Chapter 10

Direct-Current Circuits
Sources of emf
•The source that maintains the current in a closed circuit is called a source of emf.
•Any devices that increase the potential energy of charges circulating in circuits are sources
of emf.
•Examples include batteries and generators.
•SI units are Volts.
•The emf is the work done per unit charge.
Terminal Voltage and emf
•A real battery has some
internal resistance.
•Therefore, the terminal
voltage is not equal to the emf.

•The schematic shows the

internal resistance, r.
•The terminal voltage is ΔV
= Vb-Va
•ΔV = ε – Ir
•For the entire circuit, ε =
IR + Ir
Internal Resistance and emf
•ε is equal to the terminal voltage when the current is zero.
•Also called the open-circuit voltage.
•R is called the load resistance.
•Generally the current depends on both the load resistance and the internal
resistance.

•However, when R >> r, r can be ignored (Generally

assumed in problems).
•Power relationship
I = I2 R + I 2 r
•When R >> r, most of the power delivered by the
battery is transferred to the load resistor
Resistors in Series
•When two or more resistors are connected end-to-end,
they are said to be in series.
•The current is the same in all resistors because any
charge that flows through one resistor flows through the
other.
•The sum of the potential differences across the
resistors is equal to the total potential difference across
the combination.
Resistors in Series, cont
•Potentials add
•ΔV = IR + IR = I (R +R )
1 2 1 2

•R = R + R + R + …
eq 1 2 3

•The equivalent resistance of a series combination of

resistors is the algebraic sum of the individual resistances
and is always greater than any of the individual resistors.
Resistors in Parallel
•The potential difference across each resistor is the same
because each is connected directly across the battery terminals.
•The current, I, that enters a point must be equal to the total
current leaving that point
I = I1 + I2
•The currents are generally not the same
•Consequence of Conservation of Charge.
Household Circuits 240 V
•The utility company distributes electric power to individual
houses with a pair of wires.
•Household circuits are wired so the electrical devices are
connected in parallel with those wires.
•Circuit breakers may be used in series with other circuit
elements for safety purposes
•The potential difference between the wires is about 240V.
Example (Circuit breakers)
Circuit breakers are designed to cut off power if
the current becomes too high. In a house a circuit
breaker is rates at 10A and is connected to a line
that holds a coffee maker (1200 W) and a toaster
(1800 W). If the voltage is 240 V, will the breaker
cut off power?

P=VI 1800+1200=240 x I
I=3000/240=12.5 A

12.5A>10 A the breaker will cut off power

Kirchhoff’s rules
To solve complex circuits, we can use the following rules:
Kirchhof 1: The sum of the currents flowing into a
junction must be the same the the sum of the current
flowing out of the junction.

I1 I3
I4 I1+I2+I3=I4+I5
Kirchhof 2:IThe sum of Ivoltage gains over a loop (i.e. due
2
5
to emfs) must be equal to the sum of voltage drops over
the loop.

I
R1 R2
I=IR1+IR2

 IMPORTANT
•When starting a problem we have to assume
something about the direction of the currents
through each line. It doesn’t matter what you choose,
as long as you are consistent throughout the problem.
example:
I1 I3 R3 I1 I3 R3
Both are okay
R1 I2 R2 R1 I2 R2

I=I1 I=I1 I=I1 I=I1

V V
Kirchhoff I: Kirchhoff I:
I1-I2-I3=0 I1+I2+I3=0
Kirchhoff 2: V-I1R1-I2R2=0 Kirchhoff 2: V-I1R1+I2R2=0
Problem-Solving Strategy – Kirchhoff’s
Rules
•Draw the circuit diagram and assign labels and
symbols to all known and unknown quantities
•Assign directions to the currents.
•Apply the junction rule to any junction in the circuit
•Apply the loop rule to as many loops as are needed
to solve for the unknowns
•Solve the equations simultaneously for the unknown
quantities
•Check your answers
Example I1 I3
R1=R2=R3=3 Ohm
What is the
R1 R3 V1=V2=12 V
current R2
through and I2
voltage
over each R? V1 V2
•Apply kirchhoff’s rules
1) I1+I2-I3=0 (kirchhoff I)
2) left loop: V1-I1R1+I2R2=0 so 12-3I1+3I2=0
3) right loop: V2+I3R3+I2R2=0 so 12+3I3+3I2=0
4) outside loop: V1-I1R1-I3R3-V2=0 so –3I1-3I3=0 so I1=-I3
combine 1) and 4) I2=2I3 and put into 3) 12+9I3=0 so I3=4/3 A
and I1=-4/3 A and I2=8/3 A
 RC circuits
Consider the below RC circuit circuit.
•When the battery is connected, a current passes through
the resistor, and the capacitor begins to charge up.
•As the capacitor gets more charge, and hence more
voltage, the voltage across the resistor decreases, so the
current decreases.
•Eventually, the capacitor becomes essentially fully
charged, so the current becomes essentially zero.
•The maximum charge is given by Q=Cv

V
Charging Capacitor in an RC Circuit
•The charge on the
capacitor varies with time
q = Q(1 – e-t/)
•Where thetime
constant,
=RC
•The time constant
represents the time
required for the charge
to increase from zero to
63.2% of its maximum
Discharging Capacitor in an RC Circuit
•When a charged capacitor is
placed in the circuit, it can be
discharged
q = Qe-t/RC
•The charge decreases
exponentially
•At t =  = RC, the charge
decreases to 0.368 Qmax
•In other words, in one time
constant, the capacitor loses
63.2% of its initial charge.
Notes on Capacitor Charging/Discharging
•In a circuit with a large time constant, the capacitor charges and
discharges very slowly.
•The capacitor charges and discharges very quickly if there is a
small time constant.
•After t = 10 , the capacitor is over 99.99% charged.
Example
A 10.0-µF capacitor is charged by a 10.0 V
battery through a resistance R. The capacitor
reaches a potential difference of 4.00 V in a time
interval of 3.00 s after charging begins. Find R.

R = 587 kΩ