THE POWER OF ABSTRACTION:

• Abstractions are constructed with a particular set of goals in mind and they apply when appropriate
constraints are met.

• Newton’s laws of motion are simple statements that relate the dynamics of rigid bodies to their
masses and external forces. They apply under certain constraints, for example, when the velocities
are much smaller than the speed of light.

• The abstraction mechanism is very powerful because it can make the task of building complex
systems very simple.

F = ma

• The force equation enables us to calculate the force/acceleration of a particle with a

given mass and acceleration/applied force.

• This allow us to disregard size, shape, density and temperature without details of the
experiments and observations.
THE LUMPED CIRCUIT ABSTRACTION:

What is the current flowing in the circuit?

• We can ignore the internal properties of the bulb and represent the bulb as a discrete element
called resistor with resistance R.

• We ignore the internal resistance of the battery and replace it by a voltage V.

R= V/I or I= V/R or V= IR

 A set of lumped elements that obey the lumped matter discipline using ideal wires to form an
assembly that performs a specific function results in the lumped circuit abstraction.
• In electronics, we are interested in keeping track of two basic quantities:
the current and voltage in a circuit.

• Current (I) measures the flow of charge past a point in the circuit. The
units of current are thus coulombs per second or amperes, abbreviated
as A.
• As charges move in circuits, they undergo collisions with atoms and lose
some of their energy. It thus takes some work to move charges around a
circuit.

• The work per unit charge required to move some charge between two
points is called the voltage (V) between those points. In physics, this work
per unit charge is equivalent to the difference in electrostatic potential
between the two points.

• The units of voltage are thus joules per coulomb or volts, abbreviated V.
Passive elements in electronic circuits:

• Passive Components are electronic components that do not require a Source of Energy to perform
their intended functions. They can't introduce net energy into the circuit.

E.g. Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor, etc..

Active elements in electronic circuits:

• Those devices or components which required external source to their operation is called Active
Components.

e.g. Diode, transistors, etc…

 Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL):

• The sum of the currents into a node (i.e. any point on the circuit) equals the sum of the currents
flowing out of the node.

I1=I2+I3

If we write current coming to the node as positive and leaving the node as negative:

𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒

𝐼𝑘 = 0
𝑘

KCL expresses conservation of charge

 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

• The sum of the voltages around any closed circuit is zero.

𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝

𝑉𝑘 = 0
𝑘

• Here we use the convention that the voltage across a source is positive when we move across
the source in the direction of the current and the voltage across a sink is negative when we
move across the component in the direction of the current.

V1 − V2 − V3 = 0 or V1 = V2 + V3.
−V3 + V4 = 0 or V3 = V4.

This last equality expresses the important result that components connected in parallel have the same
voltage across them.
Power:

• The power P provided or consumed by a circuit device is given by

P = VI = I2R

VI =(work/charge)*(charge/time)=work/time= power

The units of power are thus joules per second or watts, abbreviated as W.

• This law is of considerable practical importance since a key part of designing a circuit is to employ
components with the proper power rating. A component with an insufficient power rating will
quickly overheat and fail when the circuit is operated.
Resistor:

Ohms law: V=IR

 The constant of proportionality, R, is called the resistance.

 The units of resistance are ohms ()

 Any device with a linear I–V characteristic is called a resistor.

 The resistance of the device depends only on its physical properties – its size and
composition.

𝐿
R=𝐴 =resistivity, L=length, A=Area
 If we want resistance in a circuit we will use a discrete device made of some high resistivity
material (e.g., carbon).
 Usually the low power rating resistors typically used in circuits are marked with color coded
bands that give the resistance and the tolerance.
Resistor in series:

By KCL, current across all resistors is same. Then applying KVL;

V-IR1-IR2-IR3=0 or V=IR1+IR2+IR3 or V=I(R1+R2+R3) =IReq

Req=R1+R2+R3

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑖
Resistor in series:

• Current through any of the series resistors is the same as the total current.

• If you know the total applied voltage and the total resistance, you can determine the
total current by Ohm’s law.

• If you know the voltage drop across one of the series resistors Rx, you can determine
the total current by Ohm’s law.

• If you know the total current, you can find the voltage drop across any of the series
resistors by Ohm’s law.
Find out voltage Vs?
 Resistor in parallel:

By applying KCL; I=I1+I2+I3

 Since all the resistors are parallel the voltage drop should be same across them and should be equal to
the source voltage V by KVL.

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 1 1 1 𝑉
I= 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 𝑉 + +𝑅 =𝑅
𝑅1 𝑅2 3 𝑒𝑞

1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝑖
𝑖
Voltage dividers:

• Using a voltage divider circuit we can get variable out put with a given in put voltage.

From Ohms law,

Vout = IR2= (Vin/R1+R2) R2

𝑅
Vout= 𝑅 +𝑅
2
Vin
1 2

𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑉𝑛 = 𝐼𝑅𝑛 = 𝑅
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛

𝑅𝑛
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Calculate voltage across AB, BC, CD, AC, AD.
Potentiometer as a voltage divider:
Current dividers:

I=I1+I2 I1R1=I2R2

𝑅2 𝑅1
𝐼1 = 𝐼 𝐼2 = 𝐼
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Find current across all resistors?
Series-parallel circuit:

Express total resistance across AB, BC, CA

Determine the current through R4 if

VS = 5.0 V.
Determine voltage across each resistor using voltage divider formula.
 Voltage divider with load resistor:

RL=10 and 100 ohm

Find Vout with and without load resistance and compare the value for different load resistor.
Wheatstone Bridge:

Balanced Wheatstone Bridge: Vout =0

• When the bridge is balanced, the voltages across R1 and R2 are equal and the voltages across R3
and R4 are equal.

Since I1=I3 and I2=I4,