UNIT I

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND

MEASUREMENTS
DC CIRCUITS
• Basics of Electricity
• Electric Energy and power
• Circuit elements and Sources
• Kirchhoff’s laws
• Series and Parallel combination of
Resistances
 AC Circuits
• Sinusoidal excitation
• RMS, Average and Peak values
• Phasor representation
• RC,RL and RLC circuits
• Complex power
• Balanced circuits
 Electric Circuits
• Electric circuit is a conducting path
through which electric current flows or is
intended to flow
• DC circuits
• AC circuits
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
• Current: The rate of flow of electric charge past a point in a
circuit
– Measured in amperes (A)
– 1 A = 1 C/s = 6.25  1018 electrons per second
– Current direction taken as direction positive charges flow
– Analogous to volume flow rate (volume/unit time) of water in a
pipe
• Voltage: Electrical potential energy per unit charge
– Measured in volts (V): 1 V = 1 J/C
– Ground is the 0 V reference point, indicated by symbol
– Analogous to water pressure
• Resistance: Restriction to charge flow
– Measured in ohms ()
– Analogous to obstacles that restrict water flow
 Electric Circuits
• There are two ways to connect multiple
devices to a voltage source
• One is called series
• The other is called parallel
• Each has unique properties which we now
examine
Series Circuits
 Series Circuits
• A single pathway through the circuit
• The current is the same everywhere in the
circuit
• Each device provides resistance and total
resistance is the sum of the devices
• Voltage divides among the devices
• Voltage drop across each device is Irdevice
Parallel Circuits
 Parallel Circuits
• Each device connects to the voltage
source
• Voltage is the same across each device
• Current from source divides into devices
• Total current is the sum of device currents
• Current in each device is just V/R
• Add devices, lower total resistance
 Series Circuit Calculation

10 ohm 20 ohm 30 ohm

12 V
 Parallel Circuit Calculation
10 ohm

20 ohm

30 ohm

12 V
 Electric Power
• Moving charges do work
• We can heat the filament in a light bulb
• We can turn the rotor in a motor
• The rate at which work is done is power
• Electric Power = current x voltage
• Units are watts = joules/sec = amperes x
volts
Electric Power

P  VI
 I  2
P   I  I R
R 
2
V  V
P  V   
 R  R
 Power Calculation

10 ohm 20 ohm 30 ohm

12 Volt
 Power Calculation
10 ohm

20 ohm

30 ohm

12 Volt
 A Simple DC Circuit

V V

• Resistors have a constant resistance over a broad range of

voltages and currents
– Then V  IR with R = constant (Ohm’s law)
• Power = rate energy is delivered to the resistor = rate
energy is dissipated by the resistor V2
P  IV  I R 
2

R
 Ideal Voltage and Current Sources
• An ideal voltage source is a source of voltage with zero internal
resistance (a perfect battery)
– Supply the same voltage regardless of the amount of current
drawn from it
• An ideal current source supplies a constant current regardless of
what load it is connected to
– Has infinite internal resistance
– Transistors can be represented by ideal current sources
 Ideal Voltage and Current Sources
• Load resistance RL connected to terminals of a real
current source:
– Larger current is through
the smaller resistance

• Current sources can always be converted to voltage

sources
– Terminals A’B’ act
electrically exactly
like terminals AB
 Ohm’s Law
It States that “ The current flowing through the electric
circuit is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the circuit and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the circuit provided the temperature
remains constant.”
V=IR
where R is the resistance of that resistor.
In other words, I = V/R is the current in the
circuit.
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm, abbreviated
by the symbol Ω.
 Nodes, Paths and loops
• Nodes are points were 2 or more elements meet
• Loops are closed paths around the circuit
starting and ending at a node

+
R1 R2
v1 -

R3
 Kirchhoff’s Laws

• The I-V relationship for a device tells us how current and voltage
are related within that device.
• Kirchhoff’s laws tell us how voltages relate to other voltages in a
circuit, and how currents relate to other currents in a circuit.
• KVL: The sum of voltage drops around a closed path must
equal zero.
• KCL: The sum of currents leaving a node must equal zero.
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

a b
+ Vab -
• Suppose I add up the potential drops
- +
around the closed path, from “a” to “b”
V
to “c” and back to “a”. V ca bc
-
• Since I end where I began, the total
+
drop in potential I encounter along the c
path must be zero: Vab + Vbc + Vca = 0
• We can use potential rises throughout instead of potential
drops; this is an alternative statement of KVL.
 Writing KVL
Equations
a b c

+ v2  v3
 +
What does KVL
say about the 1 2
+ + +
voltages along va vb vc
these 3 paths?  - 

3
Path 1:  va  v 2  vb  0
Path 2:  vb  v3  vc  0
Path 3:  va  v2  v3  vc  0
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• The sum of all current entering a closed surface or

point must equal zero—whatever goes in must come
out.
• Remember that current leaving a closed surface can
be interpreted as a negative current entering:
i1 -i1
is the same statement as
 KCL Equations

In order to satisfy KCL, what is the value of i?

24 A -4 A
KCL says:
24 A + -10 A + (-)-4 A + -i =0
18 A – i = 0 10 A i
i = 18 A

OR
24 +4 = 10 + i i = 18 A
 Example

 Find v using KVL and KCL

 Solution

A B

KCL @ A gives KVL around the blue path gives

IAB = 3 -1 = 2A
-18 - 1*6 +2*3 + 4*4 – V = 0
KCL @ B gives
V = -2 V
IB = 2 + @ = 4 A
 Example
Use KCL and KVL to find I1 and I2.
 Solution

KVL around the path bacb

1  I2  4  0
KCL at aI

KCL at b  12  3I1  6 I1  9 I 3  0
I 2  I3  4  6
Solving the equations gives
KCL at c
I1  6  I 3 I1 = -7/3 A I2 = -5/3 A
Exercise
 Elements in Series

• Suppose two elements are connected with nothing coming

off in between.
• KCL says that the elements carry the same current.
• We say these elements are in series.

i1 – i2 = 0 i1 = i2
 Resistors in Series

• i
Consider resistors in series. This means they are attached end-to-end, with
nothing coming off in between.

R1 R2 R3
+ i R1 - + i R2 - + i R3 -
+ VTOTAL -
• Each resistor has the same current (labeled i).
• Each resistor has voltage iR, given by Ohm’s law.
• The total voltage drop across all 3 resistors is
VTOTAL = i R1 + i R2 + i R3 = i (R1 + R2 + R3)
 Resistors in Series
i

R1 R2 R3
v -
• When we look at all three resistors together as one unit, we see
that
+ they have the same I-V relationship as one resistor, whose
value is the sum of the resistances:
• So we can treat these resistors as
just one equivalent resistance, as
long as we are not interested in the i
individual voltages.
• Their effect on R1 + R2 + R3
the rest of the circuit is the same,
whether lumped together or not. + v -
 Resistors in Series
• Find total power expended in the circuit

5k 35k 25k

+ +
10V 10k 10V R?
- -

5k 50k 15k

R = R1 + R2 + … + Rn R = (5 + 35 + 25 + 10 + 5 + 50 + 15)k
V 2 10 2 10 2 100
p     0.7 mW
R R (5  35  25  10  5  50  15)k 145k
 Voltage Division

• For example, we know

i = VTOTAL / (R1 + R2 + R3)
so the voltage over the first resistor is
i R1 = R1 VTOTAL / (R1 + R2 + R3)

R1
 VTOTAL
R1  R2  R3

• To find the voltage over an individual resistance in series,

take the total series voltage and multiply by the individual
resistance over the total resistance.
 Voltage Divider
vs
is 
R1  R2
R1
v1  vs
R1  R2
R2
v2  vs
R1  R2
 Voltage Divider
• Easier way to calculate Vout: Notice the voltage drops are
proportional to the resistances
R1
– For example, if R1 = R2 then Vout = Vin / 2
– Another example: If R1 = 4 W and R2 = 6 W, R2
then
Vout = (0.6)Vin
• Now attach a “load” resistor RL across
the output: R1 R1

R2
=
RL R2  RL

– You can model R2 and RL as one resistor (parallel combination),

 AC Circuits
• Introduction
• Types of AC waveforms
• Terminologies related to Alternating quantity
• RMS value
• Average value
• Form factor
• Peak factor
• Concept of phase of an alternating quantity
• Phase difference
• Phasor diagram
 Introduction to single phase AC
Circuits
• AC through pure resistance
• AC through pure inductance
• AC through pure capacitance
• Series R-L circuits
• Series R-C circuits
• Series R-L-C circuits
• Phasor diagrams
 Three phase Circuits
• An AC generator designed to develop a single sinusoidal
voltage for each rotation of the shaft (rotor) is referred to as

a single-phase AC generator.
• If the number of coils on the rotor is increased in a specified
manner, the result is a Polyphase AC generator, which
develops more than one AC phase voltage per rotation of the
rotor
In general, three-phase systems are preferred over single-phase
systems for the transmission of power for many reasons.

1. Thinner conductors can be used to transmit the same

kVA at the same voltage, which reduces the amount of copper
required (typically about 25% less).

2. The lighter lines are easier to install, and the supporting

structures can be less massive and farther apart.

3. Three-phase equipment and motors have preferred

running and starting characteristics compared to single-phase
systems because of a more even flow of power to the transducer
than can be delivered with a single-phase supply.

4. In general, most larger motors are three phase because

they are essentially self-starting and do not require a special design
or additional starting circuitry.
 Single Phase, Three phase Circuits

b) Single phase systems three-wire type.

a) Single phase systems two-wire type Allows connection to both 120 V and
240 V.

Two-phase three-wire system. The AC sources

operate at different phases.
 Three-phase Generator
• The three-phase generator has three induction coils placed 120° apart on the stator.
• The three coils have an equal number of turns, the voltage induced across each coil
will have the same peak value, shape and frequency.
 Balanced Three-phase Voltages

Three-phase four-wire system

A Three-phase Generator
Neutral Wire

Voltages having 120 phase difference

 Balanced Three phase Voltages

Neutral Wire

a) Wye Connected Source b) Delta Connected Source

Van  V p 0 Van  V p 0

Vbn  V p   120 Vbn  V p   120
Vcn  V p   240 Vcn  V p   240

a) abc or positive sequence b) acb or negative sequence

 Balanced Three phase Loads
 A Balanced load has equal impedances on all the phases

a) Wye-connected load b) Delta-connected load

Balanced Impedance Conversion:
Conversion of Delta circuit to Wye or Wye to Delta.
ZY  Z1  Z 2  Z 3
Z   Z a  Zb  Zc
1
Z   3Z Y ZY  Z 
3
 Three phase Connections
•Both the three phase source and the three phase load can be
connected either Wye or DELTA.
• We have 4 possible connection types.
• Y-Y connection
• Y-Δ connection
• Δ-Δ connection
• Δ-Y connection
•Balanced Δ connected load is more common.
•Y connected sources are more common.
 Balanced Wye-wye Connection
A balanced Y-Y system, showing the source, line and load impedances.

Line Impedance
Source Impedance
Load Impedance
 Balanced Wye-wye Connection
Line current In add up to zero.
Neutral current is zero:
In= -(Ia+ Ib+ Ic)= 0

Phase voltages are: Van, Vbn and Vcn.

The three conductors connected from a to A, b to B and c to C are called
LINES.
The voltage from one line to another is called a LINE voltage
Line voltages are: Vab, Vbc and Vca
Magnitude of line voltages is √3 times the magnitude of phase voltages. VL=
√3 Vp
 Balanced Wye-wye Connection
Line current In add up to zero.
Neutral current is zero:
In= -(Ia+ Ib+ Ic)= 0

Magnitude of line voltages is √3 times the magnitude of phase voltages. VL= √3 Vp

Van  V p 0, Vbn  V p   120, Vcn  Vp   120

Vab  Van  Vnb  Van  Vbn  3V p 30
Vbc  Vbn  Vcn  3V p   90
Vca  Vcn  Van  Van  Vbn  3V p   210
 Balanced Wye-wye Connection
Phasor diagram of phase and line voltages

VL  Vab  Vbc  Vca

= 3 Van  3 Vbn  3 Vcn
= 3V p
 Single Phase Equivalent of Balanced Y-Y Connection
Balanced three phase circuits can be analyzed on “per phase “ basis..
We look at one phase, say phase a and analyze the single phase equivalent circuit.
Because the circuıit is balanced, we can easily obtain other phase values using their
phase relationships.

Van
Ia 
ZY
 Balanced Wye-delta Connection
• Three phase sources are usually Wye connected and three phase loads are Delta
connected.
• There is no neutral connection for the Y-∆ system.

VAB
I AB 
Z
VBC
I BC 
Z
VCA
I CA 
Z
Line currents are obtained from the phase currents IAB, IBC and ICA

I a  I AB  I CA  I AB 3  30 I L  I a  Ib  Ic
I b  I BC  I AB  I BC 3  30 I p  I AB  I BC  I CA
I c  I CA  I BC  I CA 3  30 I L  3I p
 Balanced Wye-delta Connection
Phasor diagram of phase and line currents

I L  I a  Ib  Ic
I p  I AB  I BC  I CA
I L  3I p

Single phase equivalent circuit of the balanced Wye-delta

connection

Z
3
 Balanced Delta-delta Connection
Both the source and load are Delta connected and balanced.

VAB VBC VCA

I AB  , I BC  , I CA 
Z Z Z
I a  I AB  I CA , I b  I BC  I AB , I c  I CA  I BC
 Balanced Delta-wye Connection

Transforming a Delta connected source

to an equivalent Wye connection
Single phase equivalent of Delta Wye connection

Vp   30
3
 Analog Instruments

An analog device is one in which the output or

display is a continuous function of time and
bears a constant relation to its input.
 Classification
• Classified based upon the quantity they measure
(ammeter, voltmeter)
• Classified according to the current that can be
measured by them.(DC,AC)
• Classified according to the effects used for working.
• Classified as Indicating, Recording, Integrating.
• Classified on the basis of method used for
comparing the unknown quantity. (Direct /
Comparison measurement )
 Principle of operation

• Magnetic Effect.
• Thermal Effect.
• Electrostatic Effect
• Induction Effect.
• Hall Effect.
Magnetic Effect
Hall Effects
 Operating Forces

• Deflecting Force.
• Controlling Force.
• Damping Force.
 Control Systems
• Gravity Control.
• Spring Control.
 Analog Ammeters

Ammeters are connected in series in the circuit

whose current is to be measured. The power
loss in an ammeter is I2Ra.Therefore ammeters
should have a low electrical resistance so that
they cause a small voltage drop and
consequently absorb small power.
 Analog Voltmeters

Voltmeters are connected in parallel in the circuit

whose voltage is to be measured. The power
loss in an ammeter is V2/RV.Therefore voltmeters
should have a high electrical resistance so that
they cause a small voltage drop and
consequently absorb small power.
 Types of Instruments
• Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC).
• Moving Iron
• Electro-dynamometer type.
• Hot wire type.
• Thermocouple type.
• Induction type.
• Electrostatic type.
• Rectifier type.
PMMC
Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instruments
Moving Iron Instruments
Attraction Type
Electrodynamometer type Wattmeter
Energy meters
THANK U