Course:

Applied Physics

Submitted to :
Ma’am Warda

Group Detail:
Samar Shahzad -084
Asad ullah Ghazi -104
Mian Ali Imran -178
Junaid Iqbal -072
 Capacitance:
 Definition:
Capacitance is the ability of a component or circuit to collect and store energy in the form of an
electrical charge.

 Formula:
C = Q/V

 Unit:
The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (symbol: F)

 Capacitive reactance:

Capacitive reactance (symbol XC) is a measure of a capacitor's opposition to AC (alternating current).

Like resistance it is measured in ohms, but reactance is more complex than resistance because its value
depends on the frequency (f) of the signal passing through the capacitor.

Formula:
The formula for calculating the Capacitive Reactance denoted as x sub c (XC), is equal

 Series and Parallel Capacitive Reactance:

 Capacitive reactance is an opposition to AC, so series or parallel reactances are combined in the

same way as resistances.

 Combining capacitive reactances is opposite to the way capacitances are combined. The two

procedures are compatible because of the inverse relationship between XC and C.

Series Capacitive Reactance:

 Total reactance is the sum of the individual reactances.

  All reactances have the same current.

 The voltage across each reactance equals current times reactance. VC1 = I × XC1

Parallel Capacitive Reactances:

 Total reactance is found by the reciprocal formula:

 All reactances have the same voltage

 The current through each reactance equals voltage divided by reactance. IC = VC / X

 INDUCTANCE:

i. Defination:
Inductance is the property of an electric conductor or circuit that causes an electromotive force to be
generated by a change in the current flowing.

ii. Formula:

iii. UNIT:

The SI unit of inductance is Henry abbreviated as ‘H’.

iv. INDUCTIVE REACTANCE:

  An inductors electrical resistance when used in an AC circuit is called Inductive Reactance. Inductive
Reactance which is given the symbol XL, is the property in an AC circuit which opposes the change in the
current.

Inductive Reactance, XL = 2 fL

v. Series And Parallel Inductive Reactance:

 Since reactance is an opposition in ohms, the values XL in series or in parallel are combined the
same way as ohms of resistance.

 With series reactances, the total is the sum of the individual values as

 The combined reactance of parallel reactances is calculated by the reciprocal formula.

Type of Diodes:
1. Tunnel Diode:
A tunnel diode is a type of semiconductor diode that has effectively “negative resistance” due to the
quantum mechanical effect called tunneling. Tunnel diodes have a heavily doped p-n junction that is about
10 nm wide.

 Operating mode:
The operation of the tunnel diode mainly includes two biasing methods such as forward and reverse

 Forward Bias:
Forward bias or biasing is where the external voltage is delivered across the P-N junction diode. In
a forward bias setup, the P-side of the diode is attached to the positive terminal and N-side is fixed to the
negative side of the battery.

 Reverse Bias:
Reverse biasing means putting a voltage across a diode in the opposite direction
The voltage with reverse biasing doesn't cause any appreciable current to flow

 Symbols:
The circuit symbol of tunnel diode is shown in the below figure. In tunnel diode, the p-type
semiconductor act as an anode and the n-type semiconductor act as a cathode.
  Applications:
 Tunnel diodes are used as logic memory storage devices.
 Tunnel diodes are used in relaxation oscillator circuits.
 Tunnel diode is used as an ultra high-speed switch.
 Tunnel diodes are used in FM receivers.

2. Zener Diode:
A Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor device that permits current to flow in either a forward or reverse
direction. The diode consists of a special, heavily doped p-n junction, designed to conduct in the reverse
direction when a certain specified voltage is reached
Operating mode:
The Zener diode operates just like the normal diode when in the forward-bias mode, and has a turn-on
voltage of between 0.3 and 0.7 V. As the reverse voltage increases to the pre-determined breakdown
voltage (Vz), a current starts flowing through the diode.
Symbols:

Zener diode consists of two terminals: cathode and anode.

In zener diode, electric current flows from both anode to cathode and cathode to anode.
The symbol of zener diode is similar to the normal p-n junction diode, but with bend edges on the vertical
bar.
Application:

 It is normally used as voltage reference

 Zener diodes are used in voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators.
 Zener diodes are used in switching operations
 Zener diodes are used in clipping and clamping circuits.
 Zener diodes are used in various protection circuits
3. LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current flows through
it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons.

Operating mode:
There are two main ways to drive LEDs: quasi continuous-wave mode (QCW) and pulse mode. QCW
means that an LED is switched on only for certain time intervals, which are short enough to reduce
thermal effects significantly, but still long enough that the LED process is close to steady state.
Symbols:
Below is the demonstration of the LED symbol. The symbol is similar to that of the p-n junction diode. The
difference between these two symbols is that the two arrows indicate that the diode is emitting the light.

Applications:

 Used for TV back-lighting

 Uses in displays
 Used in automotive
 LEDs used in the dimming of lights

4. Photo Diode:

A photodiode is a device that helps in conversion of light into electric current. Made of semi-conductor
material and containing a p-n junction, it is designed to function in reverse bias. ... Photodiode technology
has been successfully and widely used due to its simple and low-cost rugged structure.
Operating mode:
A photodiode can be operated in one of two modes: photoconductive (reverse bias) or photovoltaic
(zero-bias). Mode selection depends upon the application's speed requirements and the amount of
tolerable dark current (leakage current).
Symbols:
A photodiode has two terminals: a cathode and an anode.

Application:
 Photodiodes majorly find its use in counters and switching circuits.
  Photodiodes are extensively used in an optical communication system.

 Logic circuits and encoders also make use of photodiode.

 It is widely used in burglar alarm systems. 

5. Varactor Diode:

The diode whose internal capacitance varies with the variation of the reverse voltage such type of diode is
known as the Varactor diode.
Operating mode:
A varactor diode is designed to store electric charge not to conduct electric current. So varactor
diode should always be operated in reverse bias. When a reverse bias voltage is applied, the electrons
from n-region and holes from p-region moves away from the junction.

Symbols:
The symbol of a varactor diode is shown in the below figure.
Two parallel lines at the cathode side represents two conductive plates and the space between these two
parallel lines represents dielectric.

Application:

 Varactor diode is used in frequency multipliers.

 Varactor diode is used in parametric amplifiers.
 Varactor diode is used in voltage-controlled oscillators.

6. Laser Diode:

A laser diode is a semiconductor that uses p-n junction for producing coherent radiation with the same
frequency and phase which is either in the visible or infrared spectrum. It is also called an injection laser
diode and, the technology is similar to that found in LED.
Operating mode:

Laser diodes can directly convert electrical energy into light. Driven by voltage, the doped p-n-transition
allows for recombination of an electron with a hole. Due to the drop of the electron from a higher energy
level to a lower one, radiation, in the form of an emitted photon is generated.
Symbols:
This laser diode circuit symbol uses the basic semiconductor diode symbol with arrows indicating the
generation and emanation of light.
Applications:
 Consumer electronics: This includes laser printers, CDs and DVD players, and fiber optic
communication.
 Industrial applications: When it comes to industrial applications, laser diodes are preferred as it
is a source of a high-intensity laser beam and used for cutting, drilling, welding, etc.
 Transistors
i. Definition: 
The transistor is a semiconductor device which transfers a weak signal from low
resistance circuit to high resistance circuit.

ii. Types Of Transistors

 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
A Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT, is a solid-state device in which the current
flow between two terminals (the collector and the emitter) is controlled by the amount
of current that flows through a third terminal (the base).

 Field Effect Transistors (FET)

The field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor that uses an electric field to control
the flow of current. ... FETs control the flow of current by the application of a voltage to the
gate, which in turn alters the conductivity between the drain and source.

iii. Schematic Symbols

Schematic symbols are used to represent different electronic components and devices

in circuit diagrams from wires to batteries and passive components to semiconductors,
logic circuits and highly complicated integrated circuits. Often this comes along when
learning about general electronics anyway.

iv. Transistor Baising

The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper collector
emitter voltage during the passage of signal is known as Transistor Biasing. The circuit
which provides transistor biasing is called as Biasing Circuit.

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