together in an electric circuit. One
way is ‘in series’ where components are connected ‘end-to-end’;
another way is ‘in parallel’ where components are connected
‘across each other’. When a circuit is more complicated than two
or three elements, it is very likely to be a network of individual
series and parallel circuits.
 At first glance, these circuits may seem very complicated,
but with a methodical analysis approach the functionality of the
circuit can become obvious. This chapter explains with examples,
series, parallel and series/parallel networks. The relationships
between voltages, currents and resistances for these networks are
considered through calculations.

In a series circuit:
(a) The current I is the same in all parts of
the circuit and hence the same reading is
found on each of the two ammeters shown.
Itotal= I1 = I2 =I3
(b) The sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 is
equal to the total applied voltage, V , i.e.
Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3
From Ohm’s law:
I=V/R
V1 = I1R1,V2 = I2R2,V3 = I3R3 and
V total= Itotal x Rtotal
where R is the total circuit resistance.
Since V total= V1 + V2 + V3
then IR =IR1+IR2+IR3
Dividing throughout by I gives:
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
Thus for a series circuit, the total resistance
is obtained by adding together the values of
the separate resistances.
 EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
Determine (a) the battery voltage V , (b) (a) Battery voltage :
the total resistance of the circuit, and (c) V =V1 + V2 + V3
the values of resistance of resistors R1, =5 + 2 + 6
R2 and R3, given that the p.d.s across =13V
R1, R2 and R3 are 5 V, 2 V and 6 V, (b) Total circuit resistance :
R = V / I = 13V/4 A=3.25 ohms
(c) Resistance R1 = V1/ I1 = 5V /4a =1.25
ohm
Resistance R2 = V2 /I2 = 2V /4a =0.5
ohms
Resistance R3 = V3 /I 3= 6V /4a =1.5
ohms
(Check: R1 + R2 + R3 =1.25 + 0.5 + 1.5 =3.25= R)
 EXAMPLE 2: SOLUTION
Determine the p.d. across resistor R3. If P.d. across R3,
the total resistance of the circuit is 100, V3 =25 − 10− 4=11V
determine the current flowing through Vtotal = V1+V2 + V3
resistor R1. Find also the value of
resistor R2., P3 = 11V(0.25A) = 2.75W
Current I = V / R = 25V /100ohms
=0.25 A,

which is the current flowing in each resistor

Resistance R2 = V2/ I 2= 4V /0.25 A=16
ohms
The voltage distribution for the circuit
shown in Figure 5.5(a) is given by:

The circuit shown in Figure(b) is often referred

to as a potential divider circuit. Such a circuit
can consist of a number of similar elements in
series connected across a voltage source,
voltages being taken from connections
between the elements. Frequently the divider
consists of two resistors, as shown in Figure
5.5(b), where
A potential divider is the simplest way of
producing a source of lower e.m.f. from a
source of higher e.m.f., and is the basic
operating mechanism of the potentiometer,
a measuring device for accurately
measuring potential differences
EXAMPLE 1: EXAMPLE 2:
Determine the value of voltage V shown in
Figure Two resistors are connected in series across
a 24 V supply and a current of 3 A flows
in the circuit. If one of the resistors has a
resistance of 2, determine (a) the value of
the other resistor, and (b) the p.d. across
the 2 resistor. If the circuit is connected for
50 hours, how much energy is used?
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
(a) Total circuit resistance Energy used = power× time
RT = V/ I = 24 V/ 3 A =8 ohms =V×I×t
Value of unknown resistance, = (24V × 3A) (50 hr)
Rx =8ohms − 2ohms=6 ohms
Rt=R1+Rx = 3600Wh
Rx=Rt-R1 = 3.6 kWhr

(b) P.d. across 2 resistor,

V1 =IR1=3A × 2ohms=6 V
V2 = IRx =3A x 6ohms = 18 V
Figure shows three resistors, R1, R2 and R3,
connected across each other, i.e. in parallel,
across a battery source of V volts.
In a parallel circuit:
(a) The sum of the currents I1, I2 and I3 is equal
to the total circuit current, I, i.e.
Itotal =I1 +I2 +I3
(a) The source p.d., V volts, is the same across
each of the resistors
From Ohm’s law:

This equation must be used when finding the

total resistance R of a parallel circuit. For the
special case of two resistors in parallel.

where R is the total circuit resistance.

Since Itotal =I1 + I2 + I3
then V/ R = V/ R1 + V /R2 + V /R3
Dividing throughout by V gives:
1 1 1
Rtotal= ( + + )^ − 1
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
Determine (a) the reading on the
ammeter, and (b) the value of resistor R2 P.d. across R1 is the same as the supply
voltage V .
Hence supply voltage,
Vt= V1=8 A× 5ohms=40V
(a) Reading on ammeter,
I3 = V/ R3 = 40V /20ohms =2 A
(b) Current flowing through
I2 =11A−8A−2A=1A
Itotal = I1 + I2 +I3

Hence,
R2 = V /I2 = 40 V/ 1A =40 ohms
EXAMPLE 2: SOLUTION
(a) The total circuit resistance R is given by
Two resistors, of resistance 3 and 6, are
connected in parallel across a battery
having a voltage of 12 V. Determine (a)
the total circuit resistance and (b) the
current flowing in the 2 resistor 1 / R = (2 + 1)/ 6 = 3 / 6 ohms
Hence,
R = 6/ 3 = 2 ohms
Alternatively,

(b) Current flowing in the 2 resistor

I = V/R = 12V/2ohms =6 amp
For the circuit shown, the total Similarly,
circuit resistance, RT , is given by :

Summarizing, with reference to circuit

and

It is important to note that current division can

only be applied to two parallel resistors. If
there are more than two parallel resistors,
then current division cannot be determined
using the above formulae.
EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
For the series-parallel arrangement shown
in Figure, find (a) the supply current, (b) The equivalent resistance Rx of R2 and R3 in
the current flowing through each resistor parallel is:
and (c) the p.d. across each resistor.

The equivalent resistance RT of R1, Rx and

R4 in series is:
RT = 2.5 + 1.5 + 4 = 8 ohms
Supply current I = V / RT
= 200V / 8ohms
I = 25A
 SOLUTION
(b) The current flowing through R1 and R4
is 25 A The current flowing through R2
(c) The equivalent circuit of given is shown below
p.d. across R1, i.e. V1 =IR1 =(25)(2.5)=62.5 V
p.d. across Rx , i.e. Vx =IRx =(25)(1.5)=37.5 V
p.d. across R4, i.e. V4 =IR4 =(25)(4)=100 V
Hence the p.d. across R2 =p.d. across R3 =37.5 V

The current flowing through R3

(a) (Note that the currents flowing through R2 and

R3 must add up to the total current flowing
into the parallel arrangement, i.e. 25 A)
EXAMPLE 2:
For the circuit shown ; calculate (a) the
value of resistor Rx such that the total
power dissipated in the circuit is 2.5 kW,
and (b) the current flowing in each of the
four resistors.
SOLUTION
(a) Power dissipated P =VI watts,
hence 2500= (250)(I)
i.e. I = 2500W/ 250V = 10A
From Ohm’s law, RT = V / I = 250/ 10 =25,
where RT is the equivalent circuit resistance.
The equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in
parallel is
R12= (15 × 10) /(15 + 10) = 150 / 25 = 6
ohms
The equivalent resistance of resistors R3 and
Rx in parallel is equal to 25 − 6, i.e. 19.
Rtotal = R12 + R3x
There are three methods whereby Rx can be
determined.
SOLUTION
Method 1 Method 2 Since the equivalent resistance of
The voltage V1 =IR1, where R is 6, R3 and Rx in parallel is 19,
from above,
i.e. V1=(10)(6)=60V 19 = (38Rx)/(38+Rx) i.e. product sum
Hence Hence
V2=250V − 60V=190V 19(38 + Rx ) = 38Rx
190V =p.d. across R3 722 + 19Rx = 38Rx
=p.d. across Rx 722 = 38Rx − 19Rx
I3 = V2 / R3 = 190 /38 =5A. = 19Rx
Thus I4 =5A also, Thus Rx = 722 /19 = 38 ohms
since Itotal =10A
Thus Rx = V2/ I4 = 190/5a
=38 ohms
SOLUTION
Method 3
When two resistors having the same
value are connected in parallel the
equivalent resistance is always half
the value of one of the resistors. Thus,
in this case, since RT =19 and R3
=38, then Rx = 38 could have been
deduced on sight.
 Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors
are neither in parallel nor in series. These are the wye (Y) or tee
(T) network shown in the figure (a) and the delta or pi network
shown in the figure (b). These networks occur by themselves or as
part of a larger network. They are used in three-phase networks,
electrical filters, and matching networks. Our main interest here is
in how to identify them when they occur as part of a network and
how to apply wye-delta transformation in the analysis of that
network.
To obtain the conversion formulas for
Each resistor in the delta network is the sum of
transforming a wye network to an
all possible products of Y resistors taken two at
equivalent delta network.
a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
Transform the circuit Y to delta

20
Each resistor in the Y network is the product of
the resistors in the two adjacent delta branches,
divided by the sum of the three delta resistors.
EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
Transform the circuit from delta to Y
The maximum power transfer theorem
states: ‘The power transferred from a
supply source to a load is at its maximum
when the resistance of the load is equal to
the internal resistance of the source.’

Hence, in Figure, when R =r the power

transferred from the source to the load is a
maximum.
Typical practical applications of the
maximum power transfer theorem are found
in stereo amplifier design, seeking to
maximize power delivered to speakers, and
in electric vehicle design, seeking to
maximize power delivered to drive a motor
EXAMPLE 1: SOLUTION
A d.c. source has an open-circuit voltage RL =r=1.5
of 30 V and an internal resistance of 1.5.
State the value of load resistance that From Figure, current
gives maximum power dissipation and
determine the value of this power.
I = E r / Rt = 30 V/(1.5+1.5 )=10 A

Power
P = (I^2) RL
=((10)^2)(1.5)
=150 W
W=maximum power dissipated.
 A battery is a device that converts chemical energy to electricity. If
an appliance is placed between its terminals the current generated will power
the device. Batteries are an indispensable item for many electronic devices
and are essential for devices that require power when no mains power is
available. For example, without the battery there would be no mobile phones
or laptop computers.
 Batteries tend to be split into two categories – primary, which are not
designed to be electrically re-charged, i.e. are disposable , and secondary
batteries, which are designed to be re-charged, such as those used in mobile
phones . In more recent years it has been necessary to design batteries with
reduced size, but with increased lifespan and capacity. If an application
requires small size and high power then the 1.5 V battery is used. If longer
lifetime is required then the 3 to 3.6 V battery is used. In the 1970s the 1.5 V
manganese battery was gradually replaced by the alkaline battery. Silver
oxide batteries were gradually introduced in the 1960s and are still the
preferred technology for watch batteries today. Lithium-ion batteries were
introduced in the 1970s because of the need for longer lifetime applications.
 A material must contain charged particles to be able to conduct
electric current. In solids, the current is carried by electrons. Copper, lead,
aluminium, iron and carbon are some examples of solid conductors. In
liquids and gases, the current is carried by the part of a molecule which has
acquired an electric charge, called ions. These can possess a positive or
negative charge, and examples include hydrogen ion H+, copper ion Cu++
and hydroxyl ion OH−. Distilled water contains no ions and is a poor
conductor of electricity, whereas salt water contains ions and is a fairly
good conductor of electricity.
 Electrolysisis the decomposition of a liquid compound by the
passage of electric current through it. Practical applications of electrolysis
include the electroplating of metals (see below), the refining of copper and
the extraction of aluminium from its ore. An electrolyte is a compound which
will undergo electrolysis. Examples include salt water, copper sulphate and
sulphuric acid. The electrodes are the two conductors carrying current to the
electrolyte. The positive-connected electrode is called the anode and the
negative-connected electrode the cathode.
 When two copper wires connected to a battery are placed in a
beaker containing a salt water solution, current will flow through the
solution. Air bubbles appear around the wires as the water is changed into
hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis. Electroplating uses the principle of
electrolysis to apply a thin coat of one metal to another metal. Some
practical applications include the tin-plating of steel, silver-plating of nickel
alloys and chromium-plating of steel. If two copper electrodes connected to
a battery are placed in a beaker containing copper sulphate as the
electrolyte it is found that the cathode (i.e. the electrode connected to the
negative terminal of the battery) gains copper whilst the anode loses
copper.
 The purpose of an electric cell is to convert chemical energy into
electrical energy. A simple cell comprises two dissimilar conductors
(electrodes) in an electrolyte. Such a cell is shown in Figure on the next,
comprising copper and zinc electrodes. An electric current is found to flow
between the electrodes. Other possible electrode pairs exist, including zinc–
lead and zinc–iron.
 The electrode potential (i.e. the p.d.
measured between the electrodes) varies for
each pair of metals. By knowing the e.m.f. of
each metal with respect to some standard
electrode, the e.m.f. of any pair of metals
may be determined. The standard used is the
hydrogen electrode. The electrochemical
series is a way of listing elements in order of
electrical potential, and Table shows a
number of elements in such a series.
 Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal in a damp atmosphere
by means of simple cell action. In addition to the presence of moisture and air
required for rusting, an electrolyte, an anode and a cathode are required for
corrosion. Thus, if metals widely spaced in the electrochemical series are used in
contact with each other in the presence of an electrolyte, corrosion will occur. For
example, if a brass valve is fitted to a heating system made of steel, corrosion
will occur.
 The effects of corrosion include the weakening of structures, the
reduction of the life of components and materials, the wastage of materials
and the expense of replacement. Corrosion may be prevented by coating with
paint, grease, plastic coatings and enamels, or by plating with tin or chromium.
Also, iron may be galvanized, i.e. plated with zinc, the layer of zinc helping to
prevent the iron from corroding.