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Special Theory of
Relativity-I
Books to consult:
Special relativity
1. Classical Mechanics by Herbert Goldstein
2. Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems by Thornton and Marion
3. Nuclear Physics by Kaplan
4. Modern Physics by J. B. Rajam
What is Relativity?
Theories of Relativity, Quantum Mechanics, Thermodynamics
Base of modern physics
Uniqueness when compared with theory of electromagnetism,
is their generality
Lead to general conclusions which apply to all physical
systems, ⇒ are of enormous power, as well as of fundamental
significance
Role of relativity → specifying properties of space, time
the arena where all physical processes take place
The laws of physics take the same form in all frames of reference
moving with constant velocity with respect to one another.
Coordinates of B in frame S x, y , z , t
in frame S ′ x′, y ′, z ′, t ′
Form figure: O′B = OB − OO′
At time t: OO′ = Vt
x′ = x − Vt
therefore y′ = y (1)
Galilean Transformation z′ = z
t′ = t
Coordinates ( x′, y ′, z ′, t ′) of any event measured in x′ = x − Vt
frame S ′ in terms of corresponding ( x, y , z , t ) y′ = y
coords. of the same event measured in frame S .
z′ = z
→ Mathematical expression of classical ideas about
space and time t′ = t
Galilean transformation (1) relates the coordinates measured in two
frames in standard configuration
i.e. corresponding axis parallel and relative
velocity along x - axis y
y'
General configuration where relative *
B
(2)
t′ = t z
r ′ = r − Vt
(2)
t′ = t
Differentiating first of transformation (2) wrt time:
r&′ = r& − V (since relative velocity is constant)
d 2 x1
m1 2 = − k ( x1 − x2 − l) (3)
dt
where k is the spring constant
Same pair of masses from the point of view S ′ moving with a
velocity V relative to S , then using Galilean transformation (1):
dx1 dx1′
so that = +V
dt dt ′
d 2 x1 d 2 x1′
=
dt 2
dt ′2
and x1 − x2 = x1′ − x2′
substituting above results in equation (3):
d 2 x1′
m1 2 = − k ( x1′ − x2′ − l) (5)
dt ′
since according to Newtonian mechanics, mass of particle is the same in
both frames i.e.
m1 = m1′
d 2 x1′
then m1′ 2 = − k ( x1′ − x2′ − l) (6)
dt ′
from equations (3) and (6), the form of the equation of motion derived
from Newton’s Second Law is the same in both frames of reference.
Conservation of Momentum
law of conservation of linear momentum is invariant under
Galilean transformation
Combining the Second and Third Laws → the law of
conservation of momentum which is:
“In the absence of any external forces, the total momentum of a
system is conserved.”
In reference frame S ,
Consider collision of two balls masses m1 and m2 moving
with velocities u1 and u2
After collision balls move with velocities v1 and v2
Conservation of linear momentum in frame S →
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 (7)
u1′ = u1 − V , u2′ = u2 − V ,
(7a)
v1′ = v1 − V , v2′ = v2 − V
In frame S ′ the law of conservation of linear momentum is:
* *
* *
∂2E ∂ ∂E ∂E ∂ ∂E ∂E
Using (v): = −V −V + + −V +
∂t 2
∂x′ ∂x′ ∂t ′ ∂t ′ ∂x′ ∂t ′
∂2E 2∂ E
2
∂2E ∂2E ∂2E
simplifying =V −V −V + 2
∂t 2
∂x′ 2
∂x′∂t ′ ∂x′∂t ′ ∂t ′
∂2E ∂2E ∂2E ∂ 2
E
or = 2 − 2V +V 2
(vi)
∂t 2
∂t ′ ∂x′∂t ′ ∂x′2
∂ 2 E 1 ∂ 2 E ∂2E 2 ∂ E
2
− 2 2 − 2V +V 2
=0
∂x′ c ∂t ′
2
∂x′∂t ′ ∂x′
∂ 2 E 1 ∂ 2 E ∂2E 2 ∂ E
2
− 2 2 − 2V +V 2
=0
∂x′ c ∂t ′
2
∂x′∂t ′ ∂x′
This is the equation under Galilean transformation for a frame S'
moving with velocity V relative to S.
Newton’s laws hold in all inertial frames Maxwell’s laws hold only
in one frame
What is special about that frame?
Maxwell’s equations predict that light moves with a certain speed c
but with respect to which frame is this speed measured?
The proposed special frame where Maxwell’s equations hold and the
speed of light is c frame of the Ether.
It was assumed like sound waves, light also need a medium to
propagate
medium called ether
Does ether really exist?
Till the end of 19th century no deviation between theory and
experiment
End of 19th century particles travelling with speeds comparable
with speed of light c (electrons) available