SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

General Luna Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600

CIRCUITS REVIEW CONCEPTS:

1. FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RESISTANCE OF A MATERIAL

Conductors – allow current flow through them, copper, aluminum
Insulators- block the flow of current, paper, wood rubber, plastic

 There are FOUR factors that affect the resistance of a material, namely,
1. Length of conductor (L)
- The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length. The longer the
length of a given size of wire, the greater the resistance. 

2. Cross-sectional area (A)

- The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area.
This area may be triangular or even square, but is usually circular. If the cross-
sectional area of a conductor is doubled, the resistance to current flow will be
reduced in half.

3. Type of material, given by its resistivity ()

- Electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance or volume resistivity)
and its inverse, electrical conductivity, is a fundamental property of a material that
quantifies how strongly it resists or conducts electric current. A low resistivity
indicates a material that readily allows electric current. Resistivity is commonly
represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the
ohm-meter (Ω⋅m)

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- The table below shows the resistivity of commonly used conductors

4. Temperature (t), temp increase, resistance increases also

- Most materials used as conductors increase in resistance as temperature increases.
The amount of increase in the resistance of a 1 ohm sample of a conductor, per
degree rise in temperature above 0° Centigrade (C), is called the temperature
coefficient of resistance (). For each metal, this is a different value; for example,
for copper the value of  is approximately 0.00427 ohm. Thus, a copper wire having
a resistance of 50 ohms at a temperature of 0 °C will have an increase in resistance
of 50 × 0.00427, or 0.214 ohm, for each degree rise in temperature above 0 °C.

 The first three properties are related by the following equation at T = 20 °C (room
temperature):

L 1 1
R = ; = ; R=
A ❑ A

Where: R = resistance in ohms ()

L = length in meter (m)
 = resistivity in ohm-meter (-m)
 = conductivity in siemens per meter (S/m)
T = temperature in Celsius (C)

 Resistance and temperature are related by the following equation:

R2 = R1[1 + (t2-t1)]

Where: R2 = resistance at temperature t2

R1 = resistance at temperature t1
 = temperature coefficient of resistance in 1/C
Examples:
1. Calculate the total resistance of a 100 meter, 2.5mm 2 aluminum wire if its resistivity at
20oC is 2.83 x 10-8 Ω-m.
1m
Given: L=100m; A=2.5mm2x ( )2 = 2.5x10-6 m2, = 2.83 x 10-8 Ω-m
1000 mm
Find: R
L
Solution: R = = 2.83 x 10-8 Ω-m x ¿2.5x10-6m2) = 1.132 
A

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2. An incandescent lamp has a tungsten filament whose resistance is 96  at an operating

temperature of 2900C. Calculate the filament (cold) resistance of the lamp, when it is
disconnected from the source, under which the temperature is 24C.
Given: R1=96, t1=2900C
R2=?, t2=24C, =0.0045/C at 20C
1
= ; T=inferred absolute temperature which is the temperature when the
T +t
resistance is zero; for tungsten, T=-202C (use absolute value for computing )
1
 at 2900C:  = = 0.0003/C
202+ 2900

Solution: R2 = R1[1 + (t2-t1)]

R2= 96[1+0.0003(24-2900)] = 13.1712 

2. SERIES, PARALLEL AND COMBINATION CIRCUITS

 An electrical circuit is a defined as a path for current to flow. Just like a hose
which is used for water to flow through it.

 There are three basic parts of an electric circuit, namely,

1. Voltage source, like batteries and outlets.
2. Electrical load, like bulbs, appliances, etc.
3. Connecting wires

A. SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

 Circuits consisting of just one battery and one load resistance are very simple to
analyze, but they are not often found in practical applications. Usually, we find circuits
where more than two components are connected together.

 There are two basic ways in which to connect more than two circuit
components: series and parallel.

1. Series – in this circuit connection the components are connected end-to-end in a

line to form a single path through which current can flow.

Here, we have three resistors (labeled R1, R2, and R3)

connected in a long chain from one terminal of
the battery to the other. (It should be noted that the
subscript labeling—those little numbers to the lower-
right of the letter “R”—are unrelated to the resistor
values in ohms. They serve only to identify one resistor from another.)

The defining characteristic of a series circuit is that there is only one path
for current to flow. In this circuit, the current flows in a clockwise direction, from
point 1 to point 2 to point 3 to point 4 and back around to 1. Also, the total
resistance is equal to the sum of all resistances connected in series and the total
voltage is equal to the sum of the voltage drop across each resistance.
In equation form:
IT=I1=I2=I3 = constant current

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RT=R1+R2+R3
VT=V1+V2+V3
EXAMPLE:
Given the circuit below, determine the total resistance (R T), total current
(IT) and
voltage drop for each resistance (V1, V2, V3).

Solution:
a) RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 3 + 10 + 5 = 18 k or 18,000 
9
b) Using Ohm’s Law, IT = VT/ RT = = 0.0005 A or 0.5
18000
mA
(milliAmpere) = I1 = I2 = I3
c) V1 = I1R1 = 0.0005*3,000 = 1.5 V
V2 = I2R2 = 0.0005*10,000 = 5.0 V
V3 = I3R3 = 0.0005*5,000 = 2.5 V
 Let us verify if the sum of the voltage drops is equal to the total voltage:

 VT=V1+V2+V3 = 1.5+5.0+2.5 = 9 V

2. Parallel – in this circuit connection, all components are connected across each
other’s leads. In a purely parallel circuit, there are never more than two sets of
electrically common points, no matter how many components are connected. There
are many paths for current flow, but only one voltage across all components.

Electrically common points are shown in this diagram.

Again, we have three resistors, but this time they form

more than one continuous path for current to flow.
There’s one path from 1 to 2 to 7 to 8 and back to 1
again. There’s another from 1 to 2 to 3 to 6 to 7 to 8 and
back to 1 again. And then there’s a third path from 1 to 2
to 3 to 4 to 5 to 6 to 7 to 8 and back to 1 again. Each
individual path (through R 1, R2, and R3) is called a branch.

The defining characteristic of a parallel circuit is that all components are

connected between the same set of electrically common points. Looking at the
schematic diagram, we see that points 1, 2, 3, and 4 are all electrically common.
So are points 8, 7, 6, and 5. Note that all resistors, as well as the battery, are
connected between these two sets of points.
In equation form:
VT=V1=V2=V3 = constant voltage

IT=I1+I2+I3
EXAMPLE:

2nd Semester SY 22-23 Page 4 of 23

 SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
General Luna Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600

Given the circuit below, determine the total resistance (RT), total current
(IT) and current
for each resistance (I1, I2, I3). For parallel circuit, VT=V1=V2=V3, since
voltage is
constant.

Solution:

(a) RT

= 1/[( 1
10,000 )(
+
1
2,000 )(
+
1
1,000 )
] = 625 
9
(b) IT = VT/ RT = = 0.0144 A or 14.4 mA
625
9
(c) I1 = V1/ R1 = = 0.0009 A
10000
9
I2 = V2/ R2 = = 0.0045 A
2000
9
I3 = V3/ R3 = = 0.0090 A
1000

 Let us verify if the sum of the current per branch is equal to the total
current:

 IT=I1+I2+I3 = 0.0009+0.0045+0.0090 = 0.0144 A

 And, of course, the complexity doesn’t stop at simple series and parallel circuits. We
can have circuits that are a combination of series and parallel, too.

B. Combination Circuits
 These circuits combine the characteristics of both series and parallel.

3. AC WAVEFORMS
 Recall that Direct current (DC) is a current that has constant magnitude and direction.
In other words, DC maintains the same value for all times and a constant uni-directional
DC supply never changes becomes negative unless its connections are physically
reversed. An example of a simple DC or direct current circuit is shown below.

Fig. 1.1 shows a simple DC Circuit and its Waveform.

Fig. 1.1
 Whereas an alternating current is one that varies in both magnitude and direction
periodically or over a period of time.

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- An AC function can represent either a power source or a signal source with the
shape of an AC waveform generally following that of a mathematical sinusoid being
defined as: A(t) = Amax*sin(2πƒt).
- Fig. 1.2, shows the basic circuit diagram and symbol of an AC power source.

Fig. 1.2
The term AC or to give it its full description of Alternating Current, generally refers to a time-
varying waveform with the most common of all being called a Sinusoid better known as
a Sinusoidal Waveform.

 Alternating current can have the following values:

1. Root-Mean-Square (RMS) or Effective value
- This is the equivalent value for an alternating current that provides the same
amount of electrical power to a load as a DC equivalent circuit
- It is symbolized by capital letters I for current and E for voltage, just like the
DC values

2. Maximum or peak value

- Is the amplitude also called the peak values represented by Im or Em
 RMS and Maximum values are related by the equation below:
Im = I √ 2 and Em = E √ 2
 Consequently,
I = ℑ/ √ 2 and E = Em / √ 2

3. Instantaneous value
- This value represents the values of voltage and current at any instant of time
as illustrated in Fig. 6.2

- the instantaneous values for current (i) and voltage (e) are given by the
following equations:
i = Im sin
e = Em sin
- If the coil rotates with a frequency and angular speed, then the
instantaneous values are given by:
i = Im sint = Im sin2ft
e = Vm sint =Em sin2ft
Where:
 - is the angle in degrees

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f – is the frequency in hertz or cycles per second

t – is the time in seconds
 - is the angular velocity in radian/sec,
 = 2f

 We can convert degrees to radian using these conversion factors:

180 =  = 3.1416 radian

EXAMPLE:
1. A current wave has the equation i=21.2 sin. At what angles will the instantaneous
values of current be the following? a) 7.25 A, and b) -13.6 A

Given: i=21.2 sin

Solution: a) i= 7.25A,  =???,  = sin −1 ¿ = sin−1 ¿=19.9976
b)  = sin −1 ¿ = sin−1 ¿ = -39.9045

2. The rms value of the voltage in a 60-cycle source is 115V. Write the equation for
the sinusoidal wave.
Given: E=115V; f=60hz
Solution: e = Vm sint =Em sin2ft =115/√ 2 sin 2(60)t =
e= 162.6346 sin 376.9911t
Find the instantaneous value after a time of 0.005 sec.
e= 162.6346 sin (376.9911(0.005) x 180/) = 154.6747V

 In-Phase Sinusoidal Waveforms

- are waveforms that are moving with the same frequency, hence, reaching
their zero, maximum positive and negative peak values at the same time or
angle. (refer to Fig. 10.7 of your textbook)
- the total or sum of these waveforms are just the summation of the values
of the individual voltages or currents that are in-phase, thus

For current: IT = I1+I2+I3+I4+…..

For voltage: ET = E1+E2+E3+E4+…..
 The basic load having this waveform is the resistance load, thus,
analysis of in-phase waveforms is similar to the characteristics of
a circuit having resistance only as a load, or just like a DC circuit.
EXAMPLE:
A 117-volt, 60 cycle source is connected to a series circuit
consisting of three resistors, with resistances of 20, 30 and 40 ,
respectively. Calculate the current through the circuit, and the voltage
drops across each resistor.
Given:
Solution:
E
Using Ohm’s Law, we have I = =
RT
117 = 1.3 A
20+30+40
For the voltage drops,
V20 = IR = 1.3(20) = 26 V
V30 = IR = 1.3(30) = 39 V

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V40 = IR = 1.3(40) = 52 V

 Out-of-phase Sinusoidal Waveforms

- are waveforms that do not reach their zero, maximum positive and negative
values at the same time or angle. (refer to Fig. 10.8 of your textbook)
- Since the waveforms are displaced at an angle with respect to each other,
the total or resultant value is treated trigonometrically, hence, the total or
summation of the out-of-phase voltages and currents is,

R=√ ( A+ BCOS ) + ( BSIN )

2 2

Where:
A, B – rms values of current or voltage components
 - is the angular displacement between A and B
R – is the rms value of the resultant or some of the voltages or
currents

 For three or more voltages or currents, we can generalize the

equation as shown:

R=√ ( X ) + (Y )
2 2

Where: X = sum of all the x-components

Y = sum of all the y-components

We will discuss this further in our next lesson on phasors.

EXAMPLE:
The resultant value of two currents that are out-of-phase with each other
by 60 is 70 A. If one of them is 50 A, what is the other?

Given: R = 70 A
 = 60
B = 50 A
Solution:
R=√ ( A+ BCOS ) + ( BSIN )
2 2

√ 2
Square both sides to remove the radicand sign, ( R ( A +BCOS ) + ( BSIN ) )2
2

Thus, we now have, R2 = ( A+ BCOS )2 + ( BSIN )2

2 2
Solving further, 702 = ( A+50 cos 60 ) + ( 50 sin 60 )
4900-1875 = (A + 25)2
Take the square of both equations to cancel the square factor of the right side
equation:
√ 3025=¿ √ ¿ ¿
55 = A + 25
Finally, we have, A = 55-25 = 30 A
4. AC CIRCUIT COMBINATIONS

 We have seen the different characteristics of a pure resistance, pure inductance, and
pure capacitance circuits. But in the real world, it is impossible to have a circuit
comprising of a single load only in AC. Thus, it is important to know the
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characteristics of these components when they are combined with each other. Let
us have a look at the four possible combinations, namely, the LC, RL, RC and RLC
circuits.

 In our study of series AC circuits, we are going to use the current (I) as the
reference phasor in plotting the phasor diagrams since current is constant in series
circuits.

1. The Series INDUCTANCE-CAPACITANCE (LC) circuit

Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram

 The characteristics of a series LC circuit are:

a. Voltage and current relationship will depend on which reactance is
higher,
If XL > XC , then the circuit will behave like a purely inductive circuit;
If XL< XC , then the circuit will behave like a purely capacitive
circuit.

E
b. I = ; where: Xeq = XL− XC , or Xeq = XC −XL
Xeq
c. The average power taken by an LC circuit is equal to zero, thus P=0.
d. The maximum power delivered to the circuit is, Pm = EI.

EXAMPLE:
A series circuit consisting of a 30f capacitor and a 0.155-henry
inductor is connected to a 120V, 60 Hz source. Calculate the circuit current
and indicate whether it leads or lags the voltage.
Given: C = 30f
L = 0.155 H
E = 120V
F = 60 Hz
Solution:
Solve first for the XL = 2fL = 2(60)(0.155) = 58.4336 ,
1 1
Solve also for XC = = = 88.4194 ,
2 fC 2(60)(30)
Then solve for the Xeq = XC -XL = 29.9858 
E 120
Thus, I = = = 4.0019 A, leading, since XC is
Xeq 29.9858
greater than XL

2. The Series RESISTANCE-INDUCTANCE (RC) circuit

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Circuit

Diagram Phasor Diagram

 The characteristics of a series RL circuit are:

1. The current lags behind the voltage by angle, , which is the angle
between the current and the voltage as shown in the phasor diagram.

E
2. I = , where Z is the Impedance, which is the total opposition
Z
to current flow
in AC, equal to,
Z= √ R2 + XL 2

Where: Z – impedance in 
R – resistance in 
XL – inductive reactance in 

3. P = IE cos , this is the general power formula in AC circuits,

Where: P – power in watts
I – current in ampere
E – voltage in volts
Cos - is the circuit POWER FACTOR (PF), which indicates
the extent to which the current is out-of-phase with the voltage.

4. We can use several equations to determine the power factor, which

are,
R P
PF = cos = =
Z EI
5. The applied voltage will be the vector sum of the two voltage drops,
ER (voltage drop across the resistor) and EL (voltage drop across the
inductor), thus,

E = √ ER 2+ EL2

EXAMPLE:
An impedance coil (RL circuit) has a resistance of 7.5  and an inductive
reactance of 18 . a) What is the equation of the voltage wave that produces a
current, i=11.3A sint? b) Calculate the values of E, I, ER, EL and P.

Given: R = 7.5 
XL = 18 
i= 11.3A sint
 The sint function indicates that the phasor is
placed in the reference which is the +X-axis.

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Solution:
a) e = Em sin(+)t , where: Em = ImZ
but, Z= √ R2 + XL2 = √ 7.52 +182 = 19.5 
R 7.5
and  = cos-1 = cos-1 = 67.3801
Z 19.5

thus, e= (11.3)(19.5) sin(t+)t= 220.35V

sin(t+67.3801)
ℑ 11.3
b) E = IZ = Z= (19.5) = 155.811 V
√2 √2
ℑ 11.3
I= = = 7.9903 A
√2 √ 2
ER = IR = 7.9903(7.5) = 59.9273 V
EL = IXL = 7.9903(18) = 143.8254 V
P = IE cos = 7.9903(155.811) cos 67.3801 = 478.8379 watts

 Let us try to check if the total voltage is the same as the vector
sum of ER and EL,
E = √ ER 2+ EL2 = √ 59.92732+ 143.82542 = 155.8109 V ≈ 155.811 V

3. The Series RESISTANCE-CAPACITANCE (RC) circuit

Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram

 The characteristics of a series RC circuit are:

1. The current leads behind the voltage by angle, , which is the angle
between the current and the voltage as shown in the phasor diagram.

E
2. I = , where Z is the Impedance, which is the total opposition
Z
to current flow
in AC, equal to,
Z= √ R2 + XC 2

Where: Z – impedance in 
R – resistance in 
XC – inductive reactance in 

3. P = IE cos , this is the general power formula in AC circuits,

Where: P – power in watts
I – current in ampere
E – voltage in volts
Cos - is the circuit POWER FACTOR (PF), which indicates
the extent to which the current is out-of-phase with the voltage.

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4. We can use several equations to determine the power factor, which

are,
R P
PF = cos = =
Z EI
5. The applied voltage will be the vector sum of the two voltage drops,
ER (voltage drop across the resistor) and EC (voltage drop across the
capacitor), thus,

E = √ ER 2+ EC 2

EXAMPLE:
A series RC circuit takes a current whose equation is i=0.85 sin 754t when
connected to a source of emf having the equation e = 340 sin (754t - 45).
Calulate (a) the values of Z, R, and Xc; (b) the capacitance of the capacitor; (c)
the circuit power factor and power.

Given: i=0.85 sin 754t (the current is in the reference axis)

e = 340 sin (754t - 45) – means that the voltage lags
behind the
current by 45
Solution:
Em
E √2 Em 340
a) Z = = = = = 400 
I ℑ ℑ 0.85
√2
R = Zcos = 400 cos 45 = 282.8427 
Xc = √ Z 2−R 2 = √ 4002 −282.84272 = 282.8427 

1 1
b) C = = = 4.6890 f
2 fXC 2(120.0028)(282.8427)

❑ 754
but, f = 2 = = 120.0028 hz
2
R 282.8427
c) PF = = = 0.7071 leading
Z 400
Em ℑ Em ( ℑ ) 340 ( 0.85 )
P = IE cos = ( )= = = 144.5 watts
√ 2 √2 2 2

4. The Series RESISTANCE-INDUCTANCE-CAPACITANCE (RLC) circuit

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Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram

 The characteristics of a series RLC circuit are:
1. Voltage and current relationship will depend on which reactance is
higher,
If XL > XC , then the circuit will behave like an RL circuit;
If XL < XC , then the circuit will behave like an RC circuit.

E
2. I = , where Z is the Impedance, which is the total
Z
opposition to current flow in AC, and is equal to,
Z= √ R2 + Xeq2
Where: Z – impedance in ohms
R – resistance in ohms
Xeq – equivalent reactance in ohms, equal to:
Xeq = XL – XC , if XL is greater than XC
Xeq = XC -XL , if XC is greater than XL

3. Power equation is the same as in the RL and RC circuits.

4. Power factor equations are also the same as in the RL and RC
circuits.
5. The applied voltage will be the vector sum of the two voltage
drops, ER (voltage drop across the resistor) and Eeq (voltage drop
across the combined reactance), thus,

E = √ ER 2+ Eeq2
EXAMPLE:

a) If the series circuit is connected to a 125-volt variable-frequency source,

what will be the frequency at which the current is 5 amp? What will be the
circuit power factor under this condition?

Given: R = 25 
L = 0.221 H
C = 66.3 f
Solution:
a) If f=60 Hz and I=2.5A, what is the value of E?
Solve for XL and XC first,
XL = 2fL = 2(60)(0.221) = 83.3150 

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1 1
XC = = = 40.0088 
2 fC 2(60)(66.3)

Solving for E,
E = √ ER 2+ Eeq2 = √ 62.52 +108.26552 = 125.0107 V
Where: ER = IR = 2.5(25) = 62.5 V
Eeq = EL – Ec = IXL-IXc = I(XL-Xc) = 2.5(83.3150-40.0088)
= 108.2655 V
b) If E= 125V and I= 5A,
Solve for Z,
E 125
Z= = = 25 
I 5
Z= √ R2 + Xeq2
Solving for Xeq,
Xeq= √ Z 2 + R2 = √ 252−25 2 = 0 

If Xeq = XL -Xc = 0, then XL = Xc

1
Thus, 2fL = ; manipulating the equality equation,
2 fC
1
We have, f2 = ; squaring both sides,
4 ❑2 LC

Hz
we have, f =
√ 1
2
4❑ LC
=
√ 2
1
4❑ (0.221)(66.3)
= 41.5783

Power factor is,

R 25
PF = = = 1 (called unity power factor)
Z 25

5. RECTANGULAR AND POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS

 The solution of parallel and series-parallel circuits involve the application of a

mathematical system of complex algebra. Let us study the mechanics of complex
algebra and its applications to the analysis and solution of AC circuits.

A. Rectangular coordinate system (RCS)

- Please read on this topic from your textbook on pages 327 to 329.

Form: I = Ix ± jIy, where I is the RMS value and Ix, Iy are

respectively the x and y components of the current phasor.

 Mathematical operations involved in RCS:

a. Addition

Given two current phasors: I1 = 16-j4, and I2 = 8+j22

Solve for the sum of the two phasors:

I1 + I2 = ( 16− j 4 )+ ( 8+ j 22 ) = (16+8)+j(-4+22) = 24+j18

 You can only add the horizontal components separately

and the j-components separately as well.
b. Subtraction

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Given two current phasors: I1 = 16-j4, and I2 = 8+j22

Solve for the difference of the two phasors:

I1 - I2 = ( 16− j 4 )−( 8+ j22 ) = (16-8)-j(-4-22) = 8+j26, or

I2 – I1 = ( 8+ j22 ) −( 16− j 4 ) = (8-16)-j(22-(-4)) = -8-j26
c. Multiplication
Given two current phasors: I1 = 16-j4, and I2 = 8+j22
Solve for the product of the two phasors: (apply cross multiplication)

(I1)(I2) = (16-j4)(8+j22) = (16x8)+(16xj22)+(-j4x8)+(-j4xj22)

= 128 + j352 – j32 – j288, where: j2 = -1
= 216 + j320
d. Division
Given two current phasors: I1 = 16-j4, and I2 = 8+j22
Solve for the quotient of the two phasors: multiply the two phasors by
the conjugate of the denominator as shown, then divide,

I1 16− j 4 16− j 4 8− j22 (16− j 4)( 8− j22)

= = x = =
I2 8+ j 22 8+ j 22 8− j22 (8+ j22)(8− j 22)
128− j 352− j 32−88 40− j 384
=
64− j 176+ j 176+ 484 548

B. Polar Coordinate System (PCS)

- Please read on this topic from your textbook on pages 331 to 333.

FORM: I  , where: I is the RMS value and  is its angle with respect
to the positive x-axis
- Since the angle is directly involved in PCS, it is not possible to add nor
subtract phasor in the polar form, but only multiplication and division.

- For example, we have, I1 = 15 A 25 and I2 = 8 A -34

a) Multiply (I1)(I2) : (15 A 25)(8 A -34) = (15 x 8) (25-34) =

120A -9
 Multiply the rms values but add the angle (consider their signs)

I1 15 25
b) Divide = = (15/8)  (25-(-34)) = 1.875A 59
I 2 8−34
 Divide the rms values, but subtract the angle of the denominator
from the angle of the numerator.

6. EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE OF PARALLEL CIRCUITS

 Let us now represent each load using their equivalent RCS and PCS values.

A. Resistive load

 The impedance is equal to the

resistance, thus
Z=R
Z = R 0 
Z = R +j0 

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 Resistance always represents the horizontal component and the

reactances represent the j(vertical component)

B. Inductive load

 The impedance is equal to the

reactance, XL, thus,
Z = XL
Z = XL 90 
Z = 0 + jXL 

C. Capacitive load

 The impedance is equal to the

reactance, Xc, thus,
Z = Xc
Z = Xc -90 
Z = 0 - jXc 

D. Resistive-inductive(RL) load

 The impedance is equal

to,

Z
=R+
jXL
Z = Z ,
where: Z = √ R2 + XL2
−1 XL
 = tan
R
E. Resistive-capacitive(RC) load

 The impedance is equal

to,

Z
=R-
jXc
Z = Z ,
where: Z = √ R2 + Xc 2
−1 Xc
 = tan
R

EXAMPLES:
1. Calculate the equivalent impedance of a circuit in which a coil of wire having a value
of 553.2 ohms is connected in parallel with a capacitive reactance of 6.25 ohms.

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Given: ZL = 553.2 
Zc = 6.25 -90 
ZL Zc

Find: Zt
1 1
1
Solution: Zt =
( )( ) (
1
ZL
+
1 =
Zc
1
5 53.2)(
+
1
6.25−90
=
)
0.2−53.2+0.16 90
,

 convert the PCS values to RCS so we can add the impedances,

1 1
Zt = = ,
0.1198− j0.1601+0+ j 0.16 0.1198− j0.0001

 convert the RCS value to PCS before dividing,

1
Zt = ¿ = 8.3472 0.0478≅ 8.3472 
0.1198−0.0478 ¿

2. If the circuit in the example #1 is connected to a 220 V source, calculate the a) total
and branch currents, b) total power factor, and c) total power.

Given: E = 220V 0, remember that voltage is the reference phasor for parallel
circuits
Solution:
E 2200
a) It = = = 26.3561 A or you can also use It = IL +
Zt 8.34720
Ic, but be careful in dealing with the angles since you cannot add
phasors in polar form

E 220 0
IL = = = 44 0-53.2 = 44 A -53.2
ZL 553.2

E 2200
Ic = = = 35.2 0-(-90) = 35.2 A 90
Zc 6.25−90

b) The total power factor, PFt = cost = cos 0 = 1

 t is the angle between the total current and the voltage

c) Pt = EIt cost = 220(26.3561)(1) = 5798.342 watts

 The angles for current and voltage are not included in the computation of
power since the cosine of the angle between the two is already
considered.

7. Admittance, Conductance and Susceptance

A. Admittance (Y)

- The reciprocal of the impedance of an AC circuit is known as Admittance of the

circuit.

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- Admittance is defined as the effective ability of the circuit due to which it

allows the alternating current to flow through it, since impedance is the
total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current in an AC circuit.
- It is represented by (Y). The old unit of admittance is mho (Ʊ). Its new
unit is Siemens (S).
- Consider the diagram below:

B. Conductance (G)
 Conductance is the
reciprocal of resistance, R and is given the symbol G. Conductance is defined as
the ease at which a resistor (or a set of resistors) allows current to flow when a
voltage, either AC or DC is applied.
 The old unit of conductance is mho (Ʊ). Its new unit is Siemens (S).
1
 Thus in equation, G =
R

C. Susceptance (B)
 Susceptance is the reciprocal of a pure reactance, X and is given the symbol B.
In AC circuits susceptance is defined as the ease at which a reactance (or a set
of reactances) allows an alternating current to flow when a voltage of a given
frequency is applied.
 Susceptance has the opposite sign to reactance so Capacitive susceptance Bc is
positive in value while Inductive susceptance BL is negative in value.
 The old unit of susceptance is mho (Ʊ). Its new unit is Siemens (S).
1 1
 Thus in equation, BL =- (for inductive susceptance); Bc = (for
XL Xc
capacitive susceptance)

 As the admittance, Y of a parallel RLC circuit is a complex quantity, the admittance

corresponding to the general form of impedance Z = R + jX for series circuits will be
written as Y = G – jB for parallel circuits where the real part G is the conductance
and the imaginary part jB is the susceptance. In polar form this will be given as:

 For series RL and series Rc connected in parallel, the equivalent conductance and
susceptance are given by,

RL XL
GL = ; BL =-
Z2 Z2

Rc Xc
Gc = 2 ; Bc = 2
Z Z

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EXAMPLE:
An inductive impedance, ZL =(11.5+j10)  is connected in parallel with a
capacitive impedance, Zc =(8-j20) . Calculate (a) the conductance and
susceptance of each branch ; (b) the total conductance, susceptance, and
admittance of the circuit ;(c) the current in each branch, and the total current
and power factor, if the impressed emf is 120 volts.

Given:
120V 10  20 

Solution:
a) Solve first for ZL = √ 11.52 +102 = 15.234 , and Zc = √ 82 +202 = 21.5407 
RL 11.5 −XL −10
GL = 2 = 2 = 0.0496 S BL = 2 = 2 = -
ZL 15.234 ZL 15.234
0.0431 S
Rc 8 Xc 20
Gc = 2 = = 0.0172 S Bc = 2 = =
Zc 21.54072 Zc 21.54072
0.0431 S
b) Gt = GL + Gc = 0.0496 + 0.0172 = 0.0668 S
Bt = BL + Bc = -0.0431 + 0.0431 =0S
Yt = Gt +jBt = 0.0668 +j0 = 0.06680 S = 0.0668 S
E
c) IL = = EYL (since admittance is the reciprocal of impedance)
ZL

IL = 120 (0.0496-j0.0431) = 120(0.0657 -40.9891) = 7.884 -40.9891 A

E
Ic = = EYc = 120(0.0172+j0.0431) = 120(0.0464 68.2444) =
Zc
5.56868.2444A
It = EYt = 120 (0.0668) = 8.016 A
PF = cos 0(the angle between total current and voltage is zero) = 1

8. SERIES RESONANCE

 Series Resonance circuits are one of the most important circuits used electrical
and electronic circuits. They can be found in various forms such as in AC mains
filters, noise filters and also in radio and television tuning circuits producing a
very selective tuning circuit for the receiving of the different frequency channels.
Consider the simple series RLC circuit below.

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 To attain series resonance, a process of varying the different values of

frequency, inductance and capacitance is needed.

 A basic characteristic of series resonance is the equality of the inductive and

capacitive reactances, thus we can write, XL = Xc.

 There are three types of series resonance; namely,

Frequency Variation

- it is simply varying the frequency of the circuit to achieve resonance

- From the relationship of XL=Xc, a formula for the frequency can be derived,
and we have,

1
fr = ; where: fr – resonant frequency in hertz
2 √ LC
L – inductance in henry
C – capacitance in farad

EXAMPLE:
A series resonance network consisting of a resistor of 30Ω, a capacitor of 2uF
and an inductor of 20mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage of 9
volts at all frequencies. Calculate, a) the resonant frequency, b) the
impedance, current and power at resonance, and c) the voltage across the
resistor, inductor and capacitor at resonance.
Given:

Solution:
1 1
a) fR = = = 795.77 Hz
2 √ LC 2 √( 20 mH )(2 F )
b) since Xeq = 0, we can write, Z= √ R2 + Xeq2 = √ 302 +02 = 30
thus, Z =R = 30
E E 9
Current therefore is, I = or I = = = 0.3 A
Z R 30
Power is equal to , P = IE cos = 0.3(9)cos0 = 2.7 watts

c) ER = IR = 0.3(30) = 9 V = E
EL = IXL = I2fL = 0.3A(2)(795.77Hz)(20x10-3H) = 30 V
I
EC = IXC = I¿) = = 0.3/2(795.77)(2x10-6) = 30V
2 fC

 Thus, we can also say that in a resonant circuit, the voltage drops
across the reactances are equal and the voltage across the
resistor is equal to the source voltage.

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Bandwidth of a Series Resonance Circuit

 If the series RLC circuit is driven by a variable frequency at a constant voltage,

then the magnitude of the current, I is proportional to the impedance, Z,
therefore at resonance the power absorbed by the circuit must be at its
maximum value as P = I2Z.
 If we now reduce or increase the frequency until the average power absorbed by
the resistor in the series resonance circuit is half that of its maximum value at
resonance, we produce two frequency points called the half-power points.
- These half-power points give us a current value that is 70.7% of its
maximum resonant value.

 The point corresponding to the lower frequency at half the power is called the
“lower frequency”, labelled ƒL with the point corresponding to the upper
frequency at half power being called the “upper frequency”, labelled ƒH.
 The distance between these two points, i.e. ( ƒH – ƒL ) is called the
Bandwidth(BW), pass band or frequency separation and is the range of
frequencies over which a signal can still be heard and at least half of the
maximum power and current is provided as shown.

B. The frequency response of the

circuit current magnitude, relates to the
“sharpness” of the resonance in a series
resonance circuit.
- The sharpness of the peak is
measured quantitatively and is called
the Quality factor (Q) of the circuit.
- The quality factor relates the
maximum or peak energy stored in the
circuit (the reactance) to the energy
dissipated (the resistance) during each
cycle of oscillation meaning that it is a
ratio of resonant frequency to
bandwidth and the higher the circuit Q,
the smaller the bandwidth,
Q = ƒr /BW.

The selectivity of the circuit is a measure of its ability to reject any frequencies,
or any unwanted signals, on either side of these points (lower than fL and higher
than fH).
- A more selective circuit will have a narrower bandwidth whereas a
less selective circuit will have a wider bandwidth.
- The selectivity of a series resonance circuit can be controlled by
adjusting the value of the resistance only, keeping all the other
components the same, since Q = (XL or Xc)/R.

Here is a summary of equations related to series resonance:

1
1). Resonant Frequency, ƒr = = Q(fH-fL)
2 √ LC

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E E
2). Current, IR = (at resonance) ; Ihalf-power =
R ( √2 ) R
E2
3). Power, PR = I2R (at resonance) ; Phalf-power =
R
4). Lower frequency, ƒL= fr−
R
4L ( )
= fr -
BW
2

5). Upper frequency, ƒH = fr+

R
4L ( )
= fr +
BW
2
fr
6). Bandwidth, BW = fH-fL =
Q
7). Quality Factor, Q =
fr
BW
=
1 L
R C √
EXAMPLE:
A series resonance circuit consisting of a resistor of 30Ω, a capacitor of
2uF and an inductor of 20mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage
which has a constant output of 9 volts at all frequencies. Calculate, the resonant
frequency, the current at resonance, the voltage across the inductor and
capacitor at resonance, the quality factor and the bandwidth and lower and
upper frequencies of the circuit.
Given:

Solution:
1 1
a) ƒr = = = 795.7747 Hz
2 √ LC 2 √ (20 m)(2)
E 9
b) IR = = = 0.3 A
R 30
c) EL = IRXL = 0.3(2x795.7747x20m) = 30 V
1
d) Ec = IRXc = 0.3( ) = 30 V
2 x 795.7747 x 2
e) Q=
√
1 L
R C
fr
=
√
1 20 m
30
795.7747
2
= 3.3333 (unitless)

f) BW = = = 238.7324 Hz
Q 3.3333
BW 238.7324
g) fL = fr - = 795.7747 - = 676.4085 Hz
2 2
BW 238.7324
h) fH = fr + = 795.7747 + = 915.1409 Hz
2 2

2nd Semester SY 22-23 Page 22 of 23

 SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
General Luna Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600

“Seek first the Kingdom of God and His righteousness and all these things will be given to you.”
– Matthew 6:33
GOD BLESS YOU 

Prepared by: Engr. Michelle S. Wallang, REE

2nd Semester SY 22-23 Page 23 of 23