12th Physics According To COVID-19 Syllabus ALP

Physics 2nd Year ~1~
Excellence Physics Notes

For 2nd Year, According to COVID-19
Syllabus
Written & Composed By:
Muhammad Darwish
BS Physics from Govt. Post Graduate College Mardan
Contact No: 0346 198 36 30
Contact No: 0311 0 900 523
Email: muhdarwish835@gmail.com
Comprehensive
PHYSICS
12
CHAPTER NO. 11
ELECTROSTATICS
 ELECTROSTATICS:
The branch of physics which deals with study of properties of charge at rest is
called “Electrostatics”.
 ELECTRIC CHARGE:
Electric charge is the amount of electricity on the body to attract or repel
another charge body. OR Charge is the intrinsic property of matter.
It is denoted by “ ” or “ ”.
 UNIT of CHARGE:
The unit of charge is Coulomb, denoted by “ ” and is defined as; “The charge
will be one Coulomb “ ”, if the force between them is “ ” and they
are separated by a distance “ ” of one meter “ ”. OR In the anticipation
of the study of electric current, the definition of Coulomb is present here. The
charge will be one Coulomb, if the current of one Ampere “ ” is flowing
through a cross section area “ ” of the wire in one second “ ”.
The charge of the electron is given by;
Dividing both sides by we will get;
It’s mean that one Coulomb “ ” charge is equal to of electrons.

 DIMENSION of CHARGE:
We know that;
Ampere is base unit of the current “ ”; then;
[ ] [ ]
 PROPERTIES of ELECTRIC CHARGE:

i. Charge can neither be created nor destroyed but it can only be appears on
the body due to transformation of negative charges (electrons) from one
body to another. For example when the glass rod is rubbing on the silk
cloth then due to lose binding in the glass rod, some of electrons will be
transferred to the silk cloth. So positive charge are produced (appearing) on
the class rod. But when a ebonite rod is rubbing on the wool cloth then
due to lose binding electrons in the wool cloth, some of the electrons will
be transferred from the cloth to the rod. So negative rod are produced
(appearing) on the ebonite rod. Similarly negative charges exist on electrons
and positive charges exist on protons.
ii. Same (like) charges repel each other and opposite (unlike) charges attract
each other.
iii. Charges are conserved, e.g. on neutral body equal amount of positive and
negative charges are exist on the body.
iv. Electric charges are quantized. Quantization of charges means that it exist
in discrete packet not in continuous amount. Any charge “ ” is the integral
multiple of the minimum elementary charges that is; , where “ ” is
the number i.e. .
v. The electric charge at rest is called electrostatic and electric charge is in
motion then it is called electrodynamics or electricity.
 COULOMB’S LAW:
Charles Coulomb’s was a French scientist, perform a number of experiments in
1814 (AD) to measurement the force between two electric charges.
Coulomb’s stated his experimental observation in the form of a statement called
“Coulomb’s Law” which state that;
“The magnitude of electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two
point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the
charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them”.
Mathematically, consider two point charges

“ ” and “ ” which are separated at a
distance “ ” from each other. Show in
figure.
Then the force of attraction or repulsion
between them can be written as;
( )
( )
Combing Eq:( ) and Eqe: ( ) we will get;
( )
( )
Where “ ” is proportionality constant and is called Coulomb’s constant. When the

medium between the two charges is air or free space the “ ” can be written
as “ ” and its numerical value is “ ” . Where “ ” is the
permittivity or conductivity of free space. Permittivity is the property of the
medium which is defined as to store electrical energy in electric field. Then

electric line of force is given by;
( )
It is found experimentally that the Coulomb’s force is affected by changing the

medium between the two point charges.
 COULOMB’S LAW in MATERIAL MEDIA:

If the medium between the two charges is other than air or space, that is the
medium is dielectric (insulator) and its relative permittivity is “ ” then the
Coulomb’s force is reduced and can be written as;
( )
Where “ ” is the relative permittivity or conductivity of the dielectric medium,

this force also can be written as;
( ) ( )
From Eq:( ) the bracket term is equal to Eq:( ) then we will get;
( )
( )
Eq:( ) shows that the Coulomb’s force is “ ” time reduced of the force in air
or space.
 ELECTRIC FIELD:
The concept of electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday.
According to this theory, it is the intrinsic properties of nature that an electric
field exists in the space around and electric charge. This force is also called
force field and can be defined as;
“The space or region around the charge body, where it can attract or repel
another charge body is called electric field”.
There are two theories about an
electric field within which one is failed
and un-experience and the other theory
is taken place into two steps.
1. The charge “ ” produced an

electric field around itself. Just
like a sphere (like football).
2. When another charge “ ” (point
charge) is placed in the field of
charge “ ”, then the electric
fields of these two charges interact with each other and the Coulomb’s
force is produced between them.
 ELECTRIC FIELD INTESITY DUE to POINT CHARGE:

The electric field intensity at any point in an
electric field is defined as;
“The force exerted by a source charge “ ” on a

test charge “ ” is called electric field intensity”.
Point charge “ ” is always positive.
Mathematically it can be defined as, “The force “ ” per unit test charge “ ”
is called electric field intensity”.it is denoted by “ ” and is given by:
( )
If we have two charges “” and “” which are separated from each other by a
distance “”, such that the medium between them is air of permittivity “” then
according to the Coulomb’s law the force is given by;
( )
Putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we have;
( )
* +
( )
Eq: ( ) shows that the electric field intensity “ ” does not depend on point
charge “ ” and “ ” then Eq: ( ) can also be written as;
In vector form it can be written as;
⃗⃗ ̂
Electric field strength is vector quantity.

The electric field strength is proportional to the magnitude of the source charge
“ ”. Its strength decreases as the test charge “ ” moves away from the
source charge “ ”.
 UNIT of ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY:
In SI the unit of electric field intensity is ( ) or ( ).

 REPRESENTATION of ELECTRIC FIELD LINES:

An electric field lines are defined as, “The path along which a unit positive
charge will move in an electric field. It may be straight or curve and tangent
to the lines of force at any point gives the direction of electric field intensity
“⃗⃗ ” at that point”.
1. Electric field lines (lines of force) due

to positive point charges are indicates
by arrow and will move outward.
2. If some positive test charge “ ”
having the same magnitude are placed
at different places but an equal
distance from a positive source charge
“ ” then each positive test charge
“ ” will be repel by the source charge
“ ” at equal force outward. But if
these positive test charge “ ” are
placed at different places but an equal
distance from a negative charge “ ”,
then these positive test charge “ ” will
be attracted by the source charge “ ”
at equal force inward. As shown in
figure.
3. If two positive charges are placed together
then the electric field of these identical
charges repelled each other and the middle
region between them show the presence of
zero field spot or neutral zone.
4. The electric field lines between two opposite
point charges start from positive charge and
end on negative charge. As shown in figure.
5. The direction of electric field intensities are
given by the tangent line draw to the field at these points.
Physics 2nd Year ~ 10 ~
 PROPERTIES of ELECTRIC FIELD LINES:

 The electric field lines show that the direction of force on a positive test
charge.
 The electric filed lines are start from positive charges and
end on negative charges.
 At stronger electric field, the electric filed lines are
closer, while a weaker electric filed the lines are further
apart from each other.
 The electric filed lines are can never cross each
other, if they did cross, then electric field would
have two different direction which is not
possible.
 The electric lines of force are always strikes
the surface of conductor perpendicularly.
 UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD:

A uniform electric field is a filed which id constant
in magnitude and direction within a specified
region of space.
The lines of such a field is uniform and
parallel in same direction between two parallel
plates which are placed at a small distance
“ ” from each other.
For plates of finite size, there is a little
curve in the lines at the edges of the plates which is called fringing of the
electric field (F.E.F).
 APPLICATIONS of ELECTROSTATICS:
 PHOTOCOPIERS:
It consists of a drum which is made up of aluminum and coated with selenium.
Selenium is an insulator. When the paper to be copied is laid on the glass plate,
then the dark and light areas of the document produced same image on the
drum. The dark areas become positive charge but the light areas become
conducting, lose their, positive charge and become neutral. So the positive charge
image of the document remains on the selenium surface. Special toner powder is
then dusted over the drum and stuck to those parts of the drum which are
positive charged. When a sheet of paper passes over the drum, the particles of
toner are attached to it. Heated roller then melt the toner into the paper to
produce the permanent impression of the document. As shown in figure.
 LASER PRINTER:
Laser printer work is largely due to the process called “Xerography”. Initially,
the photocopier drum is charge positively by corona wire by applying an electric
current on it as shown in figure.
When a light of the laser beam hits the drum, whatever areas that are exposed
to the light are rid of these electric charges. The areas that are not exposed
to light eventually make up the printed image. These areas, which remain
electrostatics, then pick up the particles from the ink toner. The heat produced
by the printer melts the dry ink and then gets fused on the paper to create
the printed image. As shown in figure.
 INKJET PRINTER:
An inkjet printer is another type of printer that uses electric charges in its
operation. While shuttling back and forth across the paper, the inkjet print head
ejects a thin stream of ink. The element of one type of inkjet printer is shown
in figure.
During their flight, the droplets pass through
two electrical components, an electrode and the
deflection plates (a parallel plate capacitor).
When the print head moves over the region
of the papers that are not to be inked, the
charging control is turned on and electric field
is produced between the print head and the
electrodes. As the drop passes to the
electric field, then required a net charge by
the process of induction. The deflection plates diverts the charged droplets into a
gutter and so prevent them from the reaching the paper. Whenever ink is to
place on the paper, the charging control, responding to the instruction from the
computer, turns off the electric field. So uncharged droplets fly straight through
the deflection plates and strike paper.
 ELECTRIC FLUX:
Electric flux is actually the flow of the electric field line of force through an
imaginary fixed area in the field. So electric flux is defined as; “The number of
electric field lines of forces passes through surface of vector area is called
Electric Flux”.
Electric flux is denoted by “ ”. If “⃗⃗ ” is the electric field intensity of the

lines of force and “⃗⃗ ” is the area of through which these lines are passing,
then mathematically electric flux “ ” is defined as, “The scalar (Dot) product of
electric filed intensity “⃗⃗ ” and vector area “⃗⃗ ”. i.e.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Where “ ” is the angle between electric field intensity “⃗⃗ ” and vector area
“⃗⃗ ”. Electric flux is depends on electric field intensity “⃗⃗ ”, vector area “⃗⃗ ” and
angle “ ”.
 If the electric field intensity “⃗⃗ ” is stronger, then the electric flux “ ”
will be greater and vice versa.
 If the vector area “⃗⃗ ” is larger, the electric flux “ ” will be greater
and vice versa.
 Now there are some cases for the electric
flux “ ”, through the different surfaces
means angle “ ”.
 CASE# 1:
If the vector area “⃗⃗ ” is placed inclined to the

electric lines of forces of intensity “⃗⃗ ”, then an
arbitrary angle “ ” is formed between “⃗⃗ ” and
“⃗⃗ ” which are given by;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( )
In this case electric flux “ ” depends on angle

“ ”. As shown in figure: 1.
 CASE# 2:
If the vector area “⃗⃗ ” is placed perpendicular to

the direction of electric field lines of force of
intensity “⃗⃗ ”, and the angle between vector area
“⃗⃗ ” and electric field intensity “⃗⃗ ” is “ ”, then
the electric flux “ ” passes through a vector area
is zero or minimum and is given by; as shown in
figure: 2.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Putting “ ” in above equation then we will get;
And we know that; “ ” so the above

equation becomes;
( )
 CASE# 3:
If the vector area “⃗⃗ ” is placed parallel to the

direction of electric lines of force of intensity “⃗⃗ ”,
and the angle between vector area “⃗⃗ ” and
electric field intensity “⃗⃗ ” is “ ”, then the electric
flux “ ” passes through a vector area is maximum and is given by; as shown
in figure:: 3.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
And we know that; “ ” so the above equation becomes;
( )
 ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH a CLOSE

SURFACE ENCLOSING CHARGE:
Consider a close surface in the form of sphere (just
like football) of radius “ ” having a positive charge
“ ”. The electric lines of forces of a charge “ ”
are passing through the sphere. If we dividing the
sphere into a number of small areas. i.e.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ .
The magnitude of the electric field intensity “⃗⃗ ” at

every point of the surface is same, because the lines
are emitting from the center of the sphere which is
at equal distance from the center. So;
Now electric flux passing through each area is given

by; i.e. flux passing through small area “ ⃗⃗ ” is “ ” i.e;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
As from the figure electric field intensity “⃗⃗ ” is parallel to the small area
“ ⃗⃗ ” the angle between them is zero and we know that; then we
will get;
Similarly the electric flux “ ” “ ” and “ ” through the area “ ⃗⃗ ”,

area “ ⃗⃗ ” and “ ⃗⃗ ”.
,,,, and
Now the total electric flux through the whole sphere, the sum of all electric
fluxes i.e.;
∑ ( )
Where “ ”.
In case of closed surface the electric flux may positive, negative or zero
depending on the number of electric lines of force entering or leaving the
surface;
1. The electric flux is positive if the number of electric lines of force out
from the surface is greater than the electric lines of force entering the
surface i.e. “ ”, so the surface acts as a source of charge.
2. The electric flux is negative if the number of electric lines of force out
from the surface is less than the electric lines of force entering the
surface i.e. “ ”, so the surface acts as a sink of charge.
3. The electric flux is zero if the number of electric lines of force leaving
the surface is equal to the electric lines of force entering the surface i.e.
“ ”. As shown in figure.
 GAUSS’S LAW:
This law state that, “The electric flux “ ” passes
through any closed surface is directly proportional to
the charge which are enclosed by that surface.” OR
“The electric flux “ ” passing through any closed

surface is equal to the “ ” times of the charge “ ”
enclosed by that surface”. Mathematically it is given
by;
 Explanation:
Consider a close surface in the form of sphere (just like football) of radius “ ”
having a positive charge “ ”. The electric lines of forces of a charge “ ”
are passing through the sphere. If we dividing the sphere into a number of
small areas. i.e. ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ .
The magnitude of the electric field intensity “⃗⃗ ” at every point of the surface
is same, because the lines are emitting from the center of the sphere which is
at equal distance from the center. So;
Now electric flux passing through each area is given by; i.e. flux passing through
small area “ ⃗⃗ ” is “ ” i.e;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
As from the figure electric field intensity “⃗⃗ ” is parallel to the small area
“ ⃗⃗ ” the angle between them is zero and we know that; then we
will get;
Similarly the electric flux “ ” “ ” and “ ” through the area “ ⃗⃗ ”,

area “ ⃗⃗ ” and “ ⃗⃗ ”.
,,,, and
Now the total electric flux through the whole sphere, the sum of all electric
fluxes i.e.;
∑ ( )
Where “ ”.
But the whole area of the sphere is;
∑ ( )
So putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we have;
( )
But the electric fields intensity is given by;
( )
Putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get;
( )
( )
This equation shows that the electric flux “ ” through passing the any close
spherical surface depend upon the source charge “ ” enclosed in that sphere and
the permittivity of the medium “ ” and independent of shape of closed surface.
 ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH a IRREGULAR CLOSE SURFACE

ENCLOSING CHARGE:
This law can be proved for a number of
charges such as which are
enclosed in the surface as shown in figure.
To calculate the electric flux “ ” passing

through the whole surface, it is divided in “ ”
number of small pieces have area
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ and The magnitude of
the electric field intensity “⃗⃗ ” at every point
of the surface is same, because the lines are
emitting from the center of the sphere which
is at equal distance from the center. So;
The electric flux “ ” due to the point charge “ ” through the surface “ ” is
given by;
Also the electric flux “ ” due to another point charge “ ” through the surface
“ ” is given by;
Similarly;
And;
Now the total electric flux due to all point charges passing through the whole
sphere is given by:
( )
But then the above equation becomes;
( )
This equation gives the mathematical expression of Gauss’s Law.
Written & Composed By: Muhammad Darwish.

 BS Physics from Govt. Post Graduate College Mardan
Contact No & Whataspp: 0346 198 36 30
Contact No: 0311 0 900 523
 CHARGE DENSITY:
There are three types of charge densities that are linear charge density, surface
charge density and volume charge density.
 Linear Charge Density:

Charge per unit length is called “Linear Charge Density”, shown in the figure
denoted by Lambda “ ” and is given by;
 Surface Charge Density:

Charge per unit area is called “Surface Charge Density”, shown
in the figure denoted by Sigma “ ” and is given by;
 Volume Charge Density:

Charge per unit volume is called “Volume Charge Density”, shown in the figure
denoted by Roh “ ” and is given by;
 APPLICATION’S of GAUSS’S LAW:

Gauss’s law provides a convenient method to calculate electric field “ ⃗⃗ ” in the
case of sufficiently symmetrical charge distribution. Some of examples are now
discuss here.
1. Electric Field Intensity Inside a Hallow Charge Sphere OR Electric

Field Intensity due to Location of Excess Charge on a Conductor:
Consider a hallow conducting sphere of radius “ ”
which is given a positive charge “ ”. To find the
electric field intensity at any point inside the charge
sphere. We apply Gauss’s law and draw an imaginary
sphere of radius “ ” i.e. “ ” within the
hallow sphere. This imaginary sphere is called
“Gaussian Surface”.
Electric flux through a closed Gaussian surface of
area “ ⃗⃗ ” is given by;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ( )
Now according to Gauss’s law the electric field is given by;
( )
As there is no charge in the Gaussian surface so; then Eq: ( ) becomes;
( )
Comparing Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we will get;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
As area “ ⃗⃗ ” is never zero of the sphere i.e. “ ⃗⃗ ” so;
⃗⃗
Hence the interior of the charge conductor is a field free region.

Now electric field intensity outside a charge conducting spherical shell due to
positive charges which are uniform distributed over its surface is given by;
⃗⃗ ̂
Where “ ” is the total charge on the spherical shell i.e. “

” and “ ”
⃗⃗ ̂
2. Electric Field Intensity due to Absence of Electric Field and due to

Absence of Charge Inside a Conductor:
Conductor is a material which has a large number of free charge (electrons)
inside it. In the absence of electric field, these charges move randomly. Due to
random motion the current in the conductor is zero, because due to random
motion of these charges. That is the number of electrons moving towards right
must be equal to the number of electrons moving towards left. Hence the net
force on the charge (electron) is zero. So the electric field intensity (E.F.I) is
zero in the absence of electric field i.e. “ ”.
Now to find electric field intensity inside the
conductor, draw a Gaussian surface inside the
conductor in the form of dots. As shown in the
figure.
According to Gauss’s law the electric flux due to charge “ ” is given by;
But the charge inside the conductor is zero i.e. “ ”; so;
( )
( )
But generally we know that the electric field through any closed spherical shell
is given by;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ( )
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
As area “ ⃗⃗ ” is never zero of the conductor i.e. “ ⃗⃗ ” so;
⃗⃗
Hence the electric field intensity inside a conductor due to absence of charges is
zero.
3. Electric Field Intensity due to Charge Which Placed in Hallow

Conductor:
Consider put a charge “ ” inside the hallow conductor.
And insulate it, no charge jump from one surface to
another surface. Uses Gaussian surface and apply Gauss’s
law. The conductor is uncharged when the positive charge
is placed inside the hallow conductor due to induction
phenomenon the positive charge attracted negative charge
from the upper surface and order to maintain its neutral.
So the other surface must have a charge equal but
opposite charge of the internal cavity, or the outer surface’s charge is equal to
that of charge “ ”. Hence positive charge equal to the negative charge i.e.
“ ” then the net charge inside the hallow conductor is zero i.e. “
”. According to Gauss’s law the electric flux due to charge “ ” is given by;
But the net charge inside the conductor is zero i.e. “ ”; so;
( )
( )
But generally we know that the electric field through any closed spherical shell
is given by;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ( )
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
As area “ ⃗⃗ ” is never zero of the conductor i.e. “ ⃗⃗ ” so;
⃗⃗
Hence the electric field intensity inside a conductor due to net charges is zero.
You Never Fail Until

you Stop Trying.
4. Electric Field Intensity due to an Infinite Sheet of Charge:

Consider a sheet of infinite positive charge.
The positive charges are uniformly distribution
on the sheet.
Let “ ” be the surface charge density which

is equal to the charge per unit area and is
given by;
()
Now electric field intensity at point “ ” very

closed to the sheet of charge as shown in
figure.
Consider a closed surface drawn in the form of cylinder called Gaussian’s surface.
Divide the cylinder into three surfaces “ ”, “ ” and “ ”. If “ ” is the

area of the cylinder, then the electric flux “ ” through a surface “ ” is
given by;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
And from the figure the electric field “ ” and area “ ” at surface “ ” is
parallel i.e. “ ” and angle is zero i.e. “ ” then we have;
( )
( )
Now the electric flux “ ” through a surface “ ” is given by;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Similarly from the figure the electric field “ ” and area “ ” at surface “ ”
again is parallel i.e. “ ” and angle is zero i.e. “ ” then we have;
( )
( )
Now the electric flux “ ” through a surface “ ” is given by;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
But from the figure the electric field “ ” and area “ ” at surface “ ” a
is perpendicular i.e. “ ” and angle is “ ” i.e. “ ” then we
have;
( )
( )
Now the total electric flux through the cylinder (Gaussian’s surface) is given by;
( )
But according Gauss’s law;
( )
Putting “ ” we will get;
In vector form;
⃗⃗ ̂
This is the electric field intensity due to infinite sheet of charge.

5. Electric Field Intensity between Two oppositely Charge Plates:

Consider two parallel plates “ ” and “ ”
which are placed at a distance “ ” face to
face to each other. The positive charges are
uniformly distributed on plate “ ” and negative
charges are distributed on plate “ ”. As
shown in figure.
Let “ ” be the surface charge density of

positive plate “ ” and “ ” be the surface
charge density of negative plate “ ”. The
electric field intensity “ ” is uniform between the two plates and always from
positive plate to negative plate.
So the electric field intensity due to positive plate “ ” will be;
()
And the electric field intensity due to positive plate “ ” will be;
( )
Now total electric field intensity due to two oppositely charge plates “ ” and
“ ” will be;
In vector form;
⃗⃗ ̂
This is the electric field intensity due to two oppositely charge plates when the
medium between them is air.
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL:
The amount of work needed to move a unit positive charge from one point to
another against electric field is called “Electric Potential”, mathematically is given
by;
 Explanation:
Consider a uniform electric field of
intensity“ ” between two oppositely charge
plates.
A unit positive charge “ ” is placed

between these plates then it move freely
from positive plate “ ” to negative plate
“ ” but if we move this unit positive
charge “ ” from negative plate “ ” to
positive plate “ ” against the electric field, a
work will be done, this work is measured in term of potential difference
between plates “ ” and “ ”.
If “ ” and “ ” are the potential difference of plates “ ” and “ ” and

“ ” is the work done from plates “ ” and “ ” against the electric field
“ ” then mathematically, the work done per unit positive charge is called
“Electric Potential” and is given by;
 Unit of Electric Potential:

The unit of electric potential is “Volt” and is define as;
If one joule of work is done in moving a charge of one coulomb against
electric filed the electric potential will be one volt, mathematically;
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:

The difference of the electric potential between two points is called “Electric
Potential Difference”, its unit is “Volt”. And is given by;
 ELCTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OR ELECTROSTATIC

POTENTIAL ENERGY:
The energy which is required to move a charge “” from one point to another
point against electric field is called “Electric Potential Energy” or “Electrostatic
Potential Energy”. Mathematically is given by;
We know that;
The “ ” is work done per unit positive charge, this work done is basically
energy which required to move the electric charge from one point to another
point against electric field, the energy denoted by “ ” then above equation is
given by;
( )
Where “ ” and “ ” represent the potential energies at points “ ” and

“ ” respectively. The electric potential energy can be written as;
 ELECTRIC POTENTAIL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE AT ANY

POINT OR ABSOLUTE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY:
The amount of work done to brining (moving) a unit positive charge from
infinity to the point in an electric field is called “Absolute Electric Potential”.
 Explanation:
Consider an electric field intensity “ ”, a unit positive charge is placed at a
point “ ”. We want to displace this charge from point “ ” to point “ ”,
we have divided the whole displacement into small displacement each of magnitude
Work done;
The electric potential between points “ ” and “ ”
will be;
And; then;
()
Where;
and Putting in Eq: ( ) we have;

And;
So;
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Putting Eq: in Eq: we will get;
Putting in Eq: ( ) we have;
( ) ( )
( )
( )
Squaring both sides;
( ) ( )
( )
Where “ ” then;
Similarly;
( ) ( )
( )
Putting “ ” in above
equation we have;
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Now total potential difference between point “ ” and point “ ” we will get;
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
If point “ ” lies on infinity then “ ” then we have;

And;
[ ] [ ]
So;
If “ ”, “ ” and “ ” then we have;
This is the electric potential at distance “ ” from the source charge “ ”.

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 ELECTRIC FIELD and POTENTIAL GRADIENT:

The rate of change of electric potential “ ” with respect to displacement
“ ” is called “Potential Gradient”, which is equal to electric field intensity
“ ”. Mathematically is given by;
Where “ ” is the potential gradient and “ ” is the electric field intensity. It

is basically the relationship between the electric field intensity “ ” and electric
potential “ ”.
Consider two oppositely charge plates i.e.
positive plate “ ” and negative plate “ ”,
then potential difference between them is;
()
Where “ ” is the work done in moving

a unit positive charge “ ” from negative
plate “ ” to positive plate “ ” against
electric filed intensity “ ”. So;
( )
Where negative sign shows that the work done on the unit positive charge is
against the electric field intensity. Putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get;
Dividing both sides on “ ” we will get;

 THE ELECTRON VOLT:

It is the unit of energy which is defined as;
It is the amount of energy gain or loses by the electron to move in an
electric field from one place to another place called “Electron Volt”.
If the charge of electron is “ ” and it is moving in an electric field of

“ ”, then the amount of energy required to move the electron in an
electric field.
And;
This is the amount of energy required for electron to move in an electric field.
 CAPACITOR:
The device which is used to store the electric
charge is called “Capacitor”.
 Construction:
Capacitor consists of two parallel plates which
are placed face to face each other. One plate
is connected with positive terminal of the
battery and other plate is connected with
negative terminal of the battery. As shown
in figure.
 Working:
When the voltage “ ” is applied then

positive charges “ ” are stored on one
plate and negative charges “ ” are stored
on another plate. It is found experimentally
that the amount charge “ ” stored on the
plates of capacitor is directly proportional to
the applied voltage “ ” i.e.
Where “ ” is constant called “Capacitance of

Capacitor”.
 Unit of Capacitance (Farad):

The unit of capacitance of capacitor is
“Farad” and define as;
If one coulomb “ ” of charge store on each plates of capacitor due to one

volt “ ” then the capacitance of this capacitor will be one Farad “ ”
denoted “ ” by. Mathematically;
 CAPACITANCE of a PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR:

Consider two parallel plates of a capacitor
which are separated at a distance “ ” and
both are connected with voltage source “ ”.
If voltage “ ” is applied then the electric
field intensity “ ” is produced between the
plates, now from the potential gradient;
Where “ ” and “ ” then;
()
But according to the 5th application of Gauss’s
law, we know that the electric filed intensity
due to two oppositely charge plates are given
by;
And surface charge density is given by; then above equation becomes;
( )
Putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get; ()
( )
Where “ ” is the electric permittivity of free space and “ ” is the area of

the plate of capacitor. As shown in above figure.
( )
But from the capacitor relation we know that i.e.
( )
Comparing Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we have;
Inverted the equation we have;
( )
From this equation it is clear that the capacitance “ ” of capacitor depends on

area “ ” i.e. “ ”, permittivity “ ” of a medium i.e. “ ” and
distance “ ” i.e. “ ” between the plates of capacitor. This is the
capacitance of parallel plate capacitor when the medium between the plates is air
or vacuum.
 CAPACITANCE of a PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR when

DIELECTRIC between them:
If the medium between the plates is other than air
or vacuum i.e. dielectric medium is placed between the
plates of capacitor, if the permittivity of the dielectric
medium is “ ” then the voltage is given by;
( )
And capacitor relation is given by;
( )
( )
( )
Inverted the equation we have;
[ ] ( )
From Eq: ( ) we know that;
( )
[ ]
( )
From this equation it is clear that the capacitance of capacitor with dielectric is
greater than “ ” time from the capacitance of capacitor with air or vacuum.
From Eq: ( ) the relative permittivity in term of capacitance is given by;
The ration between the capacitance of capacitor with medium “ ” to the

capacitance of capacitor with vacuum “ ” is called to the dielectric permittivity
“ ”.
 ELECTRIC POLARIZATION:
The separation of center of positive charge and the center of negative charge in
a material by a sufficiently high electric field is called “Electric Polarization”.
In an atom positive charge (Protons)
present in nucleus and negative charge
(Electrons) present in specific orbit, both
charges are coincide. When the electric
field is applied then the electric is
moving against the electric field due small
mass of an electron. So the charge
becomes separated. As shown in figure
EP1.
When the molecules of the dielectric medium are placed to
an electric field between the plates of capacitor then
two types of charges that is positive and negative are
produced on it. The positive charges are attracted by the
negative plate of a capacitor and negative charges are
attracted by the positive plate of a capacitor. As shown
in figure EP2.
The dielectric is said to be polarized material and the
process is called “Electric Polarization”.
Due to electric polarization, the capacitance of a capacitor
increases and the surface charge density decrease, which
decreases the intensity of electric field “ ” and potential
difference “ ” between the plates.
 ELECTRIC DIPOLE:
A couple of opposite charges “ ” and “ ” which is equal in magnitude
separated by a small distance “ ” is called Electric Dipole”. It is denoted by
“ ” and mathematically is given by;
⃗⃗ ⃗
Electric dipole is vector quantity. The direction of electric dipole is from negative
charge to positive charge. Its unit is Coulomb meter “ ”. Dipole created by
the process of electric polarization. As shown in figure P1.
The mid-point of the charges “ ” and “ ” is called

center of dipole. The algebraic sum of the charges “ ”
and “ ” on the dipole “ ” is zero and electric field
“ ” of the dipole is not zero, thus the electric field
“ ” of the dipoles is added.
 ENERGY STORE in a CAPACITPOR:

The energy stored per unit volume in a capacitor is directly proportional to the
square of the electric field intensity “ ” i.e.
 Explanation:
Let us consider an uncharged capacitor of capacitance
“ ” initially the voltage “ ”, but when it is
connected with the battery, then it becomes charged with
the final voltage “ ” by depositing a charge “ ”
on its each plates, the average potential difference will
be;
( )
But energy stored in a capacitor is;

Putting the “ ” in above equation we have:
And capacitor relation: putting in above equation we will get;
( ) ( )
Where “” is the capacitance of a capacitor, when the medium between the

plates of a capacitor is other than air i.e. dielectric medium then;
These values putting in Eq: ( ) we will get;
( )
( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )
This is the energy store in a capacitor.
Now dividing Eq: ( ) by “ ” and we will get energy store per volume;
( )( ) ( )
( )
And energy store per volume is called energy density and denoted by “ ” then;
Keeping “ ” is constant we have;
 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF CAPACITPOR:
 Charging of a Capacitor:
Capacitor can be charged and discharged by a
circuit which is called “Resistive Capacitance
(RC) Circuit”. In RC circuit the resistance
“ ” and capacitance “ ” are connected in
series with the battery of voltage “ ”.
As shown in figure.
When the voltage “ ” is applied and

switch “ ” is connected with “ ” then
capacitor “ ” is charging through resistance
“ ”, but the capacitor is not charging
immediately, it charging gradually and get
value “ ”. As shown in figure cc2.
At time “ ” then charge on plate of

capacitor is “ ” it increases gradually
with time till its reaches it equilibrium value
the voltage can be find from the capacitor
relation i.e.
And;
( )
When the voltage is applied then current is flow through the resistance “ ” and
is given by;
( )
By Ohm’s law;
( )
( )
( )
And from Eq: ( ) “ ” putting in above equation we have;
This equation is called “Time Constant” and as define as; “The time required for
capacitor to deposited “ ” or “ ” of the equilibrium charge “ ” is
called Time constant”.
Exponentially the charging of a capacitor is given by the relation;
( )
Putting the value of time constant i.e. “ ”; we have;
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
 Discharging of a Capacitor:
The discharging of a capacitor is shown
in figure by making switch “ ” off
from “ ” and connected with “ ”. The
discharging of a capacitor started at
time “ ” when charge “ ”
and decreases gradually to zero after
some time. As shown in figure.
Exponentially the discharging of a
capacitor is given by;
Putting the value of time constant i.e.

“ ”; we have;
( )
( )
 Uses:
The charging and discharging
of a capacitor is used in
automobile shield wiper
which works automatically
after small interval of time.
This on and off time of
the wiper is based on the
time constant of RC-circuit.
CHAPTER NO.11
ELECTROSTATIC
SHORT ANSWERS QUESTIONS
Q.NO.1: The electric potential is constant through a given region of space. Is

the electric field zero or non-zero in this region? Explain.
Answer: The electric will be zero in a given region of space where the
electric potential is constant because electric potential consist of higher and lower
potential.
The relation between electric field and electric potential is given by;
If the electric potential is constant in a given region of space, so change in

electric potential is zero i.e. so;
It shows that the electric field is zero in a given region of space where
electric potential is constant.
Q.No.2: If a point charge “ ” of mass “ ” is released in

anon-uniform electric field with field line pointing in the same
direction, will it make a rectilinear motion?
Answer: If a point charge “ ” of mass “ ”is released in a

non-uniform electric field of positive charge with field lines pointing
in the same direction, then a repulsive force “ ” is acting on
it, then the point charge “ ” will make rectilinear motion.
The electric field lines show the direction of electric field intensity.
Q.No.3: What is the relationship between voltage and energy? More precisely,
what is the relationship between potential difference and electric potential energy?
Answer: Voltage or electric potential between two points is defined as, “The
work done per unit charge against the electric field is bringing it from lower
to higher potential”. Mathematically;
Electric potential exist between two points whether test charge is present or
not while electric potential energy is the amount of energy stored in a unit
charge to do work to move it from lower to higher potential against the
electric field. Mathematically; electric potential energy can be written as;
The unit of electric potential or voltage is “Volt” while the unit of electric field
energy is “Joule”.
Q.No.4: Voltages are always measured between two points. Why?
Answer: Voltages are always measured between two points, because voltage or
electric potential difference is always exist between two points due to potential
difference. One point is at higher potential while another point is at lower
potential that is why voltage or potential difference is always measured between
two points.
Q.No.5: How are units of volts and electron volts related? How do they differ?
Answer: Volt: Volt is the unit of voltage or electric potential and is defined
as; “If one joule of work is done on a charge of one coulomb to move from
a point at lower potential to the point at higher potential against the electric
field i.e.
Electron Volt: Electron volt is the amount of energy gained or lost by the
electron when it moves through a potential difference of one volt. It is denoted
by “ ” and is equal to “ ” i.e.
Q.No.6: In what region of space is the potential due to uniform charge sphere
the same as that of a point charge? In what region does it differ that of a
point charge?
Answer: Consider a uniform charge sphere of radius

“ ” and a point “ ” which lies outside a distance
“ ” from the charge sphere. As shown in figure.
At point “ ” outside from the charge sphere, the

potential due to uniform charge sphere is given by;
()
But the point “ ” lies inside a charge sphere of radius “ ”, then the
potential due to uniform charge sphere is given by;
( )
Now a point “ ” from a point charge “ ” at a distance “ ”, then the

potential due to point charge is given by;
( )
By comparing Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we see that the potential due to uniform
charge sphere and potential due to point charge are the same, where “ ”.
But by comparing Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we see that at point a “ ” lies inside
a charge sphere, the potential due to uniform charge sphere of a distance “ ”
and potential due to point charge are the different, where distance from the
point charge is “ ”.
Q.No.7: Can the potential of non-uniform charge sphere be the same as that
of a point charge? Explain.
Answer: The potential due to point charge is given by;
()
The potential due to a point charge in uniform field is constant for the same
value of “ ”.
Now the potential due to non-uniform charge sphere is given by:
( )
As the field is non-uniform, so “ ” as well as “ ” varies. So the potential

“ ” is also varies.
Hence the potential due to non-uniform charge sphere and due to point charge
are not same.
Q.No.8: What is an equipotential line and equipotential surface?
Answer: Equipotential Surface:

The surface at which all the points are exist at
the same potential is called “Equipotential Surface”. This
means that, the potential difference between any two points
on this surface is zero and no work is required to move a
charge at constant speed on an equipotential surface.
Equipotential surface is associated with any charges is
always perpendicular to the electric field at any point.
Equipotential Line:
Those lines which represent the equipotential surface are
called “Equipotential Lines”. As shown in figure:
These lines are in the form of concentric circle (the circles which has only one
center point) line. All the points exist in each line are at the same potential.
These equipotential lines are also always perpendicular to the electric field lines.
Q.No.9: Can different equipotential lines cross? Explain.
Answer: As equipotential lines exist many point which are at the same potential.
No two points in each line are at different potential. So the potential difference
is equipotential lines is zero.
The electric field lines in equipotential surface have the same direction and will
never cross each other.
If they did cross each other, then there will be two directions (different
direction) of electric field which is not possible.
Q.No.10: Water has a large dielectric constant, but it is rarely used in a

capacitors. Explain. Why?
Answer: the water rarely used in a capacitor due to the following reasons.
1. It consists of non-polar molecules.

2. Its molecules have no electric dipoles moment in the absence of external
electric field.
3. It is corrosive in nature and can reduce the capacity of a capacitor.
4. Water filled the separation between the plates of a capacitor when it is
used as a dielectric medium and behaves like a conductor. As a result the
capacitor will discharge.
Due to the above given reasons, water is rarely used in capacitor.
Q.No.12: Sketch the graph of potential difference against time for;
a) A discharging capacitor
b) A charging capacitor
Answer: a). The discharging of a capacitor is a

gradually process. So the equation of discharging
the capacitor is given by;
Dividing both sides by “ ” we will get;
By putting different value of time “ ”, i.e. “ ”, we get

different value of voltage or potential difference “ ”. As shown in figure.
b). The charging of a capacitor is also a gradually process. So the equation of

charging the capacitor is given by;
( )
( ) ( )
By putting different value of time “ ”, i.e. “ ”, we get

different value of voltage or potential difference “ ”. As shown in figure.
Q.No.14: Explain why capacitors are of little use for storage energy for
normal domestic purpose of lighting heating and so on?
Answer: Due to the following reasons, the capacitor are generally not used for
storage energy for normal domestic purpose of lighting heat and soon;
1. As compare to batteries, the capacitor stored very small energy per unit
area.
2. In complex electronic control circuit, it lost more energy as compare to the
battery.
3. The capacitor possess high self-discharge property, such high rate of
discharging not occur in ordinary battery.
CHAPTER NO. 12
ELECTRICITY
 ELECTRICITY:
The branch of physics which deals with study of properties of charge in motion
is called “Electricity or Electro-Dynamics”.
 OHM’S LAW:
Georg Simon Ohm’s measured the relation between voltage (potential difference)
and current (motion of charge) in the electric circuit and present in the form of
a law called “Ohm’s Law”, which is state that;
“The magnitude of electric current flowing through a circuit is directly proportional
to the voltage (potential difference) across the ends of the conductor provided
the physical state of the conductor is remains
unchanged”.
Mathematically, if “ ” is the voltage applied

and “ ” is the current flowing across the
circuit then according to Ohm’s law;
Where “ ” is constant called “electrical resistance and define as “the opposition

Offered to the flow of current in a conductor called Electrical Resistance”.
Mathematically is given by;
The unit of electrical resistance is Ohm and denoted by “ ”.

For a conductor that obeys Ohm’s law, a graph of current “ ” as a function

of voltage “ ” is a straight line passing through the origin. As shown in
figure.
As “ ” is constant the slope is constant for Ohmic

conductor.
1. If the graph between voltage “ ” and current

“ ” is a straight line, then it shows that, the
resistance in the circuit is constant and the device is
called ohmic device. For example; metallic conductor.
“ ” becomes curve after some time, then it shows
that, the resistance in the circuit increases with time
and the device is called non-ohmic device. For
example; Filament of electric bulb. As shown in
figure OO3.
“ ” becomes curve after some time, then it shows
that, the resistance in the circuit decreases with
time and the device is called non-ohmic device. For
example; thermistor and semiconductor. As shown in
figure OO4.
 ELECRICAL RESISTANCE:
The opposition offer to the flow of charge in a metallic conductor is called
“Electrical Resistance”. oR;
The property of metallic conductor to oppose the flow of charge is called
“Electrical Resistance”.
The electrical resistance depends on the nature of metallic conductor.
 Example:
Conductor like aluminum, copper offered very small resistance to the flow of
charge, while insulator like rubber, plastic or glass etc. offered very large
resistance.
The resistance of semi-conductor materials like germanium or silicon lies between
conductor and insulator.
Mathematically electrical resistance can be written as from ohm’s law;
In electronic circuit, the resistance which shows in figure
 Unit of Electrical Resistance:
In SI the unit of electrical resistance is ohm denoted by “ ” and is given by;

If a current of one ampere is flow through a circuit due to one volt, then the
resistance of a conductor will be one ohm.
 FACTOR UPON WHICH RESISTANCE DEPENDS:

The resistance of a conductor depends on the following factors;
1. Length:
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length of a
conductor i.e.
( )
2. Area:
The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the area of a
conductor i.e.
( )
Combining Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we have;
Where “ ” is called resistivity of a conductor.

Resistance of a conductor is also depends the nature of the conductor and
temperature.
 EFFECT of TEMPERATURE on RESISTANCE:

The resistance of a metallic conductor increases with increases the temperature,
its means that the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the
temperature of a conductor.
 Explanation:
When current flowing through a conductor then the some of the free electrons
collides with the lattice atoms and loses their kinetic energy in the form of a
heat, this heat energy is absorbed by the lattice atoms due to which its
amplitude of vibration increases.
Hence the chances of collision of free electrons with lattice atoms increases, so
lattice atoms offered more resistance to the flow of free electron (current).
From this discussion it is clear that, the resistance of a conductor increases with
increases the temperature.
 Note:
The resistance of insulators and semi-conductors decreases with increases the
temperature.
 TEMPERATURE CO-EFFICIENT of RESISTANCE:

The resistance of a conductor depends on the nature of the conductor.
If “ ” is the resistance of a conductor at “ ” temperature and “ ” is

the resistance of a conductor at “ ” temperature, then change in resistance
is;
The change in resistance is directly proportional to the initial resistance i.e.
()
And the change in resistance is directly proportional to the change in temperature
i.e.
( )
()
( )
Combining Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we have;
( )
Where “ ” is called temperature co-efficient of resistance and is given by;
The temperature co-efficient of resistance “ ” is define as

“The change in resistance per unit resistance, per change in temperature, and in
SI its unit is “ ”
Now from Eq: ( ) we will get;
( )
( )
( )
From this equation we can find the resistance “ ” of a conductor at “ ”.

 WIRE WOUND VARIABLE RESISTANCE:

The type of resistance which works on the principle that, if the length of a
wire (conductor) increases, its resistance will also be increases and vice versa,
because the resistance of a wire depends on the length of a wire.
It is of two types:
1. Resistance Box:
It is high accuracy and high stability resistor, it works on the principle that, if
the length of a wire (conductor) increases, its resistance will also be increases
and vice versa. The wire is made from alloys of eureka, manganic and
constantan. This wire is wound in the coil and each coil is connected with plug.
It is used to control the current n the circuit.
2. Rheostat:
It is also called variable resistor whose value can be changed according to our
need and desires which consist of an insulated cylinder, on which a manganic
wire is wound in large number of turns.
It works on the principle that, if the length of a wire (conductor) increases, its
resistance will also be increases and vice versa.
It consists of two fixed terminals “ ”

and “ ” and one variable terminal “ ”
which can slide in contact with wire
wound. As shown in figure.
If the load is connected between a fixed
terminal “ ” and variable terminal “ ”
and then terminal “ ” slides towards
terminal “ ”, the length of a wire
wound decreases as well as the resistance
will also be decreases between terminals
“ ” and “ ”.
Buy the variable terminal “ ” slides away from terminal “ ” and slides
towards terminal “ ”, the length of a wire wound increases as well as the
resistance will also be increases between terminals “ ” and “ ”.
Rheostat is used to control the current in the circuit.
 POTENTIAL DIVIDER:
It is an electronic circuit which is used to obtain the desire potential difference
(Voltage) from a source of an EMF (Electro Motive Force) is called “Potential
Divider”.
 Explanation:
Consider a circuit in which a source of EMF
(voltage) “ ” is connected with the external
resistor “ ”, and desire voltage “ ” and
resistance “ ” two fixed terminals “ ” and
“ ” and one variable terminal “ ”. As shown in
figure.
When the voltage (EMF) “ ” is applied then

current is produced, then from ohm’s law we know
that;
()
When the variable terminal “ ” is moving towards terminal “ ” then the

length of a wire between terminals “ ” and “ ” increases as well as the
resistance will also increases and the desired voltage “ ” is obtained minimum
because the more voltage is drop due to high resistance.
But the variable terminal “ ” is moving towards terminal “ ” then the length
of a wire between terminals “ ” and “ ” decreases as well as the
resistance will also decreases and again the desired voltage “ ” is obtained
maximum because the small voltage is drop due to low resistance.
The resistance between terminals “ ” and “ ” is “ ” and the potential

difference or voltage is “ ”. So according to ohm’s law we know that;
( )
And Eq: ( );
()
( )
( ) ( )
This is the equation to get the desired voltage from

the potential divider circuit.
The value of desired voltage “ ” depends on the

value of resistance “ ”.
If the resistance “ ” becomes equal to the

external resistance “ ” then the desires voltage is
maximum and become equal to the EMF “ ”
i.e. then we have from Eq: ( );
( ) ( )
( )
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS:
For simple circuit we used the law of Ohm but for complex circuit we used a
Kirchhoff’s laws.
There two Kirchhoff’s laws;
1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).
2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

This law state that, “The algebraic sum of all currents at the junction point is
equal to zero”. i.e.
This means that, “The amount of current flowing towards the junction must be
equal to the amount of current flowing away from the junction”.
 Explanation:
Consider a circuit in which four resistance “ ”, “ ”, “ ” and “ ” are

joined together at a point “ ” called junction
point. As shown in figure.
The currents “ ” and “ ” are flowing

across the resistances “ ” and “ ” is
respectively, which are flowing towards the
junction and are taken to be positive i.e. “ ”
and “ ”, while the currents “ ” and “ ”
are flowing across the resistances “ ” and
“ ” is respectively, which are flowing away
from the junction and are taken to be negative
i.e. “ ” and “ ”. Then according to the statement of KCL;
( ) ( )
From this equation it is clear that, “The number of charge flowing towards the
junction must be equal to the number of charge flowing away from the junction”.
So this is also called “Law of Conservation of Charges”.
2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

This law state that, “The algebraic sum of all the voltages changes or drop
across the closed loop or in circuit is equal to the zero”. i.e.
This means that, “The amount of energy supplied to a circuit must be equal to
the energy dissipation in the resistor”.
 Explanation:
Consider a closed loop or circuit “ ” in which two resistance “ ” and

“ ” and two voltages “ ” and “ ” such that “ ” is greater than
“ ” i.e. “ ”. So the current flowing through the circuit is due to
When the electric current is flowing
due to “ ”, then the charge will
move from the higher to lower
potential and will gain the energy in
the form of “ ” and is taken to
be positive i.e. “ ”
When the same charges is passing
through resistance “ ”, then it
losses their energy in the form of
“ ” and is taken to be
negative i.e. “ ”.
These charges are further passing through “ ” which is opposite to the

charges flow due to voltage “ ” and taken to be negative i.e. “ ”.
When the same charges is passing through resistance “ ”, then it losses their
energy in the form of “ ” and is taken to be negative i.e. “ ”.
Then according to the statement of KVL;
( ) ( ) ( )
From this equation it is clear that, “The amount of energy supplied to a circuit
must be equal to the energy dissipation in the resistor”.
So this is also called “Law of Conservation of Energy”.
 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE:
The electric circuit which is used to calculate the unknown resistance of the
circuit is called “Wheatstone Bridge”, design by Charles Wheatstone.
 Explanation:
Consider a bridge circuit in which
three known resistances “ ”,
“ ” and “ ” and one
unknown resistance “ ” are
connected with the voltage source
“ ” and galvanic-meter “ ”. As
shown in figure.
When the voltage is applied then
the current “ ” is produce in
the circuit.
So at point “ ” this current is

divided into two parts i.e. the
current “ ” is flowing across
resistance “ ” and the remaining
current “ ” is flowing across
resistance “ ”.
At point “ ” the current “ ”

again is divided into two parts i.e.
the current “ ” is flowing across
the galvanic-meter “ ” the
remaining current “ ” is
flowing across resistance “ ”
towards point “ ”. Also at point “ ” the total current “ ” is
flowing across resistance “ ” towards point “ ”. Thus the net current at
point “ ” is given by;
Hence the circuit is balanced.

Now disconnect the galvanic-
meter “ ” by opening the key
and consider So at point “ ”
the current “ ” is divided into
two parts i.e. the current “ ”
is flowing across resistance
“ ” and the remaining current
“ ” is flowing across
resistance “ ”.
At point “ ” the same current

“ ” is flowing across
resistance “ ” towards point
“ ”.
Also at point “ ” the net current “ ” is flowing across resistance “ ”

towards point “ ”.
From the diagram, we see that, the resistances “ ” and “ ” are

connected in parallel, so their voltages are same;
( ) ()
Also the resistances “ ” and “ ”

are connected in parallel, so their
voltages are same;
( ) ( )
Now dividing Eq: ( ) by Eq: ( ) we

will get;
( )
( )
( )
From this equation find unknown resistance “ ” so;
Putting the values of resistance “ ”, “ ”

and “ ” then the resistance “ ” can be
easily calculated.
From Eq: ( ) we find any unknown resistance

i.e. “ ”, “ ”, “ ” and “ ”
 POTENTIO-METER:
A simple device which is used to compare and measured the unknown potential
difference (voltage) of the cell (battery) is called “Potentio-Meter”.
 Principle:
It works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge.
 Construction & Working:
It consists of a wooden board, which consists of a wire of length “

” and resistance “ ”. This wire is connected with the power
supply of an EMF “ ”. As shown in figure.
If the voltage “ ” is applied then the current “ ”is produced in resistance

“ ”, so according to Ohm’s law
we know that;
()
Now connect a cell (battery) of

unknown potential “ ” in opposite
direction with the power supply
“ ”. The galvanic-meter gives full
scale deflection.
If the J-key is at point “ ” then

the potential drop is zero, but if
the J-key slides on the resistance “ ” from point “ ” towards point “ ”,
then the current in the galvanic-meter decreases. A point will come at which
the current in the galvanic-meter becomes zero called “Null Point” denoted by
point “ ”. The resistance between points “ ” and “ ” is denoted by “ ”
and its length is “ ”, then according to Ohm’s law, the voltage drop across
resistance “ ” due to unknown potential “ ” is;
( )
From Eq: ( ) we know that;
()
And Eq: ( ) is given by;
( )
( )
( ) ( )
As;
Putting above equations in Eq: ( ) we will get;
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
By putting the values of “ ”, “ ” and “ ” we can measured or calculate the

unknown potential “ ’ of the cell (battery).
CHAPTER NO.12
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Q.NO.2: The relationship “ ” tells us that the resistance of a conductor

is directly proportional to the potential difference applied to it. What do you
think of this proportion?
Answer: The relation “ ” does not means that the resistance of a

conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied to it, because
resistance “ ” does not depends on potential difference or voltage “ ”.
Resistance “ ” depends on the length “ ” and area “ ” of a conductor i.e.
“ ” shows that, if the value of potential difference or voltage “ ”

increases in the circuit, the current “ ” is also increased (ohm’s law), as a
result, the ration of voltage “ ” and current “ ” gives constant value of
resistance “ ”.
Q.No.7: The loop rule is based on the conservation of energy principle and the
junction rule on the conservation of charge principle. Explain just how these are
based on these principles?
Answer: Loop Rule:

Loop rule state that. “The energy delivered to the closed circuit (loop)
must be equal to the energy dissipation in the circuit” i.e.
∑ ∑
This is also called Kirchhoff’s voltage law “KVL” which state that, “The
algebraic sum of all voltage drops across the closed loop equal to zero”.
i.e.“ ∑ ”
Voltage is basically energy, so the loop rule or Kirchhoff’s voltage law is

manifestation of law of conservation of energy.
Junction Rule:
Junction rule state that, “The current entering into the junction is equal to the
current leaving the junction” i.e.
∑ ∑
This is also called Kirchhoff’s Current law “KCL” which state that, “The algebraic
sum of all Currents at the junction point is equal to zero”. i.e.“ ∑ ”
Current is basically the flow of charge per unit time. So the junction rule
Kirchhoff’s current law is manifestation of law of conservation of charge. i.e.
the number of charge entering to the junction must be equal to the number of
charge leaving the junction.
Q.No.8: Why rise in temperature of a conductor is accompanied by a rise in the

resistance?
Answer: Conductor is a material which consists of molecules, these molecules are

made of atoms called lattice atom. These atoms are vibrating up and down about
their means position.
When the temperature of a conductor increases (rise) then the kinetic energy as
well as the amplitude of the vibration of an atom also increases due to which
the chance of the collision of free electron and lattice atoms increases. So the
lattice atoms offer more resistance to the flow of free electrons. As shown in
figure.
CHAPTER NO. 13
ELECTROMAGNETISM
 ELECTROMAGNETISM:
The branch of physics which deals with the study of properties of electro and
magnetism i.e. changing electric field produced a magnetic field and a change in
magnetic field produced an electric field.
 FORCE on a CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR in UNIFORM

MAGNETIC FIELD:
When a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field then sideway magnetic
force is acting on a conductor.
Consider a conductor of length “ ” which

is placed perpendicular in uniform magnetic
field of strength “ ”. As shown in figure.
When the current is flowing in a conductor,
then a magnetic field is produced around it
in the form of concentric circle. The
magnetic field of permanent magnetic and the
magnetic field of current carrying conductor interact
with each other and produced a sideway magnetic
force.
Force is a vector quantity, and has a specific
direction. The direction of this force can be
determined by using Left Hand Fleming rule.
The fore figure shows the direction of magnetic
field strength “ ”, the middle figure shows the
direction of current “ ” while the thumb shows the
direction of magnetic force “ ”.
The magnitude of this force depends on the following factors i.e.
1. Magnetic force “ ” is directly proportional to the magnitude of current

“ ” i.e.
()
2. Magnetic force “ ” is directly proportional to the length of a conductor
“ ” i.e.
( )
3. Magnetic force “ ” is directly proportional to the strength of magnetic

field “ ” i.e.
( )
Combining Eq: ( ), Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we will get;
( )
As;
( ) ( )
( )
Where “ ” is the angle between length “ ” of a conductor and magnetic field

strength “ ”. In vector form the above Eq: ( ) can be written as;
⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ( )
 CASE# 1:
If the wire is placed parallel to the magnetic field then the angle between
length “ ” of wire and magnetic field “ ” is zero i.e. “ ”. So;
( )
No force acting on the conductor.

 CASE# 2:
If the wire is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field then the angle between
length “ ” of wire and magnetic field “ ” is “ ” i.e. “ ”. So;
( )
Maximum force is acting on the conductor.
 Unit of Magnetic Field Strength:
The unit of magnetic field strength “ ” is “Tesla” denoted by “ ” and is

given by;
Tesla is defined as, “If a force of one newton “ ” acts on a wire of

length “ ” one meter which is placed perpendicular and a current “ ” of one
ampere is flowing through it, then the magnetic field will be one tesla “ ”.
 MAGNETIC FLUX:
Magnetic flux is actually the flow of the magnetic field line of force through an
imaginary fixed area in the field. So magnetic flux is defined as; “The number
of magnetic field lines of forces passes through the surface of vector area is
called Magnetic Flux”.
Magnetic flux is denoted by “ ”. If “ ⃗⃗ ” is the magnetic field intensity of

the lines of force and “ ⃗⃗ ” is the area of through which these lines are
passing, then mathematically electric flux “ ” is defined as, “The scalar (Dot)
product of magnetic field intensity “ ⃗⃗ ” and vector area “ ⃗⃗ ”. i.e.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Where “ ” is the angle between magnetic field intensity “ ⃗⃗ ” and vector area
“ ⃗⃗ ”. Magnetic flux is depends on magnetic field intensity “ ⃗⃗ ”, vector area
“ ⃗⃗ ” and angle “ ”.
 If the magnetic field intensity “ ⃗⃗ ” is stronger, then the magnetic flux

“ ” will be greater and vice versa.
 If the vector area “ ⃗⃗ ” is larger, the magnetic flux “ ” will be
greater and vice versa.
 Now there are some cases for the magnetic flux “ ”, through the
different surfaces means angle “ ”.
 UNIT of MAGNETIC FLUX:
The unit of magnetic flux “ ” is Weber denoted by “ ”and is given by;
CASE# 1:
If the vector area “ ⃗⃗ ” is placed inclined to the

magnetic lines of forces of intensity “ ⃗⃗ ”, then an
arbitrary angle “ ” is formed between “ ⃗⃗ ” and
“ ⃗⃗ ” which are given by;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( )
In this case electric flux “ ” depends on angle “ ”. As shown in figure: 1.

 CASE# 2:
If the vector area “ ⃗⃗ ” is placed perpendicular to the

direction of magnetic field lines of force of intensity
“ ⃗⃗ ”, and the angle between vector area “ ⃗⃗ ” and
magnetic field intensity “ ⃗⃗ ” is “ ”, then the
electric flux “ ” passes through a vector area is
zero or minimum and is given by; as shown in figure:
2.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
( )
 CASE# 3:
If the vector area “ ⃗⃗ ” is placed parallel to the

direction of magnetic lines of force of intensity
“ ⃗⃗ ”, and the angle between vector area “ ⃗⃗ ” and
magnetic field intensity “ ⃗⃗ ” is “ ”, then the
electric flux “ ” passes through a vector area is
maximum and is given by; as shown in figure:: 3.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

( )
 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY:

If the number of magnetic field line of force (magnetic flux “ ”) passing per
unit area of the surface called “Magnetic Flux Density” and mathematically is
given by;
 AMPERE’S LAW:
This law state that, “When the current is
flowing through the conducting wire, then a
magnetic field is produced around the
conducting wire in the form of concentric
circle (closed loop)”.
 Explanation:
It is found experimentally that, the magnitude
of magnetic field “ ” is directly proportional
to the magnitude of current “ ” flowing
through the conducting wire and inversely
proportional to the distance from the
conducting wire; mathematically;
() ( )
Combining Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we will get;
Where “ ” is called magnetic permeability of free space, it is the property of

the material to store magnetic energy in magnetic field.
Where “ ” is the circumference of a circle then above equation becomes.
⃗⃗
If we divided this circular path of length “ ” into a large number of small

circular paths of length “ ” then the above equation can be
written as;
∑ ⃗⃗
This is called “Ampere’s Law”. It is also called Ampere’s circuital law and is
define as; “The sum of the scalar (dot) product of magnetic field “ ⃗⃗ ” and
length “ ” of a conducting wire is equal to the permeability “ ” times of the
total current “ ” flowing through the conducting wire.”
 TORQUE on a CURRENT CARRYINF COIL/LOOP:

The turn effects of perpendicular force
which is acting on the coil/loop and
the coil/loop rotate a fixed axis is
known as “Torque”. OR:
The cross product of position vector
“ ⃗ ” and force “ ⃗ ” acting on the
body is called “Torque”, denoted by
“ ⃗ ” and mathematically is given by;
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Where “ ” and “ ”
then torque is maximum;
( )
 Unit & Dimension:
In SI the unit of torque is “ ”.
 Explanation:
Consider a rectangular coil “ ”

having “ ” number of turns has
length “ ” and width “ ” and
vector area “ ” is placed in a
uniform magnetic field density “ ” and the coil is connected to the power
supply. As shown in figure.
When the current is flowing through the conductor, then the magnetic field is
produced around the length “ ” and width “ ” in the form of concentric circle.
The side “ ” and side “ ” are perpendicular to the magnetic field density
“ ” and maximum force acting on these sides. While side “ ” and side
“ ” are parallel to the magnetic field density “ ” and no force acting on
these sides.
According to Fleming Left Hand rule the force on side “ ” is into the paper
and the force on side “ ” is outwards the paper. And both forces are equal
in magnitude but opposite to each other and couple force are produced due to
which torque is produce in the coil and
rotate a fixed axis in magnetic field
density “ ”.
The force on side “ ” is given by;
⃗ ⃗⃗
()
Similarly, the force on side “ ” is

given by;
( )
And the forces on sides “ ” and

“ ” is zero that as;
Net force acting on the coil is given by;
Putting Eq: and Eq: we will get;
( )
Now from Eq: ( ) torque is given by;
( )
From the figure “ ” is moment arm i.e. “ ”, putting the value of “ ”

and Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get;
( )
( )
Where the area of rectangular coil is; the

above equation becomes;
( )
For “ ” number of term then;
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Where angle “ ” is between magnetic field density “ ” and the vector area
“ ”.
CASE# 1:
If the vector area “ ⃗⃗ ” is placed inclined to the magnetic field density“ ⃗⃗ ”,

then an arbitrary angle “ ” is formed between “ ⃗⃗ ” and “ ⃗⃗ ” which are given
by;
⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
 CASE# 2:
If the vector area “ ⃗⃗ ” is placed perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field

density “ ⃗⃗ ”, and the angle between vector area “ ⃗⃗ ” and magnetic field density
“ ⃗⃗ ” is “ ”, then the torque “ ” is maximum on the coil/loop will be
maximum and is given by;

( )
 CASE# 3:
If the vector area “ ⃗⃗ ” is placed parallel to the direction of magnetic field

density “ ⃗⃗ ”, and the angle between vector area “ ⃗⃗ ” and magnetic field
density “ ⃗⃗ ” is “ ”, then the torque “ ” zero on the coil/loop and is given
by;
( )
 GALVANO-METER:
The electrical instrument which is used to detect and measure a small a sensitive
current in the circuit is called “Galvano-Metere”, invented by Galvanic.
 Principle:
Galvanometer works on the principle that torque is produced in a current carrying
coil/loop when it is placed in uniform magnetic field. i.e.
()
 Construction and Working:

A moving coil galvanometer consists of
rectangular coil “ ” of “ ” number of
turn, which is wounded around a solid cylinder,
suspended between concave shaped north pole
“ ” and south pole “ ” by means of a
fire metallic wire which carry a plane mirror
The lower end of the coil in attached with
spiral spring which also acts as current lead.
When the current is allowed to pass through
the coil, then it rotates between poles of
magnet and torque is produced in the coil
given by;
( )
This is called deflecting torque. This deflecting
torque produces twisting in a fire metallic
wire measured by “ ”, shown by mirror,
which is called restoring torque.
The fine metallic wire comes to rest when
the deflecting is balanced by restoring torque.
i.e.
( )
Where “ ” is constant.
( )
Where “ ( )” is keeping constant i.e. “ ( ) ”
Thus the current “ ” passing through the coil/loop of galvanometer is directly

proportional to the angle of twist or deflection angle “ ”.
 Sensitive Galvanometer:
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive, if a small current through the coil/loop
produces a very large deflection. This can be done by making “ ( )” very
small.

Contact No & Whataspp: 0346 198 36 30
Contact No: 0311 0 900 523
 AMMETER:
The electrical instrument which is used to measure a high or large current in the
circuit is called “Ammeter” or “Ampere-meter” design by Ampere.
 Principle:
Ammeter works on the principle of galvanometer.
It consist of galvanometer of resistance “ ”, which gives full scale deflection

at current “ ”, then according to ohm’s
law;
()
In order to convert this galvanometer

into an ammeter, connected low resistance
wire called “Shunt Resistance” denoted by
“ ” in parallel with galvanometer.
The shunt resistance “ ” provide

another path for the flow of current.
If current “ ” is the total current, then

“ ” is passing through the galvanometer and the remaining current “ ” is
passing through the shunt resistance “ ”, then according to ohm’s law the
voltage drops “ ” across the shunt resistance “ ” is given by;
( ) ( )
Since, the galvanometer resistance “ ” and shunt resistance “ ” are

connected in parallel, then the potential across these resistances are same i.e.
Putting Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) in above equation we will get;
( )
Find the shunt resistance we have;

( )
To measure the current in the circuit, ammeter is connected in series in the

circuit.
 VOLTMETER:
The electrical instrument which is used to measure a potential difference between
two terminals in the circuit is called “Volteter”.
 Principle:
Voltmeter works on the principle of galvanometer.
It consists of galvanometer of resistance “ ” which gives full scale deflection

at current “ ” in order to convert, this
galvanometer into voltmeter, connected a high
resistance “ ” in series with galvanometer.
As shown in figure.
The total resistance in the circuit is the sum
of galvanometer resistance and high resistance
i.e. “ ”. As “ ” is the current
flowing through galvanometer as well as the
high resistance “ ”, then according to ohm’s
law, the voltage across the circuit is given by;
( )
( )
To measure the potential difference across two terminals in the circuit, voltmeter
is connected in parallel in the circuit.
CHAPTER NO.13
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Q.NO.1: What is the force that conductor of length “ ” carrying a current

“ ”, experiences when placed in a magnetic field “ ”? What is the direction of
this force?
Answer: When a conductor of length “ ” carrying a current “ ” is placed

perpendicular to the uniform magnetic field “ ”, then the magnetic of current
carrying conductor interacts with the magnetic field of the permanent magnet of
the strength “ ”, then a side way magnetic force “ ” is produced which
depends on length “ ”, current “ ” and magnetic field strength “ ” and is
given by;
The direction of this force can be determined by using “Fleming Left Hand
Rule”. As shown in figure.
Q.No.2: What is the nature of force between two parallel current carrying
wires (in same direction)?
Answer: The force between two parallel current carrying wires in which the
current is flowing in the same direction
is attractive in nature.
Because the magnetic fields are produced
by these wires are opposite direction to
each other between them. Due to this
reason the magnetic field between them
is weaker. The magnetic field is always
directed from strong to weak magnetic
field. That is why it is attractive force
in nature between two parallel current
carrying wires. As shown in figure.
Q.No.6: An electron does not suffer any deflection while passing through a
region. Are you sure that there is no magnetic field?
Answer: When an electron passes through un-deflected through a region, where

the magnetic field is exist, then it shows that, the electron is moving parallel or
anti-parallel to the magnetic field. i.e. “ ” and “ ” respectively
between the velocity “ ” of electron and magnetic field “ ”, then no force is
acting on it, i.e.
And;
The second possibility is that, if the electric and magnetic field are exist
perpendicular to each other that counter balance the effect of each other, then a
charge particle (electron) is passing un-deflected through that region, because net
force on electron is equal to zero.
Q.No.11: A current carrying loop, free to turn, is placed in a uniform magnetic

field “ ”. What will be its orientation relative to magnetic field “ ”, in the
equilibrium state?
Answer: Torque is produced in a current carrying coil (loop), when it is placed

in uniform magnetic field “ ”, which is given by;
⃗⃗
Where “ ” is the angle between area “ ” and magnetic field “ ”.

The loop or coil will be in the state of equilibrium, if the torque acting on it is
zero.
If the plane of the coil or loop i.e. the area of the coil or loop is parallel
to the magnetic field, then the torque acting on it will be zero i.e.
“ ” between magnetic field “ ” and the area “ ” of the coil
or loop, then;
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗
From this equation we conclude that, the current carrying coil or loop will be in
a state of equilibrium, if it is plane is perpendicular to the magnetic field “ ”.
Q.No.12: How does a current carrying Coil behave

like a bar magnet?
Answer: When the current is passing through a

current carrying coil (solenoid), then a magnetic field
is produced around it, which is given by;
This magnetic field is strong and uniform inside a

current carrying coil (solenoid) and weaker outside it,
so this current carrying coil (solenoid) behave like a bar magnet, with its own
north and south poles. As shown in figure.
CHAPTER NO. 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
The process in which EMF is produced due to the relative motion of magnet
from the coil or coil from the magnet is called “Electromagnetic Induction”, and
the EMF produced by this process called “Induced EMF”, which produced induced
current in the coil.
 Explanation:
Consider a coil with galvanometer and magnet.
When both, the coil and magnet are at rest,
the magnetic lines (magnetic flux) are passed
through the coil at constant rate i.e. no
change in magnetic flux occur through the coil,
then no EMF id produced in the coil.
But when the coil is at rest and magnet is

moving towards or away from the coil, the
magnetic flux is change through the coil which
induced an EMF in the coil, due to this
induced EMF, induced current is produced in
the coil, shown by the galvanometer deflection.
As shown in figure 1.
Also when the magnet is at rest and the
coil is moving towards or away from the
magnet, again the magnetic flux is change through the coil which induced an EMF
in the coil, due to this induced EMF, induced current is produced in the coil,
shown by the galvanometer deflection. As shown in figure 1.
This whole process is called “Electromagnetic Induction”. From electromagnetic
Induction process produced Alternating Voltage (AC Voltage) and Current (AC
Current).
 FARADAY’S LAW of ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
In the year “ ” a most important electrical discovery was made by “Michal

Faraday”.
This law state that; “The magnitude of
induced EMF is directly proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux through the
coil”.
If “ ” is the induced EMF and “ ” is

the negative rate of change of magnetic flux
through the coil, then mathematically it Can
be written as;
( )
Where “ ” is the number of turns in the coil, the negative sign is putting
according to “Lenz’s Law”, which shows that, “The induced EMF or induced
Current is always in the opposite direction to its cause”.
The above equation is called “Faraday Law of Electromagnetic Induction”.
Faraday proposed two laws of electromagnetic induction i.e.
1. A changing magnetic field, induced an electromagnetic force in a conductor.

2. The electromagnetic force is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic field.
There is no change in
magnetic flux, noo biya kena
pa tiyara ke.
The first part of this sentence is in English language,
and the second part is in Pashto Language.
My great Teacher:
Professor: Zahir Shah Sahib
 LENZ’S LAW:
A Germen scientist HEF Lenz stated the law, which state that, “The induced
EMF or induced current produced in a coil is always in opposite direction to its
cause, due to which it is produced”. OR
“The direction of induced EMF or induced current is such that as it is opposes
to its cause, which producing it”.
 Explanation:
Consider a coil with a galvanometer and a bar magnetic. If the north “ ” pole
of the magnetic is pushed towards the coil, then magnetic lines increases through
the coil, due to which the side of the coil, towards the north “ ” pole of a
magnetic, becomes north “ ” pole, and same poles are created which repel each
other and opposite to the moving of magnetic towards the coil. As shown in
figure.
So there is a force of repulsion between the two poles and all the electron
are moving towards the magnetic.
But the magnetic of north “ ” pole is pushed away from the coil, then
magnetic lines decreases through the coil, due to which the side of the coil,
towards the north “ ” pole of a magnetic, becomes south “ ” pole, and
different poles are created which attract each other and again opposite to the
moving of magnetic away from the coil. As shown in figure.
So there is a force of attraction between the two poles and all the electron
are moving away from the magnetic.
From this discussion it is clear that. “The moment of electrons produced current
which is always opposes the motion of magnet i.e. always opposes to its cause.
 INDUCED EMF:
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is

placed in changing magnetic flux an EMF is induced in the conductor which is
called “Induced EMF”.
There are two types of induced EMF.
1. Dynamically Induced EMF:

The type of EMF, in which the conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic
field in such-away that the magnetic flux linking it, changing (varies) in
magnitude of magnetic flux is called “Dynamically Induced EMF” or “Motional
EMF”.
 Example:
In case of DC generator, the conductor is moving in a stationary magnetic field.
2. Statically Induced EMF:

The type of EMF, in which the conductor is at rest and the magnet is moving
in such-away that the magnetic flux linking it, changing (varies) in magnitude of
magnetic flux is called “statically Induced EMF”.
 Example:
In case of transformer, statically induced EMF is produced in which the conductor
is at rest and the magnet is moving.
 MOTIONAL EMF:
The EMF induced by the motion of conductor across the magnetic field is called
“Motional EMF” or “Dynamically Induced EMF”.
 Explanation:
Consider two conducting rails which are connected with the resistance “ ” and
voltage source “ ” in a magnetic field “ ”, which is perpendicular to the plane
of paper. Another conducting rod is
placed freely on the rail. As shown
in figure.
When the voltage “ ” is applied the

current “ ” is produced in the rail
which produced a magnetic field “ ”
around the rail in the form of
concentric circle. When the two
magnetic field interact each other, due
to which a side way magnetic force
is produced, which move the rod
(freely) across the magnetic field with
the velocity “ ”.
When the rod or conductor moves across the magnetic field, an EMF is produced
called “Motional EMF”, due to which the charges moves through the rod and
experience a force which is given by;
()
Due to this force, a work I being done to move the rod across the magnetic
field through a distance “ ” from a point “ ” to point “ ”, then work done
per unit charge is called EMF “ ” is given by;
( )
And work done is given by; putting Eq: ( ) we have;
( )
And Eq: ( ) is;
()
( )
Where “ ” is the angle between velocity “ ” and magnetic field “ ”.
 Case 1:
If “ ” between velocity “ ” and magnetic field “ ” and “ ”

i.e. if the conductor move perpendicular to the magnetic field then EMF will be
maximum. Mathematically;
 Case 2:
If “ ” between velocity “ ” and magnetic field “ ” and “ ” i.e.

if the conductor move parallel to the magnetic field then EMF will be zero.
Mathematically;
 SELF INDUCTION and SELF INDUCED EMF:
The process by which induced EMF is produced in a coil by changing the

magnetic flux in the same coil is called “Self Induction” and EMF is called “Self
Induced EMF”.
 Explanation:
Consider a coil of “ ” number of turns which is connected with voltage source

“ ” and variable resistance “ ”. As shown in figure.
When the voltage “ ” is applied then

current “ ” is produced in the coil which
produced a magnetic field “ ” around the
coil and magnetic lines (flux) are passing
through the same coil.
If these magnetic lines are passing at
constant rate, then no EMF will be induced
in the coil.
But if we change the current in the coil by
changing the variable resistance “”, then the
magnetic flux is also change through the
same coil due to which and induced EMF is produced in the same coil, which is
called “Self Induced EMF” and the process is called “Self Induction”.
From the above discussion we conclude that, the magnitude of self-induced EMF is
directly proportional to the rate of change of current through the coil i.e.
( )
Where “ ” is constant, called “Self-inductance” of the coil. The negative sign

shows that, the EMF produced opposes to its cause which producing it (Len’s
Law).
 Self-Inductance :
The resistor or the property of a coil that opposes any change in the amount
of flowing current through the coil is called “Self-Inductance” or “Inductance”.
This property (inductance) is due to the self-induced EMF in the coil itself by
changing the current i.e.
()
But according to Faraday law of electromagnetic induction, the induced EMF is

given by;
( )
( ) ( )
The above equation represent, the self-inductance in the term of “ ” number of

coil, magnetic flux “ ” and current “ ”.
 Factors Effecting Self-Inductance :
Self-inductance depends on the following factors.
i. Area of the cross section of the coil.

ii. Core of the metal upon which the coil is wound, e.g. the
iron core of the material intense the magnetic field.
iii. Number of turns of the coil
iv. Rate of change of magnetic flux linking of the coil.
 MUTUAL INDUCTION and MUTUAL INDUCED EMF:
The process in which induced EMF is produced in one coil by changing the
magnetic flux in the other coil is called “Mutual Induction” and the EMF is
induced by this process is called “Mutual Induced EMF”.
 Explanation:
Consider two coils “ ” and “ ”. The coil “ ” is called primary coil which is
connected with the voltage source
“ ” and a variable resistance “ ”.
While the coil “ ” which is called
secondary coil is connected by
galvanometer “ ”. As shown in
figure.
When the voltage “ ” is applied

then the current “ ” is produced in
the primary coil “ ”, which
produced a magnetic field “ ”
around the primary coil “ ”.
The magnetic lines (flux) of this magnetic field are passing through the secondary
coil “ ”. If these magnetic flux are passing through the secondary coil “ ” at
constant rate then no EMF is produce in the secondary coil “ ”, but if we
change the magnetic flux through the secondary coil “ ” by changing the current
in the primary coil “ ” due to variable resistance “ , then the EMF is induced
in the secondary coil “ ”, which is called “Mutual Induced EMF” and the process
is called “Mutual Induction”.
From the above discussion we conclude that, the magnitude of Mutual induced
EMF in the secondary coil “ ” is directly proportional to the rate of change of
current through the primary coil “ ” i.e.
( )
Where “ ” is constant, called “Mutual inductance” of the coil. The negative sign
shows that, the EMF produced opposes to its cause which producing it (Len’s
Law).
 Mutual Inductance :
The resistor or the property of two neighboring coils to induced voltage (EMF)
in one coil due to change the current in the other coil is called “Mutual
Inductance” or “Inductance”.
This property (inductance) is due to the mutual induced EMF in the one coil by
changing the current in the other coil i.e.
()
But according to Faraday law of electromagnetic induction, the induced EMF is

given by;
( )
( ) ( )
The above equation represent, the mutual inductance in the term of “ ” number
of coil, magnetic flux “ ” and current “ ”.
 Factors Effecting Mutual Inductance :
Self-inductance depends on the following factors.
i. Area of the cross section of the coil.

ii. Core of the metal upon which the coil is
wound, e.g. the iron core of the material
intense the magnetic field.
iii. Number of turns of the coil
iv. Rate of change of magnetic flux linking of
the coil.
v. Closeness of the coils.
 UNIT OF SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE:
The SI unit of self and mutual inductance is “Hennery” which is given by;
Both (self and mutual inductance) has same unit Hennery;
( )
And Hennery is define as, “If the current of one ampere changes in time of
one second in the coil and induced an EMF in one volt then the self and mutual
inductance will be one Hennery i.e.
( )
 TRANSFORMER:
The electric device which is used to convert high AC voltage to Low AC voltage
and Low AC voltage to high AC voltage is called “Transformer”.
 Principle:
Transformer works on the principle of
mutual induction that, the current is
produced in one coil by changing the
magnetic flux in the other coil.
 Construction:
Transformer consists of a rectangular
frame which is made of soft iron sheets
which are insulated from each other.
An insulating copper wire is wound in
large number in one side to which high
voltage is applied is called “Primary Coil”.
The number of turns in the primary coil is
denoted by “ ”.
Another insulating copper wire is wound in
small (less) number in other side in which
induced EMF is produced is called “Secondary
Coil”. The number of turns in the secondary
coil is denoted by “ ”. As shown in
figure.
 Working:
When a high voltage “ ” is applied to the primary coil, then an EMF is

produced in the primary coil which is given by Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction i.e.
If the resistance of the primary coil is very small then; “ ” so above

equation can be written as;
()
This voltage produced the current which produced a magnetic field around the
primary coil. These magnetic lines (flux) are passing through the secondary coil,
which produced an EMF in the secondary coil by changing the magnetic flux
which is given by;
If the resistance of the secondary coil is very small then; “ ” so above

equation can be written as;
( )
Dividing Eq: by Eq: we will get;
From this equation we conclude that the voltage in secondary coil “ ” is

directly proportional to the number of turns in the secondary coil “ ” i.e.
“ ” and the voltage in primary coil “ ” is directly proportional to the

number of turns in the primary coil “ ” i.e. “ ”.
 REAL TRANSFORMER:
The transformer in which the output (secondary coil) power is always less than
the input (primary coil) power and its efficiency is always less than “ ”.
 IDEAL TRANSFORMER:
The transformer in which the output (secondary coil) power is always equal the
input (primary coil) power and its efficiency is always equal to“ ”, i.e.
From this equation we conclude that the voltage in secondary coil “ ” is

inversely proportional to the current in the secondary coil “ ” i.e. “ ”
and the voltage in primary coil “ ” is inversely proportional to the current in
the primary coil “ ” i.e. “ ”.
This means that, if the voltage is high, the current is small and vice versa.
If the high voltage and small current is required, then we use a step-up
transformer while small voltage and high current is required, then we use a
step-down transformer.
 STEP-UP TRANSFORMER:
The type of transformer which converted low AC voltage to high AC voltage is

called “Step-Up Transformer” in which the numbers of turns in the secondary coil
“ ” is greater than the number of turns in the primary coil “ ” i.e.
“ ”.
 STEP-DOWNTRANSFORMER:
The type of transformer which converted High AC voltage to low AC voltage is

called “Step-Down Transformer” in which the numbers of turns in the secondary
coil “ ” is smaller than the number of turns in the primary coil “ ” i.e.
“ ”.
CHAPTER NO.14
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Q.NO.5: Why does back e.m.f. tend to decrease as the rate of doing work
increases?
Answer: When the load is applied to the motor, then the required rate of
work done by motor increases due to which the rotational speed of coil
(armature) of motor decreases. Due to decreases of rotational speed of coil
(armature), the change in magnetic flux decreases, then according to faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction, the magnitude of induced e.m.f. or back e.m.f. in
motor decreases.
Q.No.6: Explain from “ ”, why it possible to say that “ ”?
Answer: Here
()
This is the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, but magnetic flux is given
by;
( )
Also we know that the magnetic field due to current carrying coil (solenoid) is
given by;
( )
( )
( )
( )
()
( )
By keeping “ ( )” is constant and “ ( ) ” we have;
Basically, the magnitude of emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of

current, because when the current in the circuit is changes, then magnetic flux
also change due to which and emf is produced.
Q.No.7: Show that the relationship “ ” is dimensionally

correct.
Answer: As we know that;

And;
And:
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] ()
Now;
( )
[ ]
[ ] ( )
And Eq: ( ) is given by;
[ ] [ ] ()
From Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we know that the relation “ ” is dimensionally

correct.
Q.No.8: Give the formula for the flux linkage in terms of angular orientation.
Answer: flux linkage means, that self or mutual inductance which is always
equal to the product of number of turns “” of the coil and flux link to the coil
i.e.
()
Where “ ” putting in Eq: ( ) we will get;
( )
Eq:( ) represent the formula for the flux linkage in terms of angular orientation
“ ”.
Q.No.10: How electromagnetic brake works?
Answer: The braking system on many transit cars make use of electromagnetic
induction and eddy currents. An electromagnet is placed near the steel or metals
wheel of the train, which is also near the rails.
When the derive switch on the electromagnet, then due to the relative motion of
wheel, and the electromagnet produced an eddy current in the wheel and rail.
This eddy current produced its own magnetic field which opposes the magnetic
field of electromagnet. Hence a magnetic force is produced which opposes the
motion of wheel of the train.
So wheel becomes slow down, due to which the eddy current also decreases
gradually with the passage of time, and the vehicle stops very smoothly.
Q.No.11: a). Sketch the graph of induced emf against rate of change of
current for a single coil and for a pair of coils.
b). In each case, explain what happens to the induced emf as the frequency of
the AC increases.
Answer: a). It is found experimentally that in case of single or pair of coil,

the magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of
current i.e.
For a number of values of “ ” and “ ” we get a

straight line between them. As shown in figure.
b). The maximum emf produced in the coil is given by;
Putting “ ” then above equation becomes;
( )
Form this equation it is clear that, if the frequency “ ” of a coil or AC

source increases, the magnitude of emf “ ” is also increases and vice versa.
Q.No.15: Analysis information to explain how induction is used in cook tops in

electric range?
Answer: The cook tops works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It is

also called “Induction Heater”.
The food items are kept in a metallic conductor for cooking purposes. This
metallic container is then placed on ceramic cooking top. When AC power supply
is switch on, it supply the changing field to the coking-pot, due to this changing
magnetic flux, produced eddy current in a metallic conductor which produced heating
effect. This heat absorbed by the food items and cooked in very short interval
of time. The efficiency of induction heater is greater than the gas heater.
CHAPTER NO. 15
AC CIRCUIT
 ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT:
The type of voltage and current which change their direction, magnitude and
polarity with the passage of time is called “Alternating voltage and Alternating
Current” simply called AC voltage and AC current.
 Explanation:
In a given AC circuit, terminal “ ” is positive and

terminal “ ” is negative during the time from zero
“ ” to half time “ ” i.e. “ ”. After half
time “ ”, the terminal “ ” becomes negative and
terminal “ ” becomes positive during from the half time
“ ” to complete time “ ” i.e. “ ”.
Another cycle starts in which the terminal “ ”

again becomes positive and terminal “ ” becomes
negative. This process is continuous and the voltage
and current change their polarity.
It is also called “Sinusoidal Voltage or Sinusoidal Current”. Mathematically
is given by;
( ) ( )
In order to shows that the variation of AC voltage in the circuit with the time
i.e.
 1. If “ ”, then
( )
( )( )
And “ ” then;
 2. If “ ”, then
( )( )
( )
And “ ” then;
 3. If “ ”, then
( )( ) ( )
And “ ” then;
 4. If “ ”, then
( )( ) ( )
And “ ” then;
 5. If “ ”, then
( )( ) ( )
And “ ” then;
Hence, the graph between voltage and time gives the wave form of AC voltage,
which obeys the sine function. That is why it is also called “Sinusoidal Voltage”.
Similarly, the Ac Current also obeys the sine function, called “Sinusoidal Current”.
 A.C. TERMINOLOGIES:
 Peak Value of AC or AC Voltage:
The highest or maximum value of AC or Ac voltage during one cycle is called
“Peak Value” of AC or AC voltage.
Peak value may be positive or negative.
Peak value is also called amplitude of
AC or AC Voltage.
In a given diagram “ ” and “ ”

are positive and negative peak value
respectively. As shown in figure.
 Instantaneous Value of AC or AC Voltage:

The value of AC or Ac voltage which exist in the circuit at any shortest
interval of time “ ” is called “Instantaneous Value” of AC or AC voltage. OR
The value of AC or AC Voltage which lies between positive peak value and
negative peak value is called “Instantaneous Value” of AC or AC Voltage.
 Cycle:
The combination of positive and negative peak
value is called “One Cycle”.
One cycle is equal to “ ” or “ ”.

As shown in figure.
 Time Period:
The time required to complete one cycle is called is called “Time Period” denoted
by “ ” and is measured in second “ ”.
 Frequency:
The number of cycles are competed in one second is called “Frequency” denoted
by “ ” and is measured in hertz “ ”.
Time period and frequency are reciprocal of each other i.e.
 Mean Value:
The sum of the entire positive and negative values of sinusoidal voltage or
sinusoidal current in one time period divided by the total time is called “Mean
Value” of AC or AC Voltage.
The sum of positive half cycle and negative half cycle over a complete cycle is
equal to zero.
 Root Mean Square Value or RMS Value or Effective Value:

The square root of the square of the time average quantity is called “Root
Mean Square Value or RMS Value or Effective Value”.
 Explanation:
As the average or mean value of AC or AC Voltage, over a complete cycle is
equal to zero i.e.
( ) ( )
But the square of the sum of the quantity is not equal to zero i.e.
( ) ( )
√ √
√
Similarly current is;
It is also called effective value or R.M.S. value of an alternating current is that

steady current (DC) which when flowing through the resistor produce the same
amount of heat as that produced by the alternating current when through the
same resistance for the same time.
For example; If an effective or R.M.S value of current is “ ” then it

produced the same heat effect as that produced by “ ” of direct current (DC).
 Phase of A.C or A.C Voltage:

The state of motion of AC wave form its means position is called “Phase of
AC or AC Voltage” i.e. either the AC wave form move up or down.
Phase of AC, is basically a way to represent a sine or cosine function
graphically.
In a given diagram, the positive peak value
occurs at time “ ” second and angle
“ ” radians.
Therefore the phase of positive peak value is
“ ” second and “ ” radians.
In this way the phase of negative peak value
is “ ” second and “ ” radians.
Basically the phase of AC shows the state of AC wave.
 Phase Difference OR Phase Angle:

The angle between two quantities by which one quantity is forward than other
or one quantity is lagging behind the other is called “Phase Angle”, denoted by
“ ”. It is also called “Phase Difference” between two physical quantities.
When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero point
then they are said to be have a phase difference.
Basically phase angle or phase difference
shows the starting point of the AC
wave.
 Explanation:
In most of circuit, the AC and AC
voltage have different phase.
In given diagram, the voltage “ ”

starting from zero point (starting point)
“ ” and increasing up to positive peak
value, while the current “ ” is starting
from its zero point (starting point) “ ”

and increasing up to positive peak value.
As shown in figure.
In above case, “ ” is the phase

difference between voltage “ ” and
current “ ” and voltage is leading than
current or current is lagging behind the
voltage.
As sinusoidal voltage and current is given
by;
In above case if the voltage is leading than current by phase angle or phase
difference “ ”, then above equations can be written as;
( )
If the current is lagging behind the voltage by phase angle or phase difference
“ ”, then above equations can be written as;
( )
 Phaser Diagram OR Representation of AC:
The graph of voltage “ ” and time “ ”

or the graph of current “ ” and time “ ”
which shows that one quantity is forwards
than other or one quantity is lagging behind
the other is called “Phaser Diagram” of AC.
In a given diagram, the curve “ ” is

leading by phase angle “ ” than the
curve “ ” or curve “ ” is lagging behind
the curve “ ” by phase angle “ ”.
 INSTANTANEOUS POWER:
The power which is supplied to a circuit and is equal to the product of

instantaneous voltage “ ” and instantaneous current “ ” is called
“Instantaneous Power”. Mathematically is given by;
Where “ ” is called “Power Factor”, where angle “ ” is between voltage

“ ” and current “ ”.
 A.C. THROUGH RESISTOR:
The circuit in which the resistor “ ” is connected in

series with the A.C. power supply is called “Resistive
Circuit”. As shown in figure.
 Explanation:
When the sinusoidal voltage;
()
Is applied to the resistive circuit, then current “ ” is produced in the circuit,

which is given by ohm’s law;
( )
( )
If time “ ” is equal to zero i.e. “ ” then Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) becomes;

()
( ) ( )
( )
( )
Similarly current is;
( )
( ) ( )
( )
From Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) voltage “ ” and current “ ” are equal to zero i.e.
in case of resistance, both voltage “ ”
and current “ ” have the same zero
point (starting point). This means that,
both voltage and current are in the
same phase and the phase difference
between them is zero. As shown in
the given graph (phaser diagram).
According to vector analysis, both
voltage and current are parallel to each
other and the angle “ ” between them
is zero i.e “ ”.
 Power Lose in Resistive Circuit:
The power supply to the resistive circuit in the product of voltage “ ” and
current “ ” is given by;
In case of resistive circuit, both voltage and current are parallel to each other
and the phase angle “ ” between them is zero i.e “ ”.
From this equation it is clear

that, maximum power lose in
resistive circuit.
In case of resistive circuit,
power lose is always positive
except at points “ ”, “ ”,
“ ”, “ ” and “ ” at which
it drops to zero for a
moment.
 A.C. THROUGH PURE INDUCTOR:
The circuit in which the pure inductor of inductance

“ ” is connected in series with the A.C. power
supply is called “Inductive Circuit”. As shown in
figure.
 Explanation:
The solenoid with iron core is called inductor of
self-inductance “ ”, when sinusoidal voltage;
()
Is applied to the pure inductive circuit, then the current is produced which
increase from zero to maximum value which is given by;
( )
Due to this current, an induced EMF is produced across it (self-
( )
induction), which is given by;
( )
In case of pure inductor, the inductance “ ” (resistance) is very small to

voltage then “ ”; Eq: ( ) becomes;
( )
( )
Putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get; Applying derivative then;
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
Similarly from Eq: ( ) the voltage is;

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )

( )
( )
And from Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we know that;
( )
( )
From Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ), in

case of inductive circuit at time
“ ” the current “ ”
and the voltage “ ”, so
the voltage is leading than
current by phase angle “ ”
or the current is lagging behind
the voltage by phase angle
“ ”, in case of inductive
circuit. As shown in figure.
In case of 121nfinite121 circuit,
the sinusoidal voltage and
current can be written as;
( )
( )
According to vector analysis, the current lagging behind the voltage by “ ”,

i.e. phase angle between the voltage and current is “ ”.
 Inductive Reactance:
The resistance (opposition) to the flowing of alternating current in the inductive
circuit is called “Inductive Reactance” of an inductor denoted by “ ” and is
given by ohm’s law;
Putting Eq: ( ) in above equation we will get;;
( )
As;
From this equation it is clear that the inductive reactance of inductor (solenoid) is
directly proportional to the frequency of A.C.
As frequency “ ” is maximum for A.C. then inductive reactance “ ” will be

also maximum for A.C. and frequency “ ” is zero for D.C. so inductive
reactance “ ” is also zero for D.C.
It means that, inductor offer more resistance for A.C. and zero resistance for
D.C.
 Power Lose in Inductive Circuit:

The power supplied to the inductive circuit is given by;
In case of inductive circuit, the voltage is leading than current or voltage and
current are perpendicular to each other and the phase angle “ ”
between them is “ ” i.e “ ”.
( )
Hence no power is lose in inductive circuit.
 A.C. THROUGH CAPACITOR:
The circuit in which the capacitor of capacitance “ ” is

connected in series with the A.C. power supply is called
“Capacitive Circuit”. As shown in figure.
 Explanation:
When the sinusoidal voltage;
()
Is applied to the capacitive circuit, then the current is
produced which increase from zero to maximum value
which is given by;
( )
Due to this current, the charges are stored on the plates of a capacitor which
is given by;
( )
Putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we have;
( )
And we know that current is given by;
( )

( )
Applying derivative then;

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
Similarly from Eq: ( ) the current is;

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
And from Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we know that;
( )
( )
From Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ), in

case of capacitive circuit at
time “ ” the voltage
“ ” and the current
“ ”, so the current is
leading than voltage by phase
angle “ ” or the voltage is
lagging behind the current by
phase angle “ ”, in case of
capacitive circuit. As shown in
figure.
In case of capacitive circuit, the
sinusoidal voltage and current can be written as;
( )
( )
According to vector analysis, the voltage lagging behind the current by “ ”,

i.e. phase angle between the voltage and current is
“ ”
 Capacitive Reactance:
The resistance (opposition) to the flowing of alternating
current in the capacitive circuit is called “Capacitive
Reactance” of a capacitor denoted by “ ” and is given
by ohm’s law;
Putting Eq: ( ) in above equation we will get;;

As;
( )
From this equation it is clear that the capacitive reactance of capacitor is

inversely proportional to the frequency of A.C.
As frequency “ ” is maximum for A.C. then capacitive reactance “ ” will be

minimum for A.C. and frequency “ ” is zero for D.C. so capacitive reactance
“ ” is infinity “ ” for D.C.
It means that, capacitor offer less resistance for A.C. and 125nfinite resistance
for D.C.
 Power Lose in Inductive Circuit:

The power supplied to the capacitive circuit is given by;
In case of capacitive circuit, the current is leading than voltage or current and
voltage are perpendicular to each other and the phase angle “ ”
between them is “ ” i.e “ ”.
( )
Hence no power is lose in capacitive circuit.
CHAPTER NO.15
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Q.NO.1: Sketch a graph of emf induced in an inductive coil against rate of

change of current. What is the significance of the gradient?
Answer: When the current flowing through the inductive coil against rate of
changes of current, then a magnetic flux is passing through the inductive coil also
change, which induced an emf in the inductive coil.
This means that, the magnitude of induced emf is directly
proportional to the rate of change of current i.e.
For a number of values of “ ” and “ ” we get the

graph between induced emf and rate of change of current
is a straight line. As shown in figure.
The gradient (slope) of the line is given by;
()
Also the self-induced emf is given by;
( )

Hence, the gradient (slope) of the line gives the self-inductance of the inductive
coil.
Q.No.2: Explain why it is difficult to measure the rate of change of current?
Answer: The alternating current is that current which is continuously change in

magnitude, direction and polarity in each cycle.
When the AC source is connected in series with resistor and counter reading
meter, then the pointer of the meter swing repeatedly from one side to the
other side very quickly. So the frequency of the pointer will becomes dominant
on frequency of Ac source. That is why it is very difficult to measure the
alternating current by meter.
Q.No.3: How do graph of emf against time and current time make it possible
to measure self-inductance?
Answer: The self-induced emf of the coil is given by;
()
We will calculate the value of emf “ ” form emf-time graph at any instant
of time, and the value of “ ” from current “ ” against time graph.
Then by putting the value of emf “ ” and rate of change of current “ ”

in Eq: ( ) we can measure the self-inductance “ ” of the coil.
Q.No.5: What determine the gradient of the graph of inductive reactance against
frequency?
Answer: The inductive reactance of the coil is directly

proportional to the frequency of AC power supply i.e.
()
So the graph between frequency “” and the inductive

reactance “” is a straight line. The gradient (slope) of line is given by;
( )
From this equation it is clear that, the gradient of the graph between inductive
reactance “ ” and frequency “ ” gives the self-inductance “ ” of the coil.
Q.No.6: How does doubling the frequency affect the resistance of (a). an
inductor (b). a capacitor?
Answer: (a). The inductive reactance of inductor “ ” is given by;
()
If the frequency of AC source becomes double i.e. “ ” then;
( ) ( )
From this equation it is clear that, if the frequency of Ac source is double then
the reactance of inductor is becomes doubled.
(b). Now the capacitive reactance of capacitor “ ” is given by;
( )
If the frequency of AC source becomes double i.e. “ ” then;

( ) ( )
From this equation it is clear that, if the frequency of Ac source is double then
the reactance of capacitor is becomes half.
CHAPTER NO. 16
PHYSICS OF SOLID
 ENERGY BAND THEORY:
According to free electrons theory which is discovered by Drud and Lorentz this
theory, the metal (solid) are divided into two categories such as “Insulators and
Conductors”, after the free electrons theory, another theory was adopted called
“Energy Band Theory”. According to this theory, electrons around the nucleus can
exist in some range of energy called “Permissible Energy State” and cannot exist
in some range of energy called “Forbidden Energy State”.
Those electrons which are exist in the outermost shell of an atom called
“Valance Band” denoted by “ ”. This band is either partially filled or
completely filled but can never be empty.
The band or shell above the valance band is called “Conduction Band” denoted by
“ ”. This band is either partially filled or empty but can never be completely
filled.
The electrons which move from valance band are accumulated by conduction band.
This theory can completely explained the three electric properties of matter and
the metal (Solid) are divided into three categories such as “Insulators, Conductors
and Semi-Conductors”.
1. INSULATORS:
Those materials which does not allow any current (flow) and heat to pass
through them are called “Insulators”. For example: Wood, plastic, glass, mica etc.
In an insulator, the valance electrons are tightly bounded to their atoms and are
not free.
According to energy band theory, in case of insulator, the valance band “ ”

is completely filled and the conduction band “ ” is completely empty and there
is a large energy gap between the valance band and conduction band i.e.
“ ”, even thermal excitation and thermal vibration of electrons are
unable to move from valance band to conduction band. As shown in figure 1.6.
2. CONDUCTORS:
Those materials which allows any current (flow) and heat to pass through them
are called “Insulators”. For example: Silver, copper, aluminum etc.
Conductors are those which have large number of free electrons.
According to energy ban theory, in case of conductors, the valance band “ ”

is partially filled and the conduction band “ ” is overlapping on the valance
band “ ”, and there is a small energy gap between valance band and
conduction band i.e. “ ”, even thermal excitation and thermal vibration
of electrons are able to move from valance band to conduction band. As shown
in figure 2.6.
3. SEMI-CONDUCTORS:
Those materials whose conductivity or resistivity lies between insulators and
conductors is called “Semi-Conductors” i.e. semi-conductors are insulators at low
temperature i.e. below room temperature and conductors above the room
temperature. For example: Germanium and silicon or the elements of the fourth
group of the periodic table.
In semi-conductor the valance band “ ” and conduction band “ ” both are

partially filled and the energy gap between them is neither large and nor small,
and electrons is able to cross the energy gap and move from valance band to
conduction band, so holes are created in valance band and electrons exist into
conduction band.
So semi-conductors have holes as positive charge carriers and electrons as
negative charge carriers.
The energy gap
When the semi-conductor is connected across the voltage source then holes and
electrons are drift in opposite direction and both contribute to the current in
those materials. As shown in figure 3.6.
 SUPER CONDUTORS:
Those materials whose resistance or resistivity becomes zero below a certain

temperature are called “Super-Conductors” and the process is called “Super
Conductivity”. Some elements such as metals, alloys and ceramic have zero
resistance with certain temperature and conduct (flow) current and energy without
dissipation.
 Critical Temperature:
The temperature at which the resistance or resistivity becomes zero is called
“Critical Temperature” denoted by “ ”. As shown in figure 4.6.
Super conductors are of two types:
1. Low Temperature Superconductors:

The superconductors whose critical temperature is less than “ ” are called
“Low Temperature Superconductor”. In 1911, the first superconductor was
discovered by K. Marling Oren’s by observing that the electrical resistance of
mercury (Hg) is suddenly disappeared when its temperature is reduced below
“ ”.
Some other materials such as Aluminum “ ”, Tin “ ” and

lead “ ” also becomes superconductors.
2. High Temperature Superconductors:

The superconductors whose critical temperature is greater than “ ” are called
“Low Temperature Superconductor”. In 1986, some of the materials are discovered
which are superconductor at high temperature i.e. “ ”.
Recently, a complex crystalline structure, such as uranium copper
oxide ( ) invented by Yaolians Lec becomes superconductors at “ ”.
 Application of Superconductors:
There are some applications (uses) of superconductors such as;
1. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
2. Power full and small electric motor
3. Fast computer chips
4. Magnetic train
 THEORY OF MAGNETISM:
The molecules or atoms of magnetic substance are a complete magnet with its
north and south poles of equal strength.
These molecules or atoms are placed in a specific region called “Domain” These
domains are very small in size i.e. of microscopic size of the order of a few
millimeter or less than this and each domain contains from “ ” and “ ”
atoms.
In case of un-magnetized materials like iron, nickel and cobalt etc, these domains
are oriented randomly that the north pole of one domain is cancelled by the
south pole of the other domain. Thus the substance does not show any net
magnetism. As shown in figure 5.6.
When a strong external magnetic field is applied to these substances, due to a
strong magnetic force, the domains of the substance are turned becomes aligned
in the same direction of the external magnetic field with one end of the domain
is north pole and other end of the domain is south pole. So the substance or
materials becomes magnetic materials. As shown in figure 5.6.
If a magnetized material is heated, then the domains possess kinetic energy, this
kinetic energy increases with rise of temperature and overcome the internal
friction between the domains at a certain temperature, So these magnetic domains
becomes dis-aligned and the materials become un-magnetized materials.
 MODREN VIEW ABOUT MAGNETISM:
According to the modern theory, the magnetic properties of substances are due to
the spin and orbital motion of electrons in the atoms.
 Spin Motion of Electrons:

The motion of electrons about its own
axis in an atom is called “Spin Motion
of Electrons”. As shown in figure 6.6.
 Orbital Motion of Electrons:

The motion of electrons around the
nucleus of an atom is called “Orbital
Motion of Electrons”. As shown in figure 6.6.
Due to these two motions of electrons, the atoms behave like a current loop i.e.
each atom behaves like a magnetic dipoles.
Both the motion produced a magnetic field. If the axis of spin and orbital motion
of electrons in the atom are in the same direction, then their magnetic fields
with support each other and the materials is said to be magnetic materials. But
if the axis of spin and orbital motion of electrons in the atom are in the
opposite direction, then the magnetic field will cancel the effect of each other
and the materials is said to be un-magnetized materials.
The spin motion of electrons is more responsible for magnetism.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
The magnetic materials can be classified into three categories:
1. Para Magnetic Materials (Substance):

Those materials which are less attracted by the permanent magnet are called
“Para Magnetic Materials”. For example: Aluminum manganese and platinum etc.
In this case, the axis of spin and orbital motion of electrons are less parallel
to each other, that is why the magnetic field is produced by these materials are
less support each other. As shown in figure 7.6.
2. Dia-Magnetic Materials (Substance):

Those materials which are not attracted by the permanent magnet are called
“Dia-Magnetic Materials”. For example: Copper, bismuth, water and antimony etc.
In this case, the axis of spin and orbital motion of electrons are in opposite
direction to each other, that is why the magnetic field is produced by these
materials will cancel the effect of each other. In such materials the atom does
not behaves like a tiny magnets. As shown in figure 7.6.
3. Ferro Magnetic Materials (Substance):

Those materials which are strongly attracted by the permanent magnet are called
“Ferro Magnetic Materials”. For example: Iron, nickel, cobalt etc.
In this case, the axis of spin and orbital motion of electrons are exactly parallel
to each other, that is why the magnetic field is produced by these materials are
strongly support each other. In such materials the atom behaves like tiny
magnets. As shown in figure 7.6.
CHAPTER NO.16
PHYSICS OF SOLID
Q.NO.2: Discuss the superconductivity of a conductor

with the help of a curve.
Answer: The process in which the resistance of a

conductor becomes zero at a certain temperature is
called “Super Conductivity” and the material is so
called “Super Conductor”.
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional
to the temperature, if the temperature of conductor
decreases then its resistance is also decreases. If the resistance of a conductor
becomes zero at a certain temperature then the materials is called “Super-
conductor” and the temperature is called “Critical Temperature” denoted by “ ”.
As shown in figure.
Q.No.5: Differentiate between paramagnetic, diamagnetic and ferromagnetic

materials with suitable example:
Answer: 1. Paramagnetic Materials:

Those substances which are less attracted by the permanent magnet are
called “Paramagnetic Materials”, such as aluminum, manganese and platinum.
In such a material, the magnetic fields produced by spin and orbital motion are
less support each other.
2. Diamagnetic Materials:
Those substances which are not attracted by the permanent magnet are called
“Diamagnetic Materials”, such as plastic wood etc.
cancels the effect of each other.
3. Ferromagnetic Materials:
Those substances which are strongly attracted by the permanent magnet are
called “ferromagnetic Materials”, such as iron, nickel, cobalt etc.
strongly support each other.
Q.No.9: Steel reinforcing is used in concrete beams to prevent cracking. Explain

where the steel reinforcing should be placed in a concrete beam?
Answer: The concrete is brittle and possess low resistance to stretched forces,
so concrete is weak in tension.
The steel is more elastic and its young modulus is many times greater than that
of the concrete. So steel is strong tension.
Thus we can use the steel rod in concrete to avoid cracking. For this purpose
the steel rods are inserted near the bottom face of the beam where the
tension is maximum. So steel rods used in concrete to prevent the beam from
cracking.
CHAPTER NO. 17
ELECTRONICS
 ELECTRONICS:
The branch of physics which deals with the motion of electrons through
electronics instruments such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, thermionic tube and
transistors etc. is called “Electronics”.
During the recent past years, the discovery and use of semi-conductor have
created a great revolution in the field of physics.
Silicon is the one of most common semi-conductor material which is used for
fabrication integrating circuit known as “Chips”. These chips are not
used only in electronics circuit but also used in digital electronic
circuits.
 INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDCUTOR:
A perfect pure semiconductor crystal without any impurity is called

“Intrinsic Semi-Conductor”.
The most common semi-conductors are “Germanium” and “Silicon”,

which belong to the Forth Group of the periodic table and there
are four electrons in their valance shell

called “Valance Electrons”.
Consider a silicon crystal at absolute zero
temperature i.e. at “ ”.
The bonding arrangement is represented by
two dimension model, as shown in figure
7.1.
The hatched circle represents the core of
the silicon atoms, the four valance electrons
are shown by the small dots.
The covalent bonds of electrons between the silicon atoms are shown by curves
lines.
At absolute zero temperature i.e. “ ”, all the valance electrons are strongly
bound to their atoms and they spend most of their time between neighboring
atoms. According to energy band theory, in case of semi-conductors materials, the
valance band and conduction band are separated by forbidden energy gap.
The valance band is completely filled and conduction band is empty, and no one
electron possess enough energy to cross the forbidden energy gap to jump from
the valance band to the conduction band.
Hence no conduction takes place in intrinsic semi-conductors at absolute zero
temperature i.e. “ ” and behave like insulators.
 INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDCUTOR AT ROOM TEMPERATURE:
Intrinsic semi-conductors at absolute zero temperature i.e. “ ” behave like

insulators, but the temperature of intrinsic semi-conductors is allowed to increases,
then each atom in the crystal begin to vibrate violently due to finite thermal
energy. At this stage, the electrons absorb sufficient energy and break the
covalent bands between the atoms. The electrons become free and they vibrate
randomly in the empty space inside the atoms. During this process some part of
thermal energy of electrons is converted into
kinetic energy.
According to energy band theory, at this stage,
the kinetic energy of the electrons is equal or
greater than the forbidden energy gap and the
electrons are able to jump from the valance
band to the conduction band.
When the electron jumped from the valance
band to the conduction band a vacancy is
produced in the valance band. This vacancy is
called “Hole” and positively charge, and the
electron in the conduction band is negative
charged. So the electrons and holes are created as a pair and the phenomenon is
called “Electron-Hole Pair Generation”. As shown in figure 7.2.
 DRIFT OF MINORITY CARRIER:
When an electric field is applied to an intrinsic semi-conductor at room

temperature or above the room temperature, the electrons break their covalent
bonds and move from the valance band to the conduction band due to which the
holes are created into the valance band. The electrons in the conduction band and
hole in the valance band cause the current through the materials (intrinsic semi-
conductor). If “ ” represents the current due to flow of electrons and “ ”
represent the current due to motion of holes, then the total current through the
materials is given by;
 INTRINSIC CARRIER:
In case of intrinsic semi-conductors, when covalent bonds break between the

electrons due to thermal energy, the electrons move from the valance band to
the conduction band due to which the holes are created into the valance band.
The creation of electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valance band
are called “Electron-Hole Pair Generation”. If “ ” is the number of
electrons in the conduction band and “ ” is the number of holes in the valance
band, then the intrinsic concentration “ ” is also equal to the number of
electrons and holes numbers i.e.
Where “ ” is taken from the negative charge of electron in the conduction and
“ ” is taken from the positive charge of hole in the valance band.
 DOPING OF IMPURITIES:
The addition of impurities into an intrinsic semi-conductor for increasing its

conductivity is called “Doping”.
When some impurity like the element of third (3rd) or fifth (5th) group is added
with pure semi-conductor materials like element of fourth (4th) group of the
periodic table, then this is called “Doping”.
 EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR:
The type of semi-conductor to which some impurity is added to make the desired
conduction property is called “Extrinsic Semi-Conductors”.
The impurity which is added with pure semi-conductor materials is called “Doped”
and the doped semi-conductor is called “Extrinsic Semi-Conductors”.
There are two types of extrinsic semi-conductor: P-Type Extrinsic Semi-Conductor
and N-Type Extrinsic Semi-Conductor.
1. N-Type Extrinsic Semi-Conductor:

When a small quantity of impurity from fifth (5th) group of the
periodic table such as Pabulum “ ” is added to the pure silicon
crystal, then the structure of Pabulum “ ” is changed and becomes
“N-Type Extrinsic Semi-Conductor”.
Each atom of pabulum has five valance electrons in its outer most
shell, while silicon atom has four valance electrons in its outer most
shell. The four valance electrons of impurity atoms
i.e. pabulum makes covalent bonds with four silicon
atoms, while an electron is left free in the
bismuth. As shown in figure 7.4.
This electron carries negative charge, that is why
it is called “N-Type Extrinsic Semi-Conductor”. The
conduction of current through this material is due
to the flow of electrons, because in such
materials electrons are majority charge carriers.
It is also called “Donor”, because they give the electrons for conduction
(electricity).
2. P-Type Extrinsic Semi-Conductor:

When a small quantity of impurity from third (3rd) group of the
periodic table such as Bismuth “ ” is added to the pure silicon
crystal, then the structure of Bismuth “ ” is changed and becomes
“P-Type Extrinsic Semi-Conductor”.
Each atom of bismuth has three valance electrons in its outer most
shell, while silicon atom has four valance electrons in its outer most
shell. The three valance electrons of impurity atoms
i.e. bismuth makes covalent bonds with three silicon
atoms, while a hole is left to bond of the fourth
silicon atom. As shown in figure 7.3.
This hole carries positive charge, that is why it is
called “P-Type Extrinsic Semi-Conductor”. The conduction
of current through this material is due to the flow
of holes, because in such materials holes are majority
charge carriers. It is also called “Acceptor”, because
they accept the electrons for conduction (electricity).
 PN JUNCTION (Semi-Conductor Diode):
The junction which is formed between P-type and N-type extrinsic semi-conductor
and is used to prevent, the further flow of electrons “” from N-side to p-side
and holes from P-side to N-side is called “PN Junction”. This is also called
“Semi-Conductor Diode”.
PN junction is formed, if a crystal of germanium or silicon is grown in such-
away that one half is doped with trivalent impurity (3rd group) and other half is
doped with pentavalent impurity (5th group), then PN junction is formed.
N-type materials have large number of free electrons and have donor atoms
while P-type materials have large number of holes and have acceptor atoms.
When N-type and P-type materials are grown together a single crystal, then
some of the electrons diffused from N-type side to P-type side and combine
with holes to neutralized each other, while holes (positive charge) are produced
on the N-type side with combine with electrons to neutralized each other. Hence
these form a region around the junction when no charge carriers are present for
conduction. This region around the junction is called “Depletion Region or Depletion
Layer” and potential is produce in depletion layer called “Potential Barrier”.
This potential barriers is “ ” for silicon and “ ” for germanium.

The width of depletion layer depends on the amount of N-type and P-type
extrinsic semi-conductor. As shown in figure 7.5.
 BIASING:
The application of voltage across the PN junction or diode is called “Biasing”. For
this purpose, we connect the PN junction with the terminal of the battery. PN
junction connected with the terminal of the battery by two methods.
1. Forward Biased:
The PN junction is connected with the terminal of the battery in such-away that
the P-side of extrinsic semi-conductor is connected with the positive terminal of
the battery and N-side of extrinsic semi-conductor is connected with the negative
terminal of the battery is called “Forward Biased”. As shown in figure 7.6.
In case forward biased, the height of the potential barriers decreases and the
PN junction offers a very small resistance to the flow of current (electrons and
Holes). By applying a very small voltage (energy), the current can be started
and the circuit is closed or on or one.
2. Revers Biased:
The PN junction is connected with the terminal of the battery in such-away that
the P-side of extrinsic semi-conductor is connected with the negative terminal of
the battery and N-side of extrinsic semi-conductor is connected with the positive
terminal of the battery is called “Revers Biased”. As shown in figure 7.7.
In case revers biased, the height of the potential barriers increases and the PN
junction offers a very high resistance to the flow of current (electrons and
Holes). In case of revers biased, the negative terminal attract the positive charge
(holes) and positive terminal attract the negative charge (electrons) toward itself
in the reversed direction, due to this effect a very small amount of current of
the order of a few micro ampere current flow in the reversed direction which
is called “Reversed Current or Leakage Current” and the circuit is opened or off
or zero.
 SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODE OR PN JUNCTION DIODE:
The PN junction is also known as “Semi-Conductor Diode”.

Symbolically, the PN junction diode is represented by the figure
7.8. The arrow head shows the P-type used as anode and
the vertical line shows the N-type used as cathode. In case
of forward biasing the current is always the arrow
heat. It is used in many electronic instruments like
television (T.V.), or radio etc.
As shown in figure 7.9.
 RECTIFIER AND RECTIFICATION:

 Rectifier:
The instrument which is used to convert Alternating Current (A.C) into Direct
Current (D.C) in electronic circuit is called “Rectifier”.
For example: Diode is used as rectifier in many electronics device such as radio,
television (T.V), mobile chargers etc.
 Rectification:
The process by which convert Alternating Current (A.C) into Direct Current (D.C)
in electronic circuit is called “Rectification”.
There are two type rectification; half wave rectification and full wave
rectification.

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1. Half Waves Rectification:

The process in which the unidirectional (D.C) output is obtained after each half
cycle of Alternating Current (A.C) is called “Half Waves Rectification” and the
instrument is called “Half Wave Rectifier”.
 Explanation:
In case of half waves rectifier, a PN junction diode is connected with AC
power supply and load resistance “ ”. As shown in figure 7.10.
When AC source is applied to the half wave rectifier, then during positive half
cycle, the diode is forward biased and offers a very small resistance to the
positive half cycle and reverse biased for negative half cycle. So the diode
offers large resistance to the negative half cycle and does not conduct electricity
through diode.
Hence a unidirectional (D.C) output is obtained at the low resistance “ ” after

each half cycle, that is why it is “Half Waves Rectifier”.
2. Full Waves Rectification:

The process in which the unidirectional (D.C) output is obtained during both half
cycle of Alternating Current (A.C) is called “Full Waves Rectification” and the
instrument is called “Full Waves Rectifier”.
 Explanation:
In case of full waves rectifier, two diodes “ ” and “ ” are connected in

opposite direction with each other and with center taped transformer. Both the
diodes are connected with the load resistance “ ”. As shown in figure 7.11.
When AC source is applied to the full wave rectifier then during positive half
cycle, the diode “ ” is forward biased which offers very small resistance and
diode “ ” is reverse biased for this half cycle which offers very large
resistance.
For other negative half cycle, the diode “ ” is reverse biased which offers
very large resistance and diode “ ” is forward biased for this half cycle
which offers very small resistance.
Hence at the output i.e. in load resistance we get full pulsation (full wave of
AC in Unidirectional) of D.C, that is why it is called “Full Waves Rectification”.
 TRANSISTOR:
The word “Transistor” is the combination of two words i.e. “Transformer and
Resistor”, so that; “Transformer and Resistor” hence; “Transistor”
Transfer means to flow of the charges and resistor means to stop the flow of
charges, so transistor is defined as; “The electronic device which is used
generate, control and amplify the electric current is called “Transistor”.
It is invented by American Scientist Shockley Britain and Bardeen.
Modern transistors are of two types “Unipolar” whose function depends on
majority charge carries and “Bipolar” whose function depends on both majority and
minority charge carriers. But usually bipolar transistor is used.
 Construction:
Transistor consists of three semi-conductor parts i.e. Emitter, Base and Collector.
1. Emitter:
The region which is at the left side of the transistor is called “Emitter”. It is
denoted by “ ”. It has large concentration of impurity than base and collector.
Emitter is more negative than collector. Emitter is compared small in size than
collector. As shown in figure
7.12.
2. Base:
The central part of transistor
is called “Base”. It is denoted
by “ ”. It is very thin of
the order of “ ”. It
has very low concentration of
impurity as compared to the
emitter and collector. As
shown in figure 7.12.
3. Collector:
The region which is at the right side of the transistor is called “Collector”. It
is denoted by “ ”. It has less concentration of impurity as compared to emitter.
The collector is comparatively large in size than emitter. As shown in figure
7.12.
Transistor consists of two PN junctions, which form two types of transistor i.e.
PNP transistor and NPN transistor.
i. PNP TRANSISTOR:
The transistor in which N-type extrinsic semi-conductor is sandwich between two
P-type extrinsic semi-conductors is called “PNP Transistor”. As shown in figure
7.13.
ii. NPN TRANSISTOR:

The transistor in which P-type extrinsic semi-conductor is sandwich between two
N-type extrinsic semi-conductors is called “NPN Transistor”. As shown in figure
7.13.
CHAPTER NO.17
ELECTRONICS
Q.NO.2: Explain why in a transistor (a). the base is thin lightly doped and (b).
the collector is large in size.
Answer: (a). The central portion of the transistor is called

“Base” denoted by “ ” which is very small in size of the order
of “ ”, that is why, it is very thin lightly doped.
The reason is that, a very less number of electrons from emitter
“ ” recombined with the holes to produce a very small base
current “ ”.
(b). the portion at right side of the transistor is called “Collector”

denoted by “ ”. Which is very large in size than base “ ” and
emitter “ ” because it collect (stored) the remaining electrons of
the emitter and base. Due to their large size, it can control a large current and
do not heated excessively. As shown in figure.
Q.No.5: Draw the diagram of “ ” and “ ” transistors and explain how

it works?
Answer: 1. The circuit diagram of “ ” transistor is

shown in figure.
In “ ” transistor emitter base “ ” junction is forward

biased which cause the electrons to flow in the form of
“ ”. Some of the electrons recombined with holes in base to
produced base current “ ” and remaining electrons of emitter
moving from base into collector region to produced collector
current “ ”.
So from the above discussion it is clear that, the emitter current is equal to the
sum of the base current and collector current i.e.
2. The circuit diagram of “ ” transistor is shown in

figure.
In “ ” transistor emitter base “ ” junction is forward

biased which cause the holes to flow in the form of “ ”.
Some of the holes recombined with electrons in base to
produced base current “ ” and remaining holes of emitter
moving from base into collector region to produced collector
current “ ”.
So from the above discussion it is clear that, the emitter current is equal to the
sum of the base current and collector current i.e.
Q.No.9: Why transistor is called amplification device?
Answer: The transistor is called amplification device due to the following reasons;
1. In case of “ ” configuration of transistor, the input impedance is high

and output impedance is low, so the output current is large than the input
current.
2. In case of “ ” configuration of transistor, we get high voltage and
power at output.
3. The transistor circuit raises the strength of weak signals.
CHAPTER NO. 18
DAWN OF THE MODERN PHYSICS
 CLASSICAL PHYSICS:
The physics before 1895 is called “Classical Physics”. At the end of 9th century,
scientist believed that they had learnt everything about the physics because they
had made a large number of achievements in physics.
Classical physics deals with heavy objects which cannot move with the speed of
light such as, Newton’s law of motion or motion of satellite. This physics is
also called “Newtonian Physics”. In classical physics, Newton’s law of motion,
law of universal gravitation, thermodynamics, kinetic theory of gasses and
Maxwell equations of electromagnetic waves were successfully explaining the
problem of the natural world.
But classical physics is failed to explain the nature of matter on atomic level,
the black body radiation, photoelectric effect and emission of spectral lines by
atom in discharge tube.
To solve or explain such a problems, a new branch of physics was introduced
which is called “Modern Physics”.
 MODREN PHYSICS:
The physics after 1895 is called “Modern Physics”. Modern physics come with 20th
century and took over the classical physics. When classical (Newtonian) physics
has failed to explain the structure of matter on atomic level, black body
radiation, photo electric effects and Compton effects, Therefore a new branch of
physics was introduced which is called “Modern Physics”.
Modern physics deals with tiny particles called microscopic object like atoms,
molecules which can move with the speed of light.
The modern physics consists of Einstein special theory of relativity, quantum
theory of radiation, atomic physics and nuclear physics. Modern physics successfully
explained the black body radiation, photo electric effects Compton effects and the
emission of spectral line from atom.
 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY:

Special theory of relativity deals with inertial frame of reference or with non-
accelerated frame of reference. In 1905 Albert Einstein put formulated the special
theory of relativity.
There are two postulates of Einstein special theory of relativity.
1. All laws of physics are the same in all inertial frame of reference. (the
principle of relativity)
 Explanation:
This means that in inertial frame of reference the difference between the state
of rest or motion with uniform velocity cannot detected, that is why all laws
of physics are the same in all inertial frame of reference.
 Example:
If you are in spacecraft far from any planet, star or other object, then you
cannot observe that you are moving.
2. The speed of light is the same in vacuum for all observers when they are
moving towards or away from the source of light. (Principle of the
consistency of the speed of light).
 Explanation:
This means that, the speed of light is a universal constant
 Example:
Imagine that you are sitting in train facing forwards. The train is moving at
the speed of light, you hold up a mirror in front of you, at arm’s length will
you be able to see your reflection in the mirror? Yes, the reflection will be
seen, because according to the principle of relativity, it would not be possible for
any person in train to do anything to detect the constant motion with which he
she is traveling.
 CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY:

Some of the applications of the postulates of the special theory of relativity are
summarized in the following without going into their mathematical derivations.
 The Relativity of Simultaneity:

If two observers observe, the same phenomena from two different frames
simultaneously and they got different results from their frames, then this is
called “The Relativity of Simultaneity”. OR;
Whether or not two events are seen by you to be simultaneous depends on
where you are standing.
 Explanation:
Consider a train having light operated door, moving at a speed equal to half of
the speed of light. A source of light is adjusted at the center of the train. If
the light is switch on, then the traveller sitting inside it, will observer that,
both the doors were opened at the same time.
Another observer standing outside the train, simultaneously observe that, the back
door is opened first than the front door, because the back door in advancing
(meaning forwards) to light, while the front door is moving away from the
source of light.
From the discussion, it is clear that, simultaneously, the same phenomena will be
seen different to two observers from two different frames which is called
“Relativity”.
 The Equivalence between Mass and Energy:

Einstein presents the relation between mass and energy is given by;
From this equation we conclude that, when a particle collide with its anti-particle,
then entire mass is converted into energy and energy can be completely converted
into mass into pair production.
 PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT:
When a light of suitable frequency and energy falls on the metal surface, the
electrons are emitted which are called “Photo-electrons” and the phenomena of
emission of electron is called “Photo-Electric Effect”.
 Explanation:
Consider a discharge (evacuate) glass
tube, which consists of two electrodes
i.e. negatively electrode called “Cathode”
denoted by “ ” and the positively
electrode called “Anode” denoted by
“ ”. Cathode is connected with the
negative terminal of the battery and
anode is connected with positive
terminal of the battery.
When a mono-chromatic light of a
suitable frequency falls on the negative
cathode, it begins it emitted the
electrons, which are attracted by the
positive anode and the current starts
flowing in a circuit and show by the
galvanometer deflection. As shown in figure 8.1.
By applying voltage “ ” to the photo-electrons, increase the kinetic energy

“ ” between the electrodes and is given by;
The maximum kinetic energy of photo-electrons can be determined by reversing

the terminal of the battery in the circuit i.e. cathode is connected with positive
terminal of the battery and anode is connected with negative terminal of the
battery.
By doing this and applying the maximum voltage “ ”, then the current into the
circuit is stop is called “Stopping Potential or voltage and only those electron can
reached to the anode which has maximum kinetic energy or velocity i.e.
 THE WAVE NATURE OF PERTICLE:

In 1924, a French scientist Louis de Broglie put forwards an idea that, the
electromagnetic radiation (light) behaves like particles properties and also behaves
like waves at certain conditions.
The wave (light) associated with such a particle are called “Wave or de Broglie
Wave” and the wavelength is called “de Broglie Wavelength”. In 1929 he was
awarded Nobel Prize for his an idea of the wave nature of electron. According
to quantum theory of light photon energy is given by;
()
Where “ ” is the planks constant i.e. “ ” and “ ” is the

frequency of photon.
And the momentum of photon is given by;
( )
Also the rest mass energy of the electron is given by;
( )
Putting the Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get;
( )
Putting the Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get;
( )
( )
This relation is known as de Broglie wavelength of photons.

Which shows the photons (light) is dual nature, sometime the light (photon)
behaves like a wave which wavelength “ ” and sometime the light (photon)
behaves like a particle of mass “ ”.
CHAPTER NO.18
DAWN OF THE MODERN PHYSICS
Q.NO.1: Imagine a world in which “ ”. How would the everyday

events appear to us?
Answer: If the speed of light reduced to “ ”, then the relativistic

theory and relativistic effect will remain unchanged.
According to principle of constancy of light, the upper limit of speed for
materials particles will now become “ ” i.e. it will be impossible for
materials objects to attain such speed. Even at a speed of “ ”, relativistic
effects would be apparent for materials bodies.
Q.No.5: An electron and proton are accelerated from the rest through the same
potential difference. Which particle has the longer wavelength? Explain.
Answer: The electron, with its smaller mass, has the greater de-Broglie
wavelength.
From de-Broglie’s hypothesis, wavelength attached with a materials
body in motion is given by;
()
Where “ ” is the momentum of the materials and its related to

kinetic energy by;
And:
And “ ” the above equation becomes; So:
Putting this in Eq: ( ) we will get;

( )
√
From Eq: ( ) it is clear that, “ ” is the Plank’s constant, “ ” is the charge

of electron or proton which is also same for the both particles and “ ” is
the potential which also constant (same), then de-Broglie wavelength is inversely
proportional to the square root of mass “ ” of the particles. i.e.
( )
√
√
√ √
From this equation it is clear that, the electron has longer wavelength because it
has smaller mass as compare to proton. i.e. “ ” and
“ ”.
Q.No.7: If photoelectric effect is observed from one metal can you conclude that
the effect will be observed for another metal under the same condition?
Answer: Not necessarily, because the ejection of electron from the metal surface
depends on the work function of the metal. If the energy of the incident light
photon is not too high to overcome the work function of the metal then no
photo electron will be emitted, but a different metal with smaller work function
may emit electron, with same energy of incident light.
Q.No.11: When a particle’s kinetic energy increases, what happens to its de-
Broglie wavelength?
Answer: When the kinetic energy of the particle is increases its de-Broglie
wavelength decreases.
The de-Broglie wavelength is related to the magnitude of the momentum is given

by;
()
Where “ ” is the momentum of the materials and its related to kinetic energy
by;
√ √ √
Where “ ” we have;
√
√ √
( )
√
From Eq: ( ) it is clear that the de-Broglie wavelength “ ” is inversely

proportional to the square root of kinetic energy “√ ”, i.e. when the kinetic
energy of the particle is increases its de-Broglie wavelength decreases.
Q.No.12: Explain why we can experimentally observe the wave like properties of
electron, but not of billiard ball?
Answer: We cannot observe wave like properties which is produced with billiard
ball, because of its large mass.
Electron is a tiny particle having very small mass and its velocity is “
”. Wavelength produced with it according to de-Broglie is;
And it is observed due to which its wave like properties e.g., diffraction are
observable.
Bur the billiard ball has greater mass i.e. “ ” than an

electron and its velocity can be about “ ”. De-Broglie wavelength will be
small that there is no such device or instrument that could measure or even
detect such a small wavelength i.e.
Thus, we can experimentally observe wave like properties of electron but not of
a billiard ball.
CHAPTER NO. 19
ATOMIC SPECTRA
 ATOMIC SPECTRA:
When the atom is taken in gas or vapors from at low temperature in a

discharge tube and then excited by passing an electric potential through it, the
radiation of certain specific wavelength are emitted are called “Atomic Spectra”.
This is also called “Line Spectra”.
 BOHR’S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM:
Neil Bohr proposed atom model in 1913, the following are the postulates or
assumptions of this model (hydrogen atom).
1. The electrons are revolving in circular orbit around the nucleus due to the
electrostatic force of attraction between the electrons in the orbit and
protons in the nucleus. This force produced due to the centripetal force
which both are equal in magnitude which is given by;
Then;
2. The electron cannot revolve in any arbitrary orbit. They revolve

in any one of its specific allowed orbit.
3. The angular momentum of electron in a circular orbit is an
integral multiple of “ ” or “ ” because “ ” i.e.
4. The electron does not radiate (emitted) energy, when it revolved in any
one of its specific allowed orbit. If radiate energy only, when it jumped
from high energy state to lower energy state. It will radiate the energy
equal to the energy difference of the two orbit i.e.
 RADIUS OF THE NTH ORBIT OF HYDROGEN ATOM OR THE

RADII OF QUANTIZED ORBIT:
The hydrogen atom consists of only one proton in the

nucleus and only one electron of mass “ ” which
revolved around the nucleus with velocity “ ” in
circular orbit of radius “ ”. As shown in figure 9.1.
According to Bohr’s first postulate, the coulomb’s force
is equal to the centripetal force i.e.
If large number of radius in the hydrogen atom, then the above equation can be
written as;
()
As according to Bohr’s third postulate, the angular momentum of electron in a

circular orbit is an integral multiple of “ ” or “ ” because “ ” i.e.
For N-th orbit then;
Taking square of both sides we will get;
( )
( )
()
[ ]
Dividing both sides by “ ” we have;
Inverted the above equation we will get;
[ ] ( )
Where “ ” is the number of orbit in hydrogen atom, “ ” is the charge of

electron i.e. “ ”, “ ” is the mass of electron i.e. “
”, “ ” is coulomb constant i.e. “ ” and “ ”
is the plank’s constant i.e. “ ”, putting these values in
Eq: ( ) then, the radius of hydrogen atom becomes as;
[ ] ( )
( )
[ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
( )
For hydrogen atom, radius of first orbit i.e. “ ” then we have;
( )
( )
( )
Putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get so general equation as;
( )
( )
From Eq: ( ) shows that the radii is quantized
Radius of second orbit i.e. “ ” then we have;
( )
( )
Similarly; radius of third, fourth, fifth, and so on orbits i.e. “ ”

then we have;
( )
( )
( )
( )
From these values of the radius, it is clear that, if we calculate the different
radii far away from the nucleus, the distance between the radii becomes small
and overlapping on each other for nth orbit, which is the property of conductor.
 ENERGY OF ELECTRON IN NTH ORBIT OR ENERGY OF

ELECTRON IN QUANTIZED ORBIT:
The total energy of electron in Bohr’s orbit will be equal to the sum of its
kinetic energy and potential energy i.e.
()
Suppose electron of mass “ ” which revolved around the nucleus with velocity
“ ” in circular orbit of radius “ ”. As shown in figure 9.1.
According to Bohr’s first postulate, the coulomb’s force is equal to the centripetal
force i.e.
If large number of radius in the hydrogen atom, then the above equation can be
written as;
Multiplying both sides by “ ” we will get;
As we know that; “ ” so;
( )
( )
Potential energy as;
Then;
( )
Putting Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get so general equation as;
()
Putting “ * +” in above equation we will get;
{ [ ]}
[ ]
[ ] ( )
[ ] ( )
Where “ ” is the number of orbit in atom, “ ” is the charge of electron i.e.

“ ”, “ ” is the mass of electron i.e. “ ”,
“ ” is coulomb constant i.e. “ ” and “ ” is the plank’s
constant i.e. “ ”, putting these values in Eq: ( ) then, the
radius of hydrogen atom becomes as;
[ ] ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
[ ]
( )
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Dividing “ ” by right hand side we will get;
[ ]
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
( )
For atom, energy of first orbit i.e. “ ” then we have;
( )
( )
( )
Putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get so general equation as;
( )
( )
From Eq: ( ) shows that the enrgy is quantized
Energy of second orbit i.e. “ ” then we have;
( )
( )
Similarly; energy of third, fourth, fifth, and so on orbits i.e. “

” then we have;
( )
( )
( )
( )
These are the bounding energy of electron with nucleus and negative sign shows
the charge on electron. When electron moves from inner orbit to outer most
orbit, its bounding energy decreases and the electron become free.
From these values of the energy, it is clear that, if we calculate the energy
of different radii for electron, far away from the nucleus, the energy of the
orbit for electron decreases. If electron present in first orbit, for escaping this
electron required very high energy, if the electron far away from the nucleus,
then for escaping this required small energy. As shown in figure 9.3.
 HYDROGEN EMISSION SPECTRUM OR EMISSION of

SPECTRAL LINE SERIES:
According to the fourth postulate of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom, when an

electron jumped from high energy state “ ” to lower energy state “ ”, it
will emit the spectral line in the form photon (energy) which has energy equal
to difference of energies of the two orbit i.e.
()
And we also know that; ( )
( )
And quantized energy for high energy state is given by;
[ ] ( )
And quantized energy for lower energy state is given by;
[ ] ( )
Putting Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get;
( )
{ [ ]} { [ ]}
[ ] [ ]
[ ]{ }
[ ]
[ ]
Diving both side by “ ” we will get;
[ ]
Where “ ” Rydberg’s Constant then above

equation becomes;
[ ] ( )
This is the formula for the spectrum of Hydrogen atom.
 ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM:
When electron exists in one of their allowed orbit in the hydrogen atom, then it
is said to be in the ground state. But if it gained some energy, it will move
to one of the high energy state. The high energy state for the electron in the
hydrogen atom is “ ”, “ ”, “ ”, “ ”, “ ” and so on. Which are
called excited states.
The energy of electron in these excited states calculated by the relation;
According to this formula, the energy of electron in the first, second, third,
fourth, fifth and so on, infinity orbit is “ ”, “ ”, “ ”,
“ ”, “ ” respectively and so on. As shown in figure 9.4.
1. According to this energy level diagram, when electron comes from any
outer most orbit (excited state) i.e. “ ” to the first orbit
(ground state or lower state) i.e. “ ”, we will get “Lyman
Series”, which is in ultra violet region.
2. If the electron comes from any outer most orbit (excited state) i.e.
“ ” to the second orbit (ground state or lower state) i.e.
“ ”, we will get “Ballmer Series”, which is in visible region.
“ ” to the third orbit (ground state or lower state) i.e.
“ ”, we will get “Paschen Series”, which is in the infra-red
region.
“ ” to the fourth orbit (ground state or lower state) i.e.
“ ”, we will get “Brackett Series”, which is in the infra-red
region.
“ ” to the fifth orbit (ground state or lower state) i.e.
“ ”, we will get “Pfund Series”, which is in the infra-red region.
This energy level diagram can be used to illustrate the origin of various spectral
series observed in the emission spectrum of hydrogen atom.
 DE-BROGLIE’S WAVE AND HYDROGEN ATOM:
As the time of formation of Bohr’s theory, there was no justification for the
first two postulates while postulate three has some roots in Plank’s quantum
theory (Plank’s thesis). After proposing his matter wave hypothesis, de Broglie
provides some evidence about third postulate of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom.
 Explanation:
Consider a string of length “ ” and we produced

“ ” number of loop in this string then
mathematically; as shown in figure 9.5.
()
Where “ ” is an integers.
Suppose, if this string is bent into a circle of radius
“ ”, then; as shown in figure 9.6.
( )
And;
( )
Then; ()
But according to de Broglie hypothesis, the
As we know that; ( )
wavelength of de Broglie wave is given by;
Comparing Eq:( ) and Eq:( ) we will get;
( )
or
( ) Eq:( ) becomes;

Multiplying by “ ” and “ ” and dividing by “ ” on both sides we will

get;
( )
This is the third postulate of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom.

The angular momentum of electron in a circular orbit is an integral multiple of
“ ” or “ ” because “ ” i.e.
 LIMITATION OF BOHR’S THEORY (FAILURE OF BOHR’S

THEORY):
The following are the limitation of Bohr’s theory given below;
1. Bohr’s theory can explain the spectra of atoms which consist of only one
electron i.e. hydrogen atom, but fail to explain the spectra of atoms
containing more electrons.
2. When the spectral line of hydrogen atom is examined or observe by more
precision instruments closely, then it found that, this spectral line consists of
number of closely space lines called “Fine Structure”. So Bohr’s theory is
failed to explain fine structure.
3. The Bohr’s theory is also failed to explain the splitting of a spectral line
into a number of spectral line due to electric field (Stark Effect) and
magnetic field (Zeeman Effect).
CHAPTER NO.19
ATOMIC SPECTRA
Q.NO.1: Why does the spectrum of hydrogen consists of many lines even though
a hydrogen atom has only a single electron?
Answer: Hydrogen atom consists of only a single electron which exists in the
inner most shell, nut there are so many empty shell (orbit) in it.
When this electron gained some amount of energy and excited to some higher
energy state, then its time of excitation is very small which is “ ”.
When this electron becomes de-excited to its ground state by several jumps, then
it emits several lines of different frequency and wavelength.
Hence the spectrum of hydrogen atom consists of many lines even though a
hydrogen atom has only a single electron.
Q.No.2: Suppose that the electron in hydrogen atom obeyed classical mechanics
rather than quantum mechanics. Why would such a hypothetical atom emit a
continuous spectrum rather than the observed line spectrum?
Answer: According to classical mechanics i.e. according to electromagnetic theory,

an electron is an accelerating particle and will radiate its energy, when revolved
around the nucleus.
This means that, the electron will radiate electromagnetic waves continuously.
Hence a continuous spectrum is formed rather than the line spectrum.
Q.No.3: Can the electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom absorb a photon
of energy (a). less than “ ” or (b). greater than “ ”? Explain.
Answer: The energy of electron in the quantized orbit of hydrogen atom is

given by;
(a). When the electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom absorbed energy
less than “ ” i.e. absorbed energy equal to the difference of energy of
two orbit i.e. “ ” which is less than “ ”, then it becomes excited
from the ground state to excited state.
(b). But when the electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom absorbed
energy greater than “ ”, then “ ” of energy is used to ionized
the electron from the hydrogen atom and the remaining energy is used as a
kinetic energy of the ionized electron.
Q.No.6: Why Bohr extend quantum theory to the structure of the atom?
Answer: According to classical mechanics i.e. according to electromagnetic theory,

an electron is an accelerating particle and will radiate its energy, when revolved
around the nucleus. Finally it should falls into the nucleus and the atom will be
destroyed in a short period of time.
But Bohr extends quantum theory to the structure of the atom, that when the
electron revolving around the nucleus in one of its allowed orbit, it does not
radiate energy and will not fall into the nucleus to destroyed the atom.
This electron will radiate energy in the form of quanta or photon, when it
jumps form high energy state to lower energy state.
CHAPTER NO. 20
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS:
The branch of physics in which we study the properties of nucleus and other
fundamental particles in nucleus is called “Nuclear Physics”.
 Element:
The pure form of a matter is called “Element”, such as copper, gold, silver etc.
 Atom:
The smallest particle of an element is called “Atom”. All the atoms are same
of particular element but atoms are different from different element, such as all
the atoms are same in copper element, but atoms in the copper element is
different from the atoms in the gold of other element.
 Nucleus:
Nucleus consists of protons and neutron, protons and neutrons collectively called
“Nucleon”. Two particles (proton and neutron) are about 1840 times more massive
than electron.
Electrons are revolved around the nucleus in allowed specific orbits (shells), these
shells and nucleus combine to form atoms, and similar atoms combine to form
element, and different atoms combine to form compound.
 Atomic Number:
The number of protons in the nucleus is called “Atomic Number”, denoted by
“ ”.
If an atom is neutral (no react with other atom) then the number of proton
“ ” in the nucleus must be equal to the number of electron “ ” in the atom
i.e. “ ”. After reaction the number of electron is change in the atom i.e.
some of the atoms gain the electrons and some of the atoms loss the electrons.
 Mass Number:
The sum of protons number and neutrons number in the nucleus is called “Mass
Number”,
Or the total number of nucleon in the nucleus is called “Mass Number” denoted
by “ ”.
 Generally Representation of Element, Atomic Number & Mass Number:
Generally represent the element by “ ” and written as;
Where “ ” is represent the element, “ ” represent the mass number and “ ”

represent the atomic number.
 For Example:
; “ ” is element called sodium, “ ” is atomic number i.e. “ ”

and “ ” is mass number i.e. “ ”
So the atomic number is “ ”, then number of protons and electrons are

also “ ” i.e. “ ”
The number of neutron can be determined by the following method;
We know that; the sum of protons number “ ” and neutrons number “ ” is

called “Mass Number”, “ ”. i.e.
And the protons number is also called “Atomic number”, “ ”. i.e. “ ”, then
above equation becomes;
Subtracting “ ” from both sides we have;
This is the formula for the determined the number of neutron in the given atom.
So in sodium the number of neutron is given by;
and then;
So there are “ ” neutrons in sodium atom.
 Other Example:
Find the atomic number “ ”, mass number “ ”, protons number “ ”,

electrons number “ ” and neutrons number “ ” in the uranium atom.
 Solution:
and generally; comparing then;
and
 Size of Atom and Size of Nucleus:
The size of atom is “ ” and the size of nucleus is

“ ”.
From this calculation, it is clear that the atomic size is “ ” greater than
the nucleus size or nucleus size is “ ” smaller than the atomic size.
 NUCLEAR MASSES:
Nuclear masses are comparatively much smaller as compared to that of physically

occurring objects. Therefore, it is generally expressed in terms of a new unit
called “Atomic Mass Unit” (amu). To estimate the nuclear masses, we use the
Avogadro’s hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, a mole of a substance is that
amount which has mass in gram equal to its atomic weight.
 For Example:
One mole of carbon “ ” has twelve (12) grams. So, one mole of carbon
“ ” contained “ ” number of atoms of carbon “ ” which is
called Avogadro number i.e. “ ”.
()
For the sake of simplicity, the weight of “ ” of a carbon “ ” is

defined as; one Atomic Mass unit short 1 amu, so;
Dividing both sides by “ ” of Eq: ( ) we have;
()
( )
One amu, in term of mass
It is often convenient, in nuclear physics to express certain masses in energy
unit. According to Einstein mass-energy equivalence relation.
( )
( )
We know that;
( )
One amu, in term of energy

The masses of electron, proton and neutron on amu scale are;
 MASS DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY:

 Mass Defect:
The difference in the sum of masses of all nucleon (protons & neutrons) present
in the nucleus and the nuclear mass is known as “The Mass Defect”, denoted by
“ ”
If “ ( ) ” is the mass of nucleus, “ ” is the mass of proton and “ ”

is the mass of neutrons present in the nucleus the mathematically the mass
defect is given by;
( )
( ) ( )
Where “ ” atomic number or number of protons and “ ” or “ ” is the

number of neutron.
 Explanation:
Nucleus is consists of protons and neutrons. It has been observed that the mass
of the nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of all nucleons
(protons & neutrons) present in the nucleus.
 Example:
Let us calculate the mass defect of deuterium “ ”. It has one proton and one
neutron in its nucleus. So, we would expect that the mass of deuterium to be
there equal to the mass of one neutron plus mass of ordinary hydrogen atom
(proton), i.e.
( )
Therefore, expected mass of deuterium is given by;
But the measured mass of deuterium “ ” is found to be “ ”

So, the mass defect or mass difference of these masses is given by;
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
Therefore, in deuterium mass defect is “ ”. This missing mass may

be regarded as the mass, which would be converted into energy.
Therefore, mass defect is measured of binding energy of an atom.
 Binding Energy:
The energy that keeps the nucleons (protons & neutrons) together in a bound
state is known as “The Binding Energy” of the nucleus, denoted by “ ”
 Explanation:
The difference in the sum of masses of all nucleon (protons & neutrons) present
in the nucleus and the nuclear mass is known as “The Mass Defect”, denoted by
“ ”
This missing mass may be regarded as the mass, which would be converted into
energy to bounds the nucleons (protons & neutrons). More the mass defect, more
tightly the nucleons (protons & neutrons) are bound in the nucleus.
Therefore, mass defect is measured of binding energy of an atom.
Mathematically, binding energy is written by Einstein mass-energy equivalence
relation;
( )
The binding energy per nucleons (protons & neutrons) which also called mass
number “ ”
The binding energy per nucleons is called “Packing Fraction”, and packing fraction
denoted by “ ”. Then;
( )
The smaller the value of packing fraction the more stable is the nucleus and vice
versa, its means that the packing fraction is inversely proportional to the stability
of nucleus.
1. For very light nuclei, like “ ”, “ ” etc. packing fraction is very large,
hence nucleons (protons & neutrons) in these nuclei are loosely bound. In
fact, out of all known stable nuclei, nucleons in “ ” are most loosely
bound.
2. As mas number “ ” increases up to “ ”, the packing fraction goes on
decreasing till it becomes zero for mass number “ ”, for “ ”
nucleus.
3. As mass number “ ” further increases, for nuclei with “ ”,
packing fraction becomes negative. The nucleons in these nuclei are strongly
bound in the nucleus.
4. Beyond mass number “ ”, packing fraction again is positive. Thus,
most of the nuclei with mass number “ ” are unstable.
 RADIOACTIVITY:
The phenomenon of the spontaneous disintegration of the heavier elements

“ ” in to lighter elements along with the emission of three type of
radiations is called “Radioactivity”. And the element is called “Radioactive Element”.
Radioactive element emitted (disintegrated) alpha “ ” and beta “ ” and gamma

“ ” rays (electromagnetic ray).
The radioactive elements which decays (emit) is called “Parent Element”, the
newly form elements is called “Daughter Elements”.
 Example:
The radioactive elements are polonium “ ”, radium “ ” and uranium

“ ”.
 NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION:
The conversion of one element into another element by emission or absorption of

nuclear radiations (particles) is called “Nuclear Transmutation”.
There are three types of decays from the radioactive element and covert into
new element such as; alpha emission, beta emission and gamma emission.
1. Alpha Emission:
Alpha is particle which consist of two protons and two neutron emitted from
the radioactive element. Helium nucleus also consists of two protons and two
neutrons. So alpha particle is basically Helium Nucleus. Alpha particle denoted by
“ ”.
Alpha particle has two protons so it atomic number is two i.e. “ ” and
two neutrons so its mass number is four (two protons and two neutrons i.e.
“ ”.
When radioactive element emits alpha “ ” particle, its charge number (atomic
number) decreases by two “ ” and mass number decreases by four “ ”.
Generally, Alpha emission or alpha decay in mathematically from is written as;
( ) ( )
Where “ ” is positive because the emission is spontaneous.
 Example:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2. Beta Emission:
In this process either negative beta (electron or negatron) or positive beta
(positrons) are emitted. Electron (negatron) and positron are anti-particles of
each other. Beta particle denoted by “ ” or “ ”
i. Negative Beta Emission:

The negative beta particles are electrons but not orbital electron, they are
emitted from the nucleus.
When neutron decays (convert) into proton in nucleus of the radioactive element,
negative beta particles or negatron (electron) “ ” is produced along with
anti-neutrino “ ̅ ” and energy i.e.
( ) ( ) ̅( ) ( )
In case of negative beta particle “ ” emission from the radioactive element

then, the protons number increases due to which the atomic number “ ”
increases from “ ” to “ ” but mass number “ ” remains the same.
Generally, negative Beta emission or electron (negatron) decay in mathematically is
written as;
̅
 Example:
̅
ii. Positive Beta Emission:

The positive beta particles are positron they are emitted from the nucleus.
When proton decays (convert) into neutron in nucleus of the radioactive element,
positive beta particles or positron “ ” is produced along with neutrino “ ”
and energy i.e.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
In case of positive beta particle “ ” emission from the radioactive element

then, the protons number decreases due to which the atomic number “ ”
decreases from “ ” to “ ” but mass number “ ” remains the same.
Generally, positive Beta emission or positron decay in mathematically is written as;
 Example:
3. Gamma Emission:
Most of alpha “” or beta “” emission leaves the daughter element (nuclide) in
excited state such a nuclide comes to the ground state by the emission of one
or more electromagnetic rays which are called “Gamma Ray”. Gamma ray is
denoted by “ ”. And the daughter nuclide which are in excited state denoted by
“ ( )”
Thus gamma emission will cause no change in atomic number “ ” and mass
number “ ”.
Generally, positive Beta emission or positron decay in mathematically is written as;
( ) ( )
 Example:
( )

 HALF LIFE:
The time required for the number of radioactive elements (nuclide) to reduce to
half by disintegration (decay or emission) is called “Half Life”.
 Explanation:
Suppose “ ” atoms of a certain radioactive element “ ” are present

initially. The number of atoms decreased as;
 From “ ” to “ ” after one half life, then

 From “ ” to “ ” after one half life, etc.
Therefore the amount of radioactive element decreases with the passage of time
called “Half Life”. As shown in figure 20.2.
Half-life value range from a fraction of a second to billions of years.
 Example:
The half-life of polonium “ ” is “ ” and that of lead

“ ” is “ ”.
 RATE OF DECAY OR RADIOACTIVE DECAY LAW:
This law state that, “The rate of disintegration (decay) of radioactive element
(nuclide) at any instant is directly proportional to the total number of nuclei
present at that time”.
 Explanation:
Mathematically; if “ ” is the total number of nuclei present and “ ” is

the rate of disintegration then;
( )
()
Where “ ” is decay constant which depends on the nature of the element and
negative sign indicate that the rate of disintegration decreases with passage time.
If “ ” is the initial number of radioactive element at time is zero i.e.

“ ”, and “ ” is the remaining number of radioactive element after
disintegration at time “ ”. Eq: can be written as;
()
( )
Then taking integration of the limit “ ” and “ ” of the Eq: ( )

we will get;
∫ ∫( ) ∫ ∫
( )
Putting the limit we have;
( )
Applying logarithm rule we have;
( )
Taking exponential form we will get;
( )
( )
 Unit of Radioactivity:
In SI (system international) the unit of radioactivity is “Becquerel” denoted by
“ ”.
If one disintegration occurs in one second, then the radioactivity will be one
Becquerel.
Radioactivity is also measured in term of a unit called “Curie”, denoted by “ ”

i.e.
 THE RELATION BETWEEN THE DECAY CONSTANT AND

THE HALF LIFE:
We know that the rate of decay formula is given by;
()
After one half-life, the “ ” number of radioactive element is half from the
initial number i.e. “ ” at time is “ ”. Putting in Eq: ( ) we will
get;
()
Inverting the equation we have;
Taking logarithm on both sides;
Dividing both sides by decay constant “ ” we will get;
This is the relation between the decay constant “ ” and the half-life “ ”.
 BASIC FORCES OF NATURE OR TYPE OF INTERACTION:
There are four basic forces in nature as;
 Strong Force
 Electromagnetic Force
 Weak Force
 Gravitational Force
1. Strong Force:
i. The strong force is very short ranged force and is negligible for
separation greater than “ ”.
ii. It is responsible for the binding of neutron and proton into nucleus.
iii. Strong force holds several nucleons (proton & neutron) against the
electromagnetic force of repulsion of the protons.
iv. Strong force is charge independent, i.e. it is the same between proto,
proton “ ”, neutron, neutron “ ” and proton, neutron “ ”.
v. These forces are exchange by “Gluons”.
2. Electromagnetic Force:
i. The electromagnetic force is long range force that decreases in strength
as the inverse square of the separation between the interactions of
particles.
ii. It is responsible for the binding of atoms and molecules.
iii. The electromagnetic force, which is about “ ” times strength of the
strong force.
iv. These forces are exchange by “Photons”, which are the quanta of the
electromagnetic field.
3. Weak Force:
i. The weak force is short range nuclear force that tends to produced
instability in certain nuclei.
ii. It is responsible for most radioactive decay processes such as beta decay.
iii. The weak force, which is about “ ” times strength of the strong
force.
iv. These forces are exchange by “ ”.
v. The weak and electromagnetic forces are two manifestations of a single
force called “The Electro Weak Force.
4. Gravitational Force:
i. The gravitational force is long range force.
ii. It is responsible for keeping heavenly bodies like moons, planets, star,
sun, earth, etc. in their orbit.
iii. The gravitational force, which is about “ ” times strength of the
strong force.
iv. These forces are exchange by “Gravitons”.
 Note:
One also hears about many other interactions (forces) like chemical, electrical,
mechanical, atomic forces, but all such interactions (forces) belong to the above
mentioned interactions (forces).

Contact No & Whatsapp: 0346 198 36 30
Contact No: 0311 0 900 523
CHAPTER NO.20
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Q.NO.1: Why does the alpha particle not make physical contact with nucleus,
when an alpha particle in headed directly toward the nucleus of an atom.
Answer: At the atomic level, there is no such thing as “Physical Contact”.

Atoms and nuclei are cloud without well-defined edges. However alpha particle as
being positively charged particle also suffers an electrostatic repulsion from a
positive charge nucleus therefore there is less probability for alpha particle to
come into nuclear dimension.
Alpha particle is basically Helium nucleus, having two protons and two neutrons.
Therefore, alpha particle is positively charged particle. All the nuclei have two
protons in them along with neutral neutrons, therefore they all carry positive
charged.
Now when an alpha particle is headed directly towards the nucleus it will suffer
strong, electrostatic repulsion due to similar positive charges. Since nuclei have no
well-define boundary, so we cannot define physical contact.
Q.No.2: Why do heavier elements require more neutrons in order to attain

stability?
Answer: Due to presence of large number of protons in the atomic nucleus the
packing fraction (binding energy per nucleon) decreases, thus to attain the stability
more neutrons are added so as to increase the packing fraction.
The packing fraction is the measure of stability of a nucleus. The nucleus with
large packing fraction is more stable. If “ ” is the mass number
(number of nucleon), then the binding fraction “ ” is;
( )
Q.No.5: How many protons are there in the nucleus “ ”? How many
neutrons and how many electrons are there in the neutral atom?
Answer: In “ ” there are “ ” protons and “ ” neutrons. In neutral

atom there will be “ ” electrons because the number of protons and electrons
are same for a neutral atom.
In representing nuclei, it is convenient to have a system of symbols to show
how many protons and neutrons are present. The symbol used is “ ”, where
“ ” represents the chemical symbol for the element, “ ” is represents the
number of protons and “ ” represents the number of nucleons (number of
protons plus number of neutrons). Therefore, in “ ”, “ ”, thus there
are “ ” protons. Since “ ”, this means that number of nucleons is
“ ”;
Or number of protons plus number of neutrons i.e.
Hence there are “ ” neutrons in “ ”. There are “ ” protons and

“ ” electrons in neutral atom of “ ”.
Q.No.6: “ ” has half-life of “ ” years.
(a). What fraction remains after “ ” years and
(b). How many half-life does it have in “ ” years.
Answer: (a). Number of half-lives in “ ” years is;
The number of nuclei left “ ” to the total nuclei present “ ” is given by

formula;
( )
Putting the values we have;
( )
( )
The number of nuclei left “ ” will be “ ” times total nuclei “ ”

present.
(b). Number of half-lives in “ ” years is;
Hence “ ” half-lives would have passed after “ ” years.
Q.No.12: What happens to atomic number of nucleus that emits gamma “ ”

ray photons? What happens to its mass?
Answer: The atomic number and mass number of nucleus remain unchanged, when
a nucleus emits gamma “ ” ray photons.
Gamma “ ” rays are high energy photons carry no charge and has no rest
mass. Gamma rays are emitted by unstable nuclei which are in high energy state
to attain stability. Gamma radioactive decay photons commonly have energies of a
few hundred “ ”, and are almost less than “ ” in energy. Their
emission do not make any change in charge number “ ” or nucleon number
“ ”. The gamma decay process is written as;
( )
Q.No.15: What happens to the atomic number and mass number of a nucleus
that (a). Emits an electron? (b). Undergoes an electron Capture? (c). Emits an
alpha particle?
Answer: In electron emission and electron capture mass number of nucleus does
not changed, only the atomic number changed. However, in alpha emission both
mass number and atomic number changes.
(a) Electron Emission:

In electron emission (beta decay “ ”) of a radionuclide does not change its
mass number “ ”, because electron (beta) emission changes a neutron into
proton. Thus the atomic number “ ” is increased by one unit. i.e.
(b) Electron Capture:

Electron capture is a process in which a proton-rich (unstable) nuclide absorbs an
inner atomic electron, thereby changing a nuclear proton to a neutron and causing
of neutrino. Thus the mass number “ ” does not change but atomic number
“ ” decreases by one unit. i.e.
(c) Alpha Emission:

In alpha emission, the original (parent) nuclide is converted to a daughter by the
emission of helium nucleus (alpha emission), and mass number “ ” of daughter
nucleus reduced by four and atomic number “ ” of daughter nucleus reduced by
two. i.e.
( )
( )
Q.No.16: How many alpha decays occur in the decay of thorium “ ” into
pabulum (lead) “ ”?
Answer: Four alpha decays will transform thorium “ ” in to pabulum (lead)

“ ”. i.e.
In alpha emission, the original (parent) nuclide is converted to a daughter by the
emission of helium nucleus (alpha emission), and mass number “ ” of daughter
nucleus reduced by four and atomic number “ ” of daughter nucleus reduced by
two. i.e.
( )
1. First alpha decay; thorium “ ” decays into radium “ ” by alpha

decay with half-life of “ ” years. i.e.
( )
2. Second alpha decay; radium “ ” decays into radon “ ” by alpha

decay with half-life of “ ” years. i.e.
( )
3. Third alpha decay; radon “ ” decays into polonium “ ” by alpha

decay with half-life of “ ” second. i.e.
( )
4. Fourth alpha decay; radon “ ” decays into pabulum (lead) “ ” by

alpha decay with half-life of “ ” second. i.e.
( )

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Physics 2nd Year ~1~

Excellence Physics Notes

Dividing both sides by we will get;

It’s mean that one Coulomb “ ” charge is equal to of electrons.

Ampere is base unit of the current “ ”; then;

 PROPERTIES of ELECTRIC CHARGE:

Mathematically, consider two point charges

Combing Eq:( ) and Eqe: ( ) we will get;

Where “ ” is proportionality constant and is called Coulomb’s constant. When the

medium which is defined as to store electrical energy in electric field. Then

It is found experimentally that the Coulomb’s force is affected by changing the

 COULOMB’S LAW in MATERIAL MEDIA:

Where “ ” is the relative permittivity or conductivity of the dielectric medium,

1. The charge “ ” produced an

 ELECTRIC FIELD INTESITY DUE to POINT CHARGE:

“The force exerted by a source charge “ ” on a

Putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we have;

In vector form it can be written as;

Electric field strength is vector quantity.

 UNIT of ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY:

In SI the unit of electric field intensity is ( ) or ( ).

 REPRESENTATION of ELECTRIC FIELD LINES:

1. Electric field lines (lines of force) due

 PROPERTIES of ELECTRIC FIELD LINES:

 UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD:

Electric flux is denoted by “ ”. If “⃗⃗ ” is the electric field intensity of the

If the vector area “⃗⃗ ” is placed inclined to the

In this case electric flux “ ” depends on angle

If the vector area “⃗⃗ ” is placed perpendicular to

Putting “ ” in above equation then we will get;

And we know that; “ ” so the above

If the vector area “⃗⃗ ” is placed parallel to the

Putting “ ” in above equation then we will get;

And we know that; “ ” so the above equation becomes;

 ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH a CLOSE

The magnitude of the electric field intensity “⃗⃗ ” at

Now electric flux passing through each area is given

Similarly the electric flux “ ” “ ” and “ ” through the area “ ⃗⃗ ”,

“The electric flux “ ” passing through any closed

Similarly the electric flux “ ” “ ” and “ ” through the area “ ⃗⃗ ”,

So putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we have;

Putting Eq: ( ) in Eq: ( ) we will get;

 ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH a IRREGULAR CLOSE SURFACE

To calculate the electric flux “ ” passing

But then the above equation becomes;

This equation gives the mathematical expression of Gauss’s Law.

Written & Composed By: Muhammad Darwish.

 Linear Charge Density:

 Surface Charge Density:

 Volume Charge Density:

 APPLICATION’S of GAUSS’S LAW:

1. Electric Field Intensity Inside a Hallow Charge Sphere OR Electric

As there is no charge in the Gaussian surface so; then Eq: ( ) becomes;

Comparing Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we will get;

As area “ ⃗⃗ ” is never zero of the sphere i.e. “ ⃗⃗ ” so;

Hence the interior of the charge conductor is a field free region.

Where “ ” is the total charge on the spherical shell i.e. “

2. Electric Field Intensity due to Absence of Electric Field and due to

But the charge inside the conductor is zero i.e. “ ”; so;

Comparing Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we will get;

As area “ ⃗⃗ ” is never zero of the conductor i.e. “ ⃗⃗ ” so;

3. Electric Field Intensity due to Charge Which Placed in Hallow

Comparing Eq: ( ) and Eq: ( ) we will get;