Series circuit

A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain, so the current has only
one path to take. The current is the same through each resistor. Though, the volatage is
divided across each resistor.

Two elements will be in series if:

 They have only one terminal in common

 The common point between two elements is not connected to another current-
carrying element

The total resistance of a series circuit is the sum of the resistance levels.

RT = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + RN
Similarly, the total current can be calculated as:

E
Is = RT
V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR2

The Power delivered = EI

The total power delivered to a resistive circuit is equal to the total power dissipated by the
resistive elements.

P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ……+ PN
Kirchhoff’s Voltage law:
Kirchhoff’s voltage law is stated as:

“Algebric sum of potential rises and drops around a

closed loop circuit is zero”

∑V = 0
A closed loop is any continuous path that leaves a point
in one direction and returns to that same point from
another direction without leaving the circuit as shown in
figure.
Seeing the above picture in view,

E – V 1 – V2 = 0

E = v 1 + V2

It means:

The applied voltage of a series circuit is eqial to the sim of voltage drops across the series
elements.

Voltage Divider Rule

The voltage across the resistive elements will divide the magnitude of the resistance levels.

Double Subscript Notation

The double subscript notation Vab specifies point a as the higher potential. If this is not the case, a
negative sign must be associated with magnitude of Vab.

The Voltage Vab is the voltage at point w.r.t point b.

Vab = Va - Vb

Single-Subscript notation
The single subscript notation Va specifies the voltage at point a with respect to ground. If the voltage
is less than zero volts, a negative sign must be associated with the magnitude of V a

Measurement techniques
 Ammeters are placed in series with the branch in which the current is to be measured
 Voltmeters are always hooked up across the element for which the voltage is to be
determined

Applications of SC
 Holiday lights
 Microwave Oven
 Series alarm circuit
Parallel circuits:
Two elemenst will said to be in parallel circuit if they have two points in common

Total conductance:
In Parallel circuits, the total conductance is the sum of individual conductance.

1
GT = G1 + G2 + G3 + … + GN || G = R

Points to remember:

 The total resistance of parallel resistor is always less than the value of the smallest resistor
 For parallel resistor, the total resistance will always decrease as additional element is added
in parallel
 Voltage across parallel elements always remains same
 For single-source parallel networks, the source current is equal to the sum of the individual
branch current

Kirchhoff’s current law

KCL is stated as:

“The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving an area, system or junction is zero”

∑ Ientering = ∑ Ileaving

I1 + I2 = I3 + I4

Current Divider rule:

 For two parallel elements of equal value, the current will be divided equally
 For parallel elements with different value, the smaller the resistance, the greater the
share of input current
 For parallel elements of different values, the current will spilt wih a ratio equal to the
inverse of their resistor values

Open Circuit:

A open circuit can have a potential difference across its terminal but the current
is always zero ampere
Short Circuit
A short circuit carry a current of level determined by the external circuit, but the potential
difference across its terminal is zero volts

Troubleshooting Techiniques
Troubleshooting is the process by which aqquired knowledge and experience are employed to
localize a problem and offer or implement a solution

Applications of PC:
 Car system
 Paralel computer bus connection
 House wiring
Diode:
In general, a diode is in the “on” state if the current established by the applied sources is such that its direction
matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol, and VD 0.7 V for silicon and VD 0.3 V for germanium.
Rectifier:
A device used to convert AC current into DC is called rectifier. It can be:
 Half-wave
 Full-wave

Half-Wave:
A half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts the positive half cycle (positive current) of the input signal
into pulsating DC (Direct Current) output signal.

Full-Wave:
A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the
applied ac voltage. It uses two diodes of which one conducts during one half cycle while the other conducts during
the other half cycle of the applied ac voltage

Clipper:
A circuit which cutoff voltage above or below are both at specified level is called clipper.

It can be:

 +ve Clipper
 -ve Clipper

+ve Clipper:
A clipper is said to be +ve clipper if It cuts off the +ve cycle of AC signal

-ve Clipper:
A clipper is said to be –ve clipper if it cuts off the –ve cycle of AC signal

Wheatstone Bridge:
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs
of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component.

Clamper:
A clamper is an electronic circuit that fixes either the positive or the negative peak excursions of a signal to a defined
value by shifting its DC value. The clamper does not restrict the peak-to-peak excursion of the signal, it moves the
whole signal up or down so as to place the peaks at the reference level

Clampers can be used in applications. The complex transmitter and receiver circuitry of television clamper is used as a
base line stabilizer to define sections of the luminance signals to preset levels. Clampers are also called as direct
current restorers as they clamp the wave forms to a fixed DC potential.

“A clamper is an electronic circuit that changes the DC level of a signal to the desired level
without changing the shape of the applied signal. In other words, the clamper circuit moves the
whole signal up or down to set either the positive peak or negative peak of the signal at the
desired level.”

 If the circuit pushes the signal upwards then the circuit is said to be a positive
clamper. When the signal is pushed upwards, the negative peak of the signal
meets the zero level
 if the circuit pushes the signal downwards then the circuit is said to be a
negative clamper. When the signal is pushed downwards, the positive peak of
the signal meets the zero level.

Zenor Diode:
A Zener diode is a particular type of diode that, unlike a normal one, allows current to flow not only from its anode to
its cathode, but also in the reverse direction, when the Zener voltage is reached. Zener diodes have a highly doped p-
n junction