Unit -3 (4th que)

Clamper Circuit
A clamper circuit is also known as a clamping circuit is an electronic circuit that shifts
the DC level of a signal without changing the shape of its waveform. It moves the
whole signal either up or down about the reference level.
Negative Clamper
The negative clamper shifts the whole input waveform downward. Here is the circuit
diagram of a negative clamper circuit.

During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward-biased. Therefore, it conducts and
charges the capacitor with inverse polarity up to the peak input voltage -V M. There is
no output during this half cycle.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it does not conduct.
Therefore, the capacitor discharges which adds with the input waveform. The
addition of both voltages shifts the whole waveform furthermore up to -2V M. This is
how the input signal is shifted downward.

Positive Biasing
The positive biasing of the negative clamper adds a positive or upward shift by the
amount of biasing voltage to the negative clamped waveform. It shifts the waveform
up to the positive level due to positive basing.
Negative Biasing
The negative biasing of the negative clamper further shifts downward the input signal
waveform.

Unit -3 (3rd que)

Clippers

The main purpose of the clipper circuit is to modify the waveform of the signal which
can be used in several applications such as in protection against overvoltage, noise
removal, transmission, etc.

 The clipper circuit offer overvoltage protection therefore, it is used in power

supplies for limiting the voltage.
 They are used for filtering noise in transmitters.
 They are used in transmitters and receivers of FM radio.
 They are used for modifying or generating new waveforms such as square,
triangular, etc.
 They are frequently used for the separation of synchronizing signals from
the composite picture signals
 Used for the protection of circuits from spikes
 Used for amplitude restorers
 Used as voltage limiters
 Used in television circuits

Unit-2(5th que)
Varactor Diode

Definition: Varactor diode is the one which works on the principle of

variation in capacitance by changing the width of the depletion region of P-N
junction. The P-N Junction diode creates capacitor effect. The capacitance is
controlled by applied voltage. It works on reverse biased mode.

Varacter word is formed from words Variable reactance or variable resistor.

Thus, it provides variable resistance or reactance or capacitance thus it is
named as a varactor diode. The symbol of the varactor diode is same as
conventional diode except the symbol of the capacitor is merged with the
symbol of the diode to show the capacitance effect.

It is also called voltage-variable capacitor (VVC)  or varicap diode.

Working of Varactor Diode

When the reverse bias is applied to P-N junction, the width of depletion layer
increases. And with the increase of reverse voltage gradually the depletion
layer increases even more. Thus, the depletion region creates Transition
capacitance CT.
                                                CT =  ɛA/W

Here, CT  is Transition capacitance, ɛ is dielectric constant, A is the area of

plates of the capacitor and W is the width of the depletion layer.

It is evident from the above relation that transition capacitance is inversely

proportional to width of the depletion layer. Thus, if we want the high
magnitude of capacitance the width should be small. And the width will be
small if we will apply low reverse voltage. Similarly, if we require low
capacitance the width should be large and to increase the width the reverse
voltage applied should be high.Thus, this width can be controlled with applied
reverse voltage.

What is Photodiode?

A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into
current or voltage based on the mode of operation of the device. It
comprises optical filters, built-in lenses, and also surface areas. These
diodes have a slow response time when the surface area of the photodiode
increases. Photodiodes are alike to regular semiconductor diodes, but that
they may be either visible to let light reach the delicate part of the
device. Several diodes intended for use exactly as a photodiode will also use
a PIN junction somewhat than the usual PN junction.
Some photodiodes will look like a light-emitting diode. They have two
terminals coming from the end. The smaller end of the diode is the cathode
terminal, while the longer end of the diode is the anode terminal. See the
following schematic diagram for the anode and cathode sides. Under the
forward bias condition, the conventional current will flow from the anode to
the cathode, following the arrow in the diode symbol. Photocurrent flows in
the reverse direction.
Working of Photodiode
The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy
strikes the diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is
also called the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the
depletion region junction, then the carriers are removed from the junction
by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.

Photodiode Working Principle

Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move
toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated. The entire
current through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and the
photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced to maximize the
sensitivity of the device.

Unit-1(2nd que)
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zppnn39/revision/3
Unit-1(3rd que)

Unit-2 pdf , pg:9-13

unit -1 (4th que)

https://www.codrey.com/dc-circuits/electronics-and-its-applications/

unit -1 (1st que)

Temperature coefficient of resistance is the coefficient that signifies the effect of
temperature on resistance of the material.

As far as semi-conductors are concerned, the temperature coefficient is negative. That

signifies that, with increase in temperature, the resistance decreases. The reason for this
is In semiconductor material as the temperature rises from absolute zero (0 K), an
increasing number of valence electrons absorb sufficient thermal energy to break the
covalent bond and contribute to the number of free carriers(electrons). the higher
number of charge carriers available for recombination, increases the conductivity
of the semiconductor. The increasing conductivity causes the resistivity of the
semiconductor material to decrease with the rise in temperature, resulting in a
negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
This consequence can also be understood mathematically with the help of linear
equation approximated at a certain range.

R=R0(1+α△T)R=R0(1+α△T)
where,
R is resistance at temperature T,
R0R0 is initial resistance,
△T△T is change in temperature,
αα is temperature coefficient.
We can see clearly that negative value of temperature coefficient makes the resistance to
decrease as temperature increases.

Unit-2 (2nd que) – unit2 pdf , pg:77

Unit-2 (3nd que)
https://www.electronicshub.org/tunnel-diode-working-characteristics-applications/