NPTC Lecture

Dr. Muhammad Aftab Rafiq

Thomson Day
 Electric Current
The current is the rate at which charge flows through this surface.

The SI unit of current is the ampere (A):

• 1 A of current is equivalent to 1 C of charge passing through the

surface area in1 s.
• It is conventional to assign to the current the same direction as
the flow of positive charge.
• the direction of the current is opposite the direction of flow of
electrons.
Microscopic model of current
• Consider the current in a conductor of cross-sectional area A.
• Volume of a section of the conductor of length x = Ax
• If n=number of mobile charge carriers per unit volume
= charge carrier density
= the number of carriers in the gray section = nAx.
• Therefore, the charge Q in this section is:
Q = number of carriers in section × charge per carrier
= (nAx)q
where q is the charge on each carrier.
• If carriers speed = vd
• distance they move in a time t
= x = vdt.
• Therefore, we can write Q in the form

Q = (nAvd t)q
Microscopic model of current
• Dividing both sides of this equation by t:

Iav= Q/ t = nAvdq

• The speed of the charge carriers vd is an average speed called

the drift speed.
• To understand the meaning of drift speed, consider a conductor
in which the charge carriers are free electrons.
• If the conductor is isolated (i.e. potential difference across it is
zero), then these electrons undergo random motion that is
analogous to the motion of gas molecules.
• When a potential difference is applied across the conductor, an
electric field is set up in the conductor.
• This field exerts an electric force on the electrons, producing a
current.
Microscopic model of current
• However, the electrons do not move in
straight lines along the conductor.
• Instead, they collide repeatedly with the
metal atoms, and their resultant motion is
complicated and zigzag (Fig).
• Despite the collisions, the electrons move
slowly along the conductor (in a direction
opposite to that of E) at the drift velocity vd .
• We can think of the atom-electron collisions in
a conductor as an effective internal friction (or
drag force).
• The energy transferred from the electrons to
the metal atoms during collision causes an
increase in the vibrational energy of the
atoms and a corresponding increase in the
temperature of the conductor.
 Resistance and Ohm’s law
• Consider a conductor of cross-sectional area A carrying a current I.
• Current density= J = Current/unit area
• Since I = nAvdq
• Current density = J = I/A = nvdq
where J has SI units of A/m2
• This expression is valid only if
• current density is uniform
• surface of cross-sectional area A is perpendicular to the direction
of the current.
• In general, the current density is a vector quantity:
J= nvdq

• Current density, like current, is in the direction of motion for positive

charge carriers and opposite the direction of motion for negative
charge carriers.
 Resistance and Ohm’s law
• A current density J and an electric field E are established in a
conductor whenever a potential difference is maintained across
the conductor.
• If the potential difference is constant, then the current also is
constant.
• In some materials, the current density is proportional to the electric
field:
J=E
where  the constant of proportionality is called
the conductivity of the conductor.
• Materials that obey Equation (J=E) are said
to follow Ohm’s law.
• More specifically, Ohm’s law states that:

For many materials (including most metals),

the ratio of the current density to the electric
field is a constant  that is independent
of the electric field producing the current.
 Resistance and Ohm’s law
• Materials that obey Ohm’s law and hence demonstrate this simple
relationship between E and J are said to be ohmic.
• Experimentally, it is found that not all materials have this property,
however, and materials that do not obey Ohm’s law are said to be
nonohmic.
• Ohm’s law is not a fundamental law of nature but rather an
empirical relationship valid only for certain materials.

Form of Ohm’s law useful in practical applications

• Considering a segment of straight wire
of uniform cross-sectional area A and
length , as shown in Figure.
• A potential difference is maintained
across the wire, creating in the wire an
electric field and a current.
 Resistance and Ohm’s law
• For uniform field, the potential
difference is related to the field through
the relationship
V=E
• Therefore, we can express the
magnitude of the current density in the
wire as
J=E=V/
• Because J=I/A we can write the potential difference as
V=( /)J=( /A)I
• The quantity /A is called the resistance R of the conductor.
• Resistance =
potential difference across conductor/current through conductor
 Resistance and Ohm’s law
• From this result we see that resistance has SI units of volts per
ampere.
• One volt per ampere is defined to be 1 ohm ():
1=1V/1A

• R= / A

Application of resistance?????
Any idea (s) ??????
Impedance (or resistance) Plethysmography

• R= ( / A)
• R= ( / (Vol / )
• R= ( 2 / Vol )
Resistive Sensors
Al contact
Source
Nanofibers SiO22
TiO2 Nanowire SiO

Al contact Si
Si
Drain

0.010
(b)

0.005

(A)
RH=52%
0.000
Current

-0.005

RH=75% RH=84%
-0.010
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5
Voltage (V)
 Resistivity and Temperature
Resistivity depends on temperature:
r = r0(1+a (T-T0) )
• T0 is a selected reference
temperature
• r0 is the resistivity at that
temperature
• Usually T0=293K (room
temperature), for which r0= 1.69
X10- 8 .m for copper.
• a is temperature coefficient of
resistivity
 Electrical energy and Power
• Potential differences set up by the battery are
maintained.
• A steady current i is produced in the circuit,
directed from terminal a to terminal b.
• The amount of charge dq that moves between
those terminals in time interval dt is equal to
idt.
• This charge dq moves through a decrease in
potential of magnitude V, and thus its electric
potential energy decreases in magnitude by
the amount: dU = dqV = idtV
• The principle of conservation of energy tells us 1 VA = (1J/C) (1C/s)
that the decrease in electric potential energy = 1J/s = 1W
from a to b is accompanied by a transfer of
energy to some other form. P=i2R
• The power P associated with that transfer is P=V2/R
the rate of transfer dU/dt, which is given by:
P= iV
 Electromotive Force (emf)
• A constant current can be maintained in a closed circuit
through the use of a source of emf.
• emf is a device (battery or generator) that produces an
electric field and thus may cause charges to move
around a circuit.
• One can think of a source of emf as a “charge pump.”
• When an electric potential difference exists between two
points, the source moves charges “uphill” from the lower
 potential to the higher.
• The emf  describes the work done per unit charge, and
hence the SI unit of emf is the volt.
 Electromotive Force (emf)
• A circuit consisting of a resistor connected to the terminals of a
battery.
• Assume that the connecting wires have no resistance.
• Positive terminal of the battery is at a higher potential than negative
terminal.
• If we neglect the internal resistance of the battery, the potential
difference across it (terminal voltage) equals its emf.
• A real battery always has internal resistance r.
• The terminal voltage is not equal to emf for the battery in a circuit in
which there is current
 Electromotive Force (emf)
(a) Circuit diagram of a source of emf
(in this case, a battery), of internal
resistance r, connected to an
external resistor of resistance R.
(b) Graphical representation showing
how the electric potential changes
as the circuit in part (a) is
traversed clockwise.

• Total power output of the battery is delivered to the external

load resistance=I2R and to the internal resistance=I2r.
• If r‹‹R then most of the power delivered by the battery is
transferred to the load resistance.
Electromotive Force (emf)
Electromotive Force (emf)
Electromotive Force (emf)
Electromotive Force (emf)
 Resistors in Series

• For a series combination of resistors, the currents in the

two resistors are the same because any charge that passes
through R1 must also pass through R2.

• The equivalent resistance of a series connection of resistors

is always greater than any individual resistance.
 Resistors in Parallel

• When resistors are connected in parallel, the potential

differences across them are the same.

• The equivalent resistance of two or more resistors connected in

parallel is always less than the least resistance in the group.
 Resistors in Series and parallel
An electrical cable consists of 100 strands of fine wire, each having 2 W resistance. The same potential
difference is applied between the ends of all the strands and results in a total current of 5 A.

(a) What is the current in each strand?

Ans: 0.05 A
(b) What is the applied potential difference?
Ans: 0.1 V
(c) What is the resistance of the cable?
Ans: 0.02 W

Assume now that the same 2 W strands in the cable are tied in series, one after the other, and the 100
times longer cable connected to the same 0.1 Volts potential difference as before.
(d) What is the potential difference through each strand?
Ans: 0.001 V
(e) What is the current in each strand?

(f)
Ans: 0.0005 A
What is the resistance of the cable?
…
Ans: 200 W

(g) Which cable gets hotter, the one with strands in parallel or the one with strands in series?
Ans: each strand in parallel dissipates 5mW (and the cable dissipates 500 mW);
each strand in series dissipates 50 mW (and the cable dissipates 5mW)
Applications of Resistors
in Series and in Parallel

???????

Any ideas????
Applications of Resistors in Series and in Parallel

Pressure-sensitive pads
Applications of Resistors in Series and in Parallel

joystick
Resistor Colour Code
Resistor Colour Code
 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES

Junction Rule:
The sum of the currents entering any junction in a
circuit must equal the sum of the currents leaving
that junction

(Conservation of electric charge)

Loop Rule:
The sum of the potential differences across all
elements around any closed circuit loop must be
zero:

(conservation of energy)
 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
Sign conventions when using the second rule:

• Because charges move from the high-potential end of a resistor

to the low-potential end, if a resistor is traversed in the direction
of the current, the change in potential across the resistor is -IR.
• If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the
change in potential across the resistor is +IR.
• If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance) is
traversed in the direction of the emf (from – to +), the change in potential
is +.
• The emf of the battery increases the electric potential as
we move through it in this direction.
• If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance) is
traversed in the direction opposite the emf (from + to -), the change in
potential is -.
• In this case the emf of the battery reduces the electric
potential as we move through it.
 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
In general, in order to solve a particular circuit problem:

“the number of independent equations you need to obtain from the two
rules equals the number of unknown currents”.

Problem-Solving Hints:
• Draw a circuit diagram, and label all the known and unknown
quantities.
• You must assign a direction to the current in each branch of the
circuit.
• Do not be alarmed if you guess the direction of a current
incorrectly; your result will be negative, but its magnitude will be
correct.
• Although the assignment of current directions is arbitrary, you
must adhere rigorously to the assigned directions when
applying Kirchhoff’s rules.
 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
Problem-Solving Hints:
• Apply the junction rule to any junctions in the circuit that provide new
relationships among the various currents.
• Apply the loop rule to as many loops in the circuit as are needed to
solve for the unknowns.
• To apply this rule, you must correctly identify the change in
potential as you imagine crossing each element in traversing
the closed loop (either clockwise or counterclockwise).
• Watch out for errors in sign!
• Solve the equations simultaneously for the unknown quantities.
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES

Find the current in the 4.00  resistor in the drawing. Specify

the direction of the current.
 Charging a Capacitor
• Let us assume that the capacitor in Figure is initially uncharged.
• There is no current while switch S is open (Fig. b).
• If the switch is closed at t=0 however, charge begins to flow, setting up
a current in the circuit, and the capacitor begins to charge.
• During charging, charges do not jump across the capacitor plates
because the gap between the plates represents an open circuit.
• Instead, charge is transferred between each plate and its connecting
wire due to the electric field established in the wires by the battery,
until the capacitor is fully charged.
• As the plates become charged, the potential difference across the
capacitor increases.
• The value of the maximum charge depends on the voltage of the
battery.
• Once the maximum charge is reached, the current in the circuit is zero
because the potential difference across the capacitor matches that
supplied by the battery.
Charging a Capacitor
 Charging a Capacitor
• To analyze this circuit quantitatively, let us apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule
to the circuit after the switch is closed.
• Traversing the loop clockwise gives
1
where q/C is the potential difference across the capacitor and IR is the
potential difference across the resistor.
• We have used the sign conventions discussed earlier for the signs on
 and IR.
• For the capacitor, notice that we are traveling in the direction from the
positive plate to the negative plate; this represents a decrease in
potential.
• Thus, we use a negative sign for this voltage in Equation 1.
• q and I are instantaneous values that depend on time (as opposed to
steady-state values) as the capacitor is being charged.
 Charging a Capacitor
• We can use Equation 1 to find the initial current in the circuit and the
maximum charge on the capacitor.
• At the instant the switch is closed the charge on the capacitor is
zero, and from Equation 1 we find that the initial current in the circuit
I0 is a maximum and is equal to
2
• At this time, the potential difference from the battery terminals
appears entirely across the resistor.
• Later, when the capacitor is charged to its maximum value Q,
charges cease to flow, the current in the circuit is zero, and the
potential difference from the battery terminals appears entirely across
the capacitor.
• Substituting I=0 in equating 1 gives the charge on the capacitor at
this time
Q=C 3
 Charging a Capacitor
• To determine analytical expressions for the time dependence of
the charge and current, we must solve Equation 1
• a single equation containing two variables, q and I.
• The current in all parts of the series circuit must be the same.
• Thus, the current in the resistance R must be the same as the current
flowing out of and into the capacitor plates.
• This current is equal to the time rate of change of the charge on the
capacitor plates.
• Thus, we substitute I=dq/dt into Equation 1and rearrange the
equation:

• To find an expression for q, we first combine the terms on the right-

hand side:

• Now we multiply by dt and divide by q-C to obtain

 Charging a Capacitor
• Integrating this expression, using the fact that q=0 and t=0, we obtain

From the definition of the natural logarithm, we can write this expression
as
4
Where e is the base of the natural logarithm and we have made the
substitution from Equation 3
• We can find an expression for the charging current by differentiating
Equation 4 with respect to time.
• Using I=dq/dt, we find that
5
• Plots of capacitor charge and circuit current versus time are shown in
Figure.
• Note that the charge is zero at t=0 and approaches the maximum
value C as t
 Charging a Capacitor
• The current has its maximum value I0=/R at and decays
exponentially to zero as t :
• The quantity RC, which appears in the exponents of Equations 4 and
5, is called the time constant  of the circuit.
• It represents the time it takes the current to decrease to 1/e of its
initial value; that is, in a time , I=Ie-1I0=0.368I0
• In a time 2 I=e-2I0=0.135I0 and so forth
• Likewise, in a time the charge increases from zero to C(1-e-
1
)=0.632C.
 Charging a Capacitor
• The following dimensional analysis shows that  has the units of time:

Because =RC has units of time, the combination t/RC is

dimensionless, as it must be in order to be an exponent of e in
Equations 4 and 5.
• The energy output of the battery as the capacitor is fully
charged is Q=C2
• After the capacitor is fully charged, the energy stored in the capacitor
is (½)Q= (½)C2 which is just half the energy output of the battery.

A battery is used to charge a capacitor through a resistor, as

shown in Figure. Show that half the energy supplied by the
battery appears as internal energy in the resistor and that
half is stored in the capacitor.
 Discharging a Capacitor
• The circuit shown in Figure consists of a
capacitor carrying an initial charge Q, a
resistor, and a switch.
• The initial charge Q is not the same as the
maximum charge Q in the previous
discussion, unless the discharge occurs
after the capacitor is fully charged (as
described earlier).
• When the switch is open, a potential
difference Q/C exists across the capacitor
and there is zero potential difference across
the resistor because I=0
• If the switch is closed at t=0 the capacitor
begins to discharge through the resistor.
• At some time t during the discharge, the
current in the circuit is I and the charge on
the capacitor is q (Fig. b). The circuit in
Figure 28.18
 Discharging a Capacitor
• The circuit in Figure is the same as the circuit
in Figure (charging) except for the absence
of the battery.
• Thus, we eliminate the emf from
Equation1 to obtain the appropriate loop
equation for the circuit in figure
6
When we subsitute I=dq/dt into this expression,
it becomes

Integrating this expression, using the fact that

q=Q at t=0, gives
 Discharging a Capacitor

Differentiating this equation w.r.t. time gives the

instantaneous current as a function of time

where Q/RC=I0 is the initial current.

• The negative sign indicates that the current
direction now that the capacitor is
discharging is opposite the current direction
when the capacitor was being charged.
• (Compare the current directions in Figs.
28.16c and 28.18b.)
• We see that both the charge on the capacitor
and the current decay exponentially at a rate
characterized by the time constant =RC