5 Physics 2

ELECTRIC

DIRECT CURRENT
CIRCUITS
cover
DC Circuits

In this chapter we’II learn

basic methods to analyze
circuits with several resistors
connected in series and
parallel. For more detailed
circuits we’II learn how to
use Kirchhoff’s rules, We7II
find efficiency of circuit
elements. Finally we’II learn
structure and functions of
voltmeter and ammeter.

5.1 A SIMPLE CIRCUIT

A simple circuit contains an electrical energy source, an energy consuming unit (ie,
resistor) a switch and wires (Figure 5.1).
In order for current to flow, the curcuit must be closed, that is, there must be a path
from positive to negative terminal of the source through the circuit.

R
Figure 5.1 A very simple circuit
contains an electrical energy source and a
resistor connected with wires which have
+ –
resistances small compared to resistance
V of the resistor.

82 Electricity and Magnetism

5.2 COMBINATION OF RESISTOR
Electric circuits usually contain combination of resistors in many configurations.
This is required in ordeer to obtain specific currents or to maintain a required
potential difference accross a circuit element. In this section we will examine the
results of combinations of resistors. We can always find a single resistor which would
replace a combination of resistors. This single resistance is called an equivelent
resistance of the combination.

U1 U2
a) Series Combination of Resistors I1 R1 I2 R2
In figure 5.2.a electrons leave the negative terminal and pass through resistors R2
and R1 and return to positive terminal of the battery. This kind of combination is
IT
called series combination of resistors. In series combination we have following + –

characteristics for V, I and R relations. U

– Since the electrons must follow a single path then current through R1 and R2 are Figure 5.2.a In series circuits currents
are equal, potential differences are added.
same
I1=I2=IT

– The total current flowing through the circuit is , then

V
IT =
RT
– The total energy supplied by the battery to each charge is emitted
(used) by the resistors, R1 and R2. So the total potential difference drops
in each resistor is equal to sum of potential drops accross each resistor.
Total energy = q.VT = q1.V1 + q2.V2 (Since qT = q1 = q2)
V= V1 + V2
– The equivalent resitance of the resistors, R1 and R2, then
Since UT = Req·IT and UT = U1 + U2
Req·IT = R1I1 + R2I2 = R1 + R2
Consequently, in a series circuit; with n resistors.
V = V + V + V + ... + v Figure 5.2a A series connection of light bulbs.
T 1 2 3 n

IT= I1 = I2 = I3 = ... = In

RT= R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn

Direct Current Circuits 83

 Example 5.1 Re s i s t o r s i n s e r i e s
Solution
R1=2 W R2=3 W
a) Since the resistors are connected in series,
R T = R1 + R2
10 V RT = 2 Ω + 3 Ω
Two resistors, 2 Ω and 3 Ω, are
connected in series to terminal of RT = 5 Ω
a battery, as shown in the figure.
b) If we apply Ohm’s law to the whole circuit,
Determine;
a) the equivalent resistance of the UT
IT =
circuit. R eq

b) the total current. 10 V

IT =
5Ω
c) the current flowing through IT = 2 A
each resistor.
d) the potential difference across c) Since current across each resistor is equal to the total current,
each resistor. I1 = I2 = IT = 2 A

d) If we apply Ohm’s law for the resistor R1,

V1 = I1 R1

V1 = 2 · 2 = 4 V

for the resistor R2,

V2 = I2 R2

V2 = 6 V

Remember that total potential is equal to the sum of the potentials across each
resistor. To check the result,
V = V1 + V2 V=4+6 V = 10 V

84 Electricity and Magnetism

b) Parallel Combination of Resistors V1
I1
The resistors in figure 5.3 are connected in parallel. When resistors are connected A
R1
B
to the same two points or to any two circuits points on two different wires with
I2 R2
negligable resistance they are said to be connected parallel.
In Fifure 5.3a resistors R1 and R2 are connected to the same points A and B. V2

Electrons from negative side will come to point B, then seperate into two different + –
branches. VT
If R1 is smaller than R2 then, bigger number of electrons will flow through R; Figure 5.3a In parallel circuits potantial
because smaller resistance value results bigger number of electrons when potential differences are equal, currents are added.
diferences are equal. Amount of current is proportional to amount of electrons
passing through a resistor.
Characteristics of parallel circuits can be as follows in terms of V - I and R
relations.
– Since resistors are connected to the same points or potential levels, as shown in
Figures 5.3a, they will have same potential difference;
UT = U1 = U2

– When current flows through a resistor, number of electrons does not change
along the resistor, only energy given to the electrons by the battery is emitted. So
current on the main wire should be equal to sum of currents through the
branches;
IT = I1 + I2

– The total resistance of a parallel circuit then;

Since U = U1 = U2 and IT = I1 + I2

VT V1 V2
so = +
R T R1 R 2
1 1 1
= +
R T R1 R 2

consequently in parallel circuits; with ‘n’ resistors Figure 5.3a In parallel circuits potantial differences are
IT= I1 + I2 + I3 + ... +In equal, currents are added.

VT= V1 = V2 = V3 = ... = Vn

1 1 1 1
= + + ... +
R T R1 R 2 Rn

Direct Current Circuits 85

 Example 5.2 ???
Solution
R1=3 W
a) The equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of the resistors R1 and R2
I1
K L is,
I2 R2=6 W
IT
1 1 1
= +
R eq R1 R 2
1 1 1
15 V = +
R eq 3 Ω 6 Ω
Two resistors, 3 Ω and 6 Ω, are
connected in parallel to a 15 V R eq = 2 Ω
source as shown in the figure.
Calculate; b) If we apply Ohm’s law to the whole circuit,
a) the equivalent resistance UT
IT =
between K and L. R eq
b) the total current in A. 15 V
IT =
2Ω
c) the potential difference across
each resistor. IT = 7.5 Ω

d) currents I1 and I2. c) The potential difference across each resistor is equal to total potential difference
between the points K and L.
U1 = U2 = UT = 15 V

d) If we apply Ohm’s law to each arm of the circuit we obtain,

U1 U2
I1 = I2 =
R1 R2
15 V 15 V
I1 = I2 =
3Ω 6Ω
I1 = 5 A I2 = 2.5 A

If we check the total current in the circuit, it is equal to the sum of the currents
flowing through each resistor
IT = I1 + I2 = 5 A + 2.5 A

IT = 7.5 A

86 Electricity and Magnetism

 Example 5.3 ???

R2=3 W
Solution
I2 a) The equivalent resistance of the parallel combination R1=4 W R23=2 W
of resistors R2 and R3 is,
R1=4 W I3 R3=6 W
1 1 1 IT=3 A
= +
I1=3 A R 23 R 2 R 3
10 V
1 1 1
= +
R 23 3Ω 6Ω
VT
R 23 = 2 Ω
A 4 Ω resistor is connected in
series to parallel combination of 3 This resistance is in series with R1, so that the equivalent resistance Req of the
Ω and 6 Ω resistors as shown in whole circuit is
the figure. Determine;
RT = R1 + R23
a) the equivalent resistance.
RT = 4 Ω + 2 Ω
b) the voltage VT.
RT = 6 Ω
c) the currents I2 and I3.
b) If we apply Ohm’s law to the whole circuit,
UT = IT Req
UT = (3 A) (6 A)
UT = 18 V
c) If we apply Ohm’s law to the equivalent of R2 and R3,
U 23 = IT R23
U 23 = (3 A) (2 Ω)
U 23 = 6 V
Since the potential differences across the resistors R2 and R3 are the same,

U2 6 V U3 6 V
I2 = = I3 = =
R2 3 Ω R3 6 Ω
I2 = 2 A I2 =1 A

Direct Current Circuits 87

 Example 5.3 ???

The resistors are connected as in the figure, find equivalent resistance between ‘K’ K R1=3 W
and ‘L’.

Solution R2=3 W R4=12 W

R3=4 W
R5=3 W
L
See R3 and R4 ar ein parallel, then
K

a b 1 1 1
b = +
R bc R 3 R 4
c c c 1 1 1
= +
d R bc 4 Ω 12 Ω
L
R bc = 3 Ω
Not 1: The wires are thought to have negligable
R1 = and Rbc are in series, then
resistances, so potential on a wire will not
change. Th iwire with same color shows same Rac = R1 + Rbc
potential levels.
Rac = 3 Ω + 3 Ω

Not 2: To get regular parallel or series combinations, Rac = 6 Ω

write potential levels a, b, c and d as in the figure R2 and Rac are in parallel, then
and connect the relevant resistors. At last
applying series and parallel combination rules, 1 1 1
solve for Req. = +
R′ac R 2 R ac
1 1 1
K a b c d L = +
R′ac 3 Ω 6 Ω
R1 R3 R5
R′ac = 2 Ω
Rac R4
R′ac and R5 are in series, then Rad = R′ac + R5
R¢ac R2 Rad = 2 Ω + 3 Ω

Rad = Req = 5 Ω

5.2 SOUCRCE OF ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

A device such as a battery or generator that converts chemical or mechanical energy
into electrical energy is called source of electromotive force. Electromotive force,
emf, is not a force, it is the work done on each charge by a battery to move them in
the circuit. So emf is energy per unit charge. It’s symbolized by ε. We can write
W
ε=
q

88 Electricity and Magnetism

then, W = q·ε and q = I·t
So W = εIt

W
ε= ⇒ W = q ⋅ ε or
q
q
I= ⇒ q = I⋅t ⇒ W = ε ⋅I ⋅ t
t
As you see from above formula emf, seems to be as potential difference, V, across
the terminals of battery (remember, W = V·I·t, unit). But they are different
R

+ –

Figure 5.4
In the figure 5.4 emf drives not only the current through external resistor but also the
current through the battery itself. The atoms inside of a power supply also show a
resistance to motion of electrons inside the power supply. That resistance is called
internal resistance of a battery, and denoted by letter, r.
The internal resistance can be shown in a circuit as in figure 5.5.

R
I

e r
+ –

Figure 5.5 Diagram of emf and internal resistance ‘r’ in a batter.

We can show the relation between potential difference accross the terminals of
battery, V and emf, ε:
Since energy is conserved, energy produced by the battery is completely converted
into heat.

Welectrical = Wheat

ε ⋅ I ⋅ t = I 2 (R + r) ⋅ t

ε=I(R+r)
This expression is called Ohm’s Law for a closed circuit having a battery and
resistors. In circuit analysis, generally, internal resistance is so small that ca be
neglegted.
We know that for the external circuit V = I . R
then from ε=I(R+r)
ε=IR+Ir,

Direct Current Circuits 89

 ε–Ir=IR (We know that potential drop externalml resistor is U = I·R)
ε–Ir=V if r is neglected then, ε=U
Ordinary batteries run down with age not because of their emf decreases, but
because their internal resistance increases, so that the current they are able to
supply decreases.

Example 5.5 terminal voltage of batter y

The potential difference accross Solution
the terminals of a battery is 15 V a) to find current,
when the battery is not connected
to a circuit. ε
I=
R+r
a) find ternimal voltage of the 15 V
battery, I=
2 Ω +1 Ω
b) calculate power dissipated over I= 5 A
the external resistor, and power
dissiptad by the internal terminal voltage
resistor. V = ε – Ir
V = (15 V) – (5 A) (1 Ω)
V = 10 V
b) power dissipated by the external resistor
PR = I2R

PR = (5 A)2·(2 Ω)

PR = 50 W

Power dissipated by internal resistor

Pr = I2·r

Pr = (5 A)2 (1 Ω)

Pr = 25 W

e1 e2
+ – A + –
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
R1 R2 R3 Gustar Robert Kirhhoff (1824 - 1887) set some rules which offer a general method
to solve circuit problems. There can be such circuits which can not be reduced to
simple series and parallel circuits and Ohm’s Law can not answer them, see Figure
B 5.6 Applying Kirhhoff’s rules we can solve these circuits. Now, let us study these
Figure 5.6 rules.

90 Electricity and Magnetism

Kirchhoff’s First Rule: R1
I1 I1
The sum of the currents flowing into a junction (any point that joins three or more A B I
conductors in a circuit) is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that junction. R2
I2 I2
This rule comes from conservation of electric charge. That states none of the R3
electric charge, enters a junction is lost or destroyed.
+ –
In Figure 5.7 for the points A and B, currents entering either junction must equal
current leaving the junction (connection of three or more wires), so we can write, Figure 5.7 Kirchhoff’s first rule
I = I1 + I2 I = I1+I2

Kirchhoff’s Second Rule:

Second rule is applied to any closed path made by the conductors of circuits. The
closed path is called a closed loop. The second law of Kirchhoff states: The algebric
sum of the emf’s and the potential drops around a closed loop is zero.

∑ ε + ∑ IR = 0

The second law comes from conservation of energy; the energy given to an electron
to move in a path is emitted over the resistors.
In applying Kirchhoff’s Laws the following rules should be noted:
1. Select a direction for current and show it on each branch of the circuit. The
direction can be chosen arbitrarily. If the current is in opposite direction, the
result will be with minus sign in the solution.
2. Apply first rule, paying attention to direction of currents.
3. For each loop draw a circular arrow showing direction (clockwise or
counterclockwise) which way you’ll follow while applying second rule.
4. Apply second rule. But while applying second rule:
for a resistor the sign of potential drop; I.R:

R is negative, if direction of loop and direction of current are the same.

a I b
+IR
(Potential difference accross R is: Uab = Ufinal – Uinitial = Ub – Ua=–IR Since current flows from
chosen direction higher to lower potential and in the direction chosen Va>Vb so Vb–Va is negative).

R is positive if direction of loop and direction of current are oppsite.

a I b
–IR
(Potential difference accross R is: Uab = Ufinal – Vinitial = Ua–Ub=+IR Since current flows from
chosen direction higher to lower potential and in the figure Va>Vb so Vb–Va is positive).

– +
+e for a battery the sign of potential drop;
chosen direction is positive if direction of loop is moving from negative to positive terminal of the battery.

– +
–e
is negative if direction of loop is moving from positive to negative terminal of the battery.

chosen direction 5. Solve the equations for the unkown quantities.

Direct Current Circuits 91

 Example 5.5 ???

A resistor of 4 Ω is connected to series combination of two batteries, 8 V and 4 V R=4 W

S
respectively. Calculate;
a) current I
b) potential difference Vba
r=1 W r=1 W
a + – + – b
c) potential difference Vba, when switch ‘S’ is open.
e1=8 V e2=4 V

Solution
a) Using kirchhoff’s second rule ε2 + ε1 I(2r) = Va – Vb
R=4 W
∑ε = ∑I R = 0 S
12 – 2·2 = Vba
Starting from point ‘a’ Vba = 8 V
(ε2 + ε1) + (–IR – Ir – Ir) = 0 I
c) When switch ‘S’ is open, current
through the circuit is zero; so, r=1 W r=1 W
ε2 + ε1 12 V a + – + – b
I= =
R+r+r 6Ω Vba = Va – Vb = ? e1=8 V e2=4 V
I= 2 A
Vb + ε2 + ε1 = Va
12 = 6I
ε2 + ε1 = Va – Vb
I=2A
12 V = Vba
b) Vba = Va – Vb = ?
Vb + ε2 – Ir + ε1 – Ir = Va

Example 5.6 ???

A resistor, R, is connected combination of three batteries ε1, ε2 and ε3 as shown. Polarity R

of ε2 is opposite to the other two batteries. Calculate ∑ε and ∑r.

r r r
Solution + – + – + –

Applying second rule Note: In opposite configration of e1 e2 e3

batteries, total potential drops but total R
∑ε + ∑R = 0
resistance of batteries add.
(–ε3 + ε2 + ε1) + (–Ir – Ir – Ir – IR) = 0
I
So; ∑ε = – ε3 + ε2 + ε1 r r r
a + – + – + – b
∑r = r + r + r = 3r e1 e2 e3

92 Electricity and Magnetism

 Example 5.7 ???

A resistor of 3Ω is connected to parallel combination of two batteries, ε1 and ε2. Calculate r=2 W
+ –
e1=4 V
a) current I3 a b
b) potential difference Vba r=2 W
+ –
e2=4 V
Solution
a) Using first loop from first rule Using second loop R=3 W

− ε1 + I1r − I2r + ε 2 = 0 I3 = I1 + I2 +I3R 3 − 4 + I2r = 0

I3 = 2I I3
I1 r = I2 r I3R 3 − 4 − r=0
I 2 I1 r=2 W
we get I1 = I 2 = I I= 3 + –
2 I e1=4 V
3I3 − 4 − 3 ⋅ 2 = 0
2
a b
4I3 = 4 I
b) Vab = Vb − Va = ? I3 =1 A r=2 W
+ –
e2=4 V
Vb + ε 2 − I2 ⋅ r = Va I3 I2
Vb − Va = −ε 2 + I2 ⋅ r II

1
Vab = −4 + ⋅2 R=3 W
2
Vab = −3 V

Example 5.8 ???

A resistor of 4 Ω i connected combination of batteries; ε3 is paralel to series e1=4 V e2=4 V

+ – + –
combination of ε1 and ε2 as seen in the figure. Calculate
r=1 W r=1 W
a b
a) currents I1, I2 and I3 r=1 W
+ –
b) potential difference Vba e3=4 V

Solution
R=4 W
a) Apply second rule for the first loop 4 – I2 – 4I1 – 4I2 = 0

ε2 – I1r + ε1 – I1r – ε3 + I2r = 0 4 – 4I1 – 5I2 = 0 (3)

I1 e+
1=4 V
–
e2=4 V
+ –
4 – 2I1 + I2 = 0 (1) From (1) and (3)
r=1 W r=1 W
apply function rule –2(4 – 2I1 + I2 = 0) a b
I
I1 + I2 = I3 (2) + 4 – 4I1 + 5I2 = 0 r=1 W
+ –
apply second rule for the second loop –4 – 7I2 = 0 I3 I2 e3=4 V

ε3 – I2r –I3R = 0 II
−4
I2 = A
4 – I2 – 4I3 = 0 7
R=4 W

Direct Current Circuits 93

 to find I1, use (d) using (3) b) Vba = Va − Vb

4 − 2I1 + I2 = 0 I1 + I2 = I3 Vb + ε 2 + I1r + ε 2 − I1r = Va

4 12 4 ε2 − I1r + ε1 − I1r = Va − Vb
4 − 2I1 − =0 − = I3
7 7 7 12
8− ⋅ 2 = Vba
24 8 7
= 2I1 I3 = A
7 7 32
Vba = V
12 7
I1 = A
7

Example 5.9 ???

e1=22 V e2=19 V
Find the currents I1, I2, I3 flowing through the resistors R1, R2, R3.
– + – +

Solution r1=1 W r2=1 W

e1=22 V e2=19 V R3=4 W
– + – +

r1=1 W r2=1 W
I2 R1=4 W R2=6 W
I1 I R3=4 W II

I3
22 – 5I1 – 4I3 = 0 (2)
R1=4 W R2=6 W
ε2 = –I2 r2 + I2 R2 – I3 R3
1. Assign a direction for each current 19 – 1I2 + 6 I2 – 4 I3 = 0
2. Assign the directions of the emfs from “–” to “+” 19 – 7I2 – 4I3 = 0 (3)
3. Designate a direction for each loop (Directions I and II). The simultaneous solution of these three equations gives,
4. Apply Kirchhoff’s first rule to function I1 = 2 A
5. Applying Kirchhoff’s second rule to the loops I and II. I2 = –1 A
I + I2 = I3
I3 = 3 A
Σε + ΣI R = 0
The negative sign of the current I2 indicates that the actual
ε1 – I1 r1 – I1 R1 – I3 R3 = 0 direction of the current is opposite to the direction
assigned at the beginning.
22 – 0 1 I1 – 4 I1 – 4 I3 = 0

94 Electricity and Magnetism

 Example 5.10 ???
Solution I – +

– + Since there is no connection between K e1=12 V

e1=12 V and L, only one current flows through the R1=2 W R4=2 W
R1=2 W R4=2 W circuit. That is, R5=10 W
K L + –
R5=10 W
K L + –
Σε = ΣI R e3=10 V
e3=10 V R2=3 W R3=3 W
ε1 – ε2 = I(R1+R2+R3+R4)
R2=3 W R3=3 W + –

+ – 12 – 8 = I(2+3+3+2) e2=8 V
i

e2=8 V 4 = 10I
VKL = –ε2+ε3 – (IR2+IR3+0 × R5)
I = 0.4 A
VKL = –8 + 10 – (0.4 ×3 + 0.4 ×3 + 0)
Using the equation,
What is the potential difference VKL = 2 – 2.4
between K and L, VKL=? VKL = Σε – ΣI R
VKL = –0.4 V

5.4 CIRCUITS CONNECTED WITH BACK EMF

Let us examine a motor connected in a circuit, (Figure 5.9).
A R B e¢ C
In the circuit, the energy required for a charge +q to move, in a time period, t,
r¢
from A to B is I2 R t,
from B to C is I2 r′ t, P + – N

from N to P is I2 r t. r e

These energies are converted into thermal energy. Figure 5.9 A circuit having back emf.

If the device connected between B and C is a motor, it produces mechanical energy,

besides thermal energy. This energy is ε1 I t. Here, ε1 is the back emf of the motor.
Back electromotive force is the amount of electric energy converted to other type of
energy rather than thermal energy, when a unit electric charge passes through the
circuit.
The thermal energy dissipated in the circuit and the mechanical given to the device
is supplied by the battery.
Potential drop over back emf device is shown as “ε′” and internal resistance of that
device is shown as r′
So, from the conservation of energy principle,
ε I t = ε' I t + I2 R t + I2 r t + I2 r' t
ε = ε' + I(R + r + r')
ε – ε' = I(R + r + r')
This is the explicit form of the expression Σε = IΣR

Direct Current Circuits 95

 5.5 EFFICIENY OF A CIRCUIT ELEMENT
Electrical devices spent electrical energy, this energy is converted not only the
desired kind of energy but also by some other types of energy.
For example:
– an electric motor converts electrical energy in to mechanical energy but also
some energy is used to heat itself.
– a battery produces an emf, this emf is not given directly to external circuit,
because some potential dropped in the internal resistor.
As a result we can define efficiency as ratio of useful energy converted by the device
to the whole energy spent by the device. That is;
useful energy converted
efficiency =
whole energy spent

efficiency is denoted by letter “η”

Now efficiency of any electrical device can be written using above formula.

Example 5.11 Efficiency of motor and batter y

R=6 W r¢=1 W
A 6 Ω resistor and an electrical motor with 2 V back emf, is connected to a battery of 6 V in B
series. Calculate e¢=2 V

a) efficiency of motor e=6 V

+ –
b) efficiency of battery
r=1 W
Solution
to find current I through the circuit b) Efficiency of the battery r¢
R
ε – Ir – IR – Ir′ – ε′ = 0 useful energy
efficiency of motor = e¢
total energy
ε − ε′ 4V
I= = U⋅I⋅ t
R + r + r′ 8 Ω η= I
ε⋅I⋅ t I
I = 0.5 A
(ε − I ⋅ r) I ⋅ r
η= + –
a) efficiency of the motor ε⋅ I ⋅ r r e
useful energy ε − I⋅r
efficiency of motor = η=
total energy ε
ε′ ⋅ I ⋅ t (6 V) [(0.5 A) (1 Ω) ]
η= η=
ε′ ⋅ I ⋅ t+I2 ⋅ r′ ⋅ t 6V
ε′ η = 0.91
η=
ε′ ⋅ I ⋅ r′
2V
η=
(2 V)+[(0.5 A) (1 Ω) ]
η = 0.8

96 Electricity and Magnetism

 Example 5.12 Back emf in a circuit

e=12 V Solution
+ –
a) When the motor is working, b) When the motor is disabled,
r=1 W
R=2 W Σε = ε – ε1 = 12 – 4 = 8 V Σε = ε – ε' = ε – 0 = 12 V
r¢=1 W ΣR = R + r + r' = 2 + 1 + 1 ΣR = R = r + r' = 2 + 1 + 1

e¢=1 V ΣR = 4 Ω ΣR = 4 Ω
For the circuit given in the figure. Then the current is given by, The current is,
Find the current, 8V 12 V
∑ ε − I∑ R = 0, I = ∑ ε − I∑ R = 0, I =
a) When the motor is working? 4Ω 4Ω
I= 2 A I= 3 A
b) When the motor is disabled?

Direct Current Circuits 97

 Example 5.14 ???

r¢=1 W
A R=4 W B C
e¢=2 V
e=14 V
E + –
r=1 W
A motor of 2 V with back emf and
a resistor of 4 Ω are connected to
a 14 V battery. Find;
a) the current in the circuit
b) the potential difference VAB
c) the potential difference VBC
d) the potential difference VDE
e) the energy that the motor uses
in 3 seconds?
Solution
Let us choose a direction as shown in the figure.
The assigned direction of I, ε and ε' is shown in the figure. Applying the rules in this
assigned direction, we can solve the problem.
a) From Σε + I ΣR = 0 the current flowing through the circuit is given by,
D ε – ε' – I (R + r + r') = 0
14 – 2 =I (4 + 1 + 1)
12 = I × 6
I=2A
b) From the equation,
VAB = Σε + ΣI R
VAB = 0 – (2 A) (4 Ω)
VAB = –8 V
The negative sign indicates that the potential of the point B is smaller than the
potential at point A. Since,
VAB = VB – VA = –8 V

A R B e¢ C VB < VA
If potential difference VBA is required, then,
i VBA = VA – VB = +8 V
i
c) To find the potential difference VBC;
E + – D
VBC = Σε + Σ I R
e
VBC = (–ε') – (I r')
VBC = (–2 V) – (2 A) (1 Ω)
VBC = – 4 V
d) To find the potential difference VDE,
VDE = Σε + Σ I R
VDE = (+ε) – (I r)
VDE = 14 – 2 × 1
VDE = 12 V
e) The energy that the motor uses in 3 s is,
W = V I t = (ε' + I r') I t
W = (2 V) + (2 A) (1 Ω) (2 A) (3 s)
W = 24 J

98 Electricity and Magnetism

 Example 5.15 ???

R=3 W r¢=1 W Solution

e¢=4 V
a) The current can be found from,
Σε + I Σ R = 0
e=19 V ε – ε' – I (R + r + r') = 0
+ –
ε − ε′ 19 − 4
r=1 W I= =
R + r + r′ 3 + 1 + 1
A resistor of 3 Ω and a motor
I= 3 A
having an back emf of 4 V and an
internal resistance of 1 Ω are b) The power of the resistor is,
connected to a battery having an
emf of 19 V and an internal P = I2 R
resistance of 1 Ω as shown in the P = (3 A)2 (3 Ω)
figure. Find,
P = 27 W
a) the current flowing through
the circuit. c) Power supplied to the circuit by the battery is,
b) the power of the resistor. P = V I = (ε – I r)I P = (19 – 3 × 1) × 3 P = 48 W

c) the power supplied to the d) Mechanical output is,

circuit by the battery. Pmech = ε'I Pmech = 4 × 3 Pmech = 12 W
d) mechanical, output of the
motor

Direct Current Circuits 99

 5.6 MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
In this section we’ll learn basic structures of ammeter and voltmeter. Also we’ll see
the effects of those measuring devices to the circuit.
Each measuring device (ammeter, voltmeter even speedometers of cars) uses a
device called galvonometer, Figure 5.10. A galvonometer is represented by G and
consists of a coil of wire, between two poles of a magnet, that rotates by the effect
of magnetic field if a current passes through the coil. The pointer (needle) connected
to the coil deflects in proportion to the amount of current passing through the coil.
(For more detail see unit 8)
Ammeter
An ammeter is a device used to measure electric current (Figure 5.11.a). Ammeter
is connected in series to the circuit (Figure 5.11.b). Represented by a symbol
Figure 5.10 Galvonometer +A-
Positive terminal should be connected to relatively positive side of the circuit.
The structure and function of ammeter is as below:

– RS
A
+
+ –

R i i

Figure 5.11.a An ammeter Figure 5.11.b An ammeter is connected Figure 5.13.c Internal connections of
in series with the circuit. ammeter.

A Galvonometer can be used to measure small currents. It has a resistance denoted

by, r. But to measure bigger currents a parallel shunt resistor, RS, is connected to the
galvonometer (Figure 5.11.c). The shunt resistor has very low resistance relative to
resistance of galvonometer. So most of the current passes through shunt resistor RS.
This current causes a deflection in the galvonometer. Since ammeter is connected
in series to a circuit it’s total resistance should be very small so as, to not affect the
current of the circuit. Ammeters can be arranged to measure current accurately in a
desired range by placing convenient RS.

100 Electricity and Magnetism

 Example 5.16 ???
A galvonometer makes full scale Solution
deflection if 4 mA current passes Since RS and r are in the ammeter is connected in parallel. Potential drop over them
through it. Galvonometer’s
resistance, r, is 100 Ω. Design an are equal, so considering Figure 5.11.e;
ammeter that measures IG.r = IS.RS (1)
maximum current of 5 A.
Ammeter’s full deflection (that is 5A) expresses galvonometer’s full deflection (that is
4 mA). Than
I = 5A = IG + IS

IS = 5 A – 0,004 A = 4,996 A then applying (1)

4.10-3A . 100Ω = 4,996Α . RS

RS ≅ 0,08Ω. So it must have relatively very small resistance.

Voltmeter
A voltmeter measures potential drop over any circuit element, or potential difference
between any two points of a circuit (Figure 5.13.a). Voltmeter is connected in parallel
to the circuit element, across that, potential difference to be measured (Figure
5.13.b). Represented by a symbol

+V -

Positive terminal should be connected to relatively positive side of the element.

Structure and function of voltmeter is as follows:

voltmeter
V r

RS
R
+ –
+ –
i i

Figure 5.13a A voltmeter Figure 5.13b A voltmeter is Figure 5.13c Internal connections
connected in parallel with the circut. of a voltmeter.

Direct Current Circuits 101

 A voltmeter contains a galvonometer with resistance, r, and a resistor, RS,
connected in series (Figure 5.13.c). The resistor, RS is usually chosen with very
big resistance. If RS is taken with very small resistance then a very big current
passes through voltmeter, so galvonometer can burn. Also the measurement
element (here is voltmeter) mustn’t affect the circuit.If RS becomes very big
(since voltmeter is connected in parallel) it draws very small current and affect
the circuit a little. Voltmeters can be designed to measure potential difference in
any range by a convenient RS.

Example 2.? ???

Set up a voltmeter which
measures 30 volts potential
difference, using the
galvonometer given to design an
ammeter in the previous example.
Solution
When it makes full deflection, 4 mA of current passes through voltmeter and it
measures 30 volts. So;
V = IG . (RS + r)

30V = 0,004A . (RS + 100Ω)

30
− 100 = R S
4 ⋅ 10 −3
7500 – 100 = RS

RS = 7400Ω

102 Electricity and Magnetism

 CHAPTER REVIEW
When several resistors are connected in series their equivalent resistance is given by
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 ... + Rn

When several resistors are connected in parallel their equivalent resistance is given
by
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... +
R eq R1 R 2 R 3 Rn

EMF is the work done on each change by a battery to move them in the circuit
so emf is energy per unit charge
W
ε=
q

Kirchhoff is rules are general ways to solve circuit problems.

kirchhoff’s function rule is sum of the currents flowing into a function is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving the function. IT = I1 + I2

I1
IT

I2

kirchhoff’s loop rule is the algebric sum of emf’s and potential drops around a
closed loop is zero.
∑ε + ∑R = 0

Direct Current Circuits 103

1. What are the similarities between the gravitational 25. A battery of negligible internal resistance is
potential energy and electrical potential energy. connected to a resistor. If a second resistor is
connected in parallel with the first resistor;

a) What happens to the current flowing through the

first resistor?
16. In which configuration can two resistors be
connected to draw a greater current from the power b) What happens to the current drawn from the
supply? source?

17. Which configuration of connections is used in

household circuits? Explain why.

26. Which type of configuration of light bulbs and

batteries will cause the light bulbs to glow brighter?

18. What happens when a voltmeter is connected in

series with a resistor in a circuit? Explain.

19. What happens when an ammeter is connected in 27. What happens when a motor in a circuit is prevented
parallel with a resistor in a circuit? Explain. from working?

20. What is the function of safety fuses in electrical

devices and in household circuits?

35. What is the difference between the readings on

voltmeters connected across a source and a motor?
23. In which way may two or more resistors be Explain.
connected in order to use a battery for a longer
period of time?

24. In which way may two sources be connected across

a resistor in order to use them for a longer period of 36. When does an electric source operate as a back
time? emf?

104 Electricity and Magnetism

13. 17. K 2A
3W

L
6W 4W

An ammeter that can measure a maximum current If the current passing through the 3 ž resistor is 2
of 1 mA has an internal resistance of 20 ž. What A, what is the potential difference between points A
must the resistance of the connected shunt resistor and B?
(RS) be to measure a current of 50 mA?

14. An ammeter that can measure current from 0 to

10 mA has an internal resistance of 5 Ω.
Which series resistance will convert it to a 0 to 100 V
voltmeter?

18.
V

36 V
2W
V

15. 2W 2W
K 4W 6W

In the circuit shown in the figure, the voltmeter

3W 2W connected to the 6 ž resistor reads 36 V. What does
the voltmeter connected to the 2 ž resistor read?
L

What is the equivalent resistance between the

points K and L?

16.
4W
3W 19. 2R 2R
4W K
4W 2W
12R
4W RX 2R

K L L
3R
What is the equivalent resistance between the
points K and L? If the equivalent resistance between points K and L
is 4 R what is the resistance RX in terms of R?

Direct Current Circuits 105

30. e
35. In the circuit shown in 4W K
+ – the figure, a current of
e e r 2A passes through the
+ – + – 4W
r r e lamp of resistance R
+ –
when switch K is open. R
r 1W
r r
a) Find the resistance, + –
R, of the lamp. e=14 V
Figure-I Figure-II
b) Find the current passing through the lamp when
switch K is closed.
Two batteries operate for a period of time t1 when
they are connected in series (Figure-I) and for a
period of time t2 when they are connected in parallel
(Figure-II).
What is the ratio of t1/t2?
37. R2=4 W

R1=4 W i2
31. e i1 i3
+ –

r e R3=8 W
+ –

e r
+ –
r=1 W
r A + –

r e=46 V

Find the currents i1, i2 and i3 in the circuit shown in

The reading on the ammeter is i1 when the switch is
the figure.
open and i2 when it is closed.

What is the ratio of i1/i2?

33. e1 39.
+ – 3W

r1 e1 e2 en
– + – + – +
1W e¢=5 V
e2 r1 r2 rn
+ – 1W
+ –
r2
e=15 V
en
+ – For the circuit shown in the figure.
rn Find,

R a) The current in the circuit

The batteries shown in the figure have equal emf’s of
e and internal resistances of r.
What is the current passing through the resistor, R?
b) The power dissipated in the resistor
c) The mechanical and thermal power of the engine
d) The power of the cell and the power delivered to
the circuit by the cell.

106 Electricity and Magnetism

40. 6W 5V 43. i1=2 A i2
A B C
1W
1W i3 1W

– +

– +
e1 2W 19 V
1W
+ –

21 V
4W 2W

For the circuit shown in the figure find, Find the currents i2, i3 and the emf e1, in the circuit
a) the current of the circuit. shown in the figure.

b) the potential difference VAC.

c) the efficiency of the motor.

44. e1
4W + –
41.
V
1W
e¢=4 V i1
e2=5 V
i2=5 A + –
r¢=1 W
i3
3W 2W
1W 2W e3=24 V
+ – + –

19 V 1W
V
For the circuit shown in the figure, find the quantities
Consider the circuit shown in the figure. e1, i1 and i3.
Find,
a) the current in the circuit
1. Considerin the values C R
b) the readings on the voltmeters connected across given in the figure, find
the source and motor. charge on the capacitor.
R
c) the power of the cell and the motor. R 2R

+ –

42. i1 i2
2W 2W 2.
R 2R
1W i3 1W
– +

– +

e1=26 V e2=29 V A B
4W R
R 2R

Find the currents i1 , i2 and i3 in the circuit shown in

the figure. What is the total resistance between A and B?

Direct Current Circuits 107