Week-07-08 (68 Slides)

TOLERANCE
Tolerance is a term that is

closely related to
accuracy.
It describes the maximum

deviation of a
manufactured
component from some
specified value. For
instance, resistor are
made with tolerance of
10%, 5%, 2%, and 1%.
1 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

TOLERANCE
A packet of resistors bought in an electronics component shop gives the
nominal resistance value as and the manufacturing tolerance is ± If one
resistor is chosen at random from the packet, what is the minimum and
maximum resistance value
Solution:
The minimum likely value is:
The minimum likely value is .
The maximum likely value is:
The maximum likely value is .

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The number of significant figures in a result is simply the
number of figures that are known with some degree of
reliability. The number 13.2 is said to have 3 significant
figures. The number 13.20 is said to have 4 significant
figure
Significant figures are critical when reporting scientific

data because they give the reader an idea of how well
the reported data was measured.
For example, a voltage reading of 3.246 V is more

precise than 3.24 V because the former has more
number significant digits than the latter.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES MADE EASY (PART 1)
4
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES MADE EASY (PART 2)
5
Electromechanical Indicating Instruments
(Data Acquisitions Systems)
Instructor: Dr. Rafiq Mansoor
Analog DC Indicating Meters
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS
 Measuring instruments specially electrical

measuring instrument may be classified as follows:
 Moving-coil instruments
 Moving-iron instruments
 Hot-wire instruments
 Induction-type instruments
 Electrostatic instruments
 Note that these will be studied one by one

accordingly

GALVANOMETER
 A galvanometer is an instrument used to detect the

presence and direction of current in a circuit. It works
on the principle that a conductor carrying current when
placed in a magnetic field, experiences a force.
 There are several types of galvanometers but the
permanent magnet moving coil type galvanometers
are most commonly used which is normally referred as
“D Arsonal Type”. This is D.C galvanometer.
 These are of two types PMMC galvanometers

 suspended coil type and
 pivoted coil type.
DC INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
As the name implies, these instruments are used to
measure DC quantities.
We will first discuss D’Arsonval galvanometer and then

we will discuss how we can convert it into:
• an ammeter,
• a voltmeter, and
• an ohm-meter

BUT FIRST THINGS FIRST
HOW TO PRONOUNCE D’ARSONVAL?
It’s pronounced either as dahr-suh n-vawl
or as dahr-suh n-val

GALVANOMETERS
HISTORY
On 21 April 1820, during

a lecture, Hans Christian
Oersted noticed a
compass needle
deflected from magnetic
north when an electric
current from a battery
was switched on and off.
This discovery of the

interaction between
electricity and
magnetism paved the
path for development of
galvanometers.

D’ARSONVAL GALVANOMETER
ALSO CALLED WESTON GALVANOMETER
Galvanometer is an
instrument used to
indicate the
presence, direction,
or strength of a small
electric current.

ALSO CALLED WESTON GALVANOMETER
When a current is
passed through a coil
in a magnetic field,
the coil experiences a
torque proportional to
the current.

If the coil's movement is
opposed by a spring,
then the amount of
deflection of a needle
attached to the coil may
be proportional to the
current passing through
the coil.
Such "meter movements"

were at the heart of the
moving-coil meters such Note that unlike in Oersted’s experiment
(where the wire was static and magnetic
as voltmeters and needle could rotate), a moving-coil
ammeters until they were galvanometer has a static magnet and
moving coil of wire.
largely replaced with
solid-state meters.
D’Arsonval galvanometer
is also called permanent
magnet moving-coil
(PMMC) instrument. The
magnet doesn’t move but
the current-carrying coil
can move.

PARTS OF D’ARSONVAL GALVANOMETER
THE MAGNET
Because it is not possible to

have isolated north and
south poles, therefore, the
magnet in D’Arsonval
galvanometer is curved in
the form of a horse shoe so
that both poles are facing
each other.
N S
If you break a magnet to separate its two poles, To get N and S poles opposite to each
you get two magnets with N and S poles in both of other, we can bend a bar magnet in the
them. Magnetic monopoles cannot be obtained form of a horse shoe.
THE MAGNET
Because it is not possible to have isolated north-and south poles, therefore, the magnet is
shaped in the form of a horse shoe so that both poles are located opposite to each other.

THE MAGNET
pointer
controlling spring
(underneath)
permanent
magnet
soft-iron
Coil
cylinder

THE COIL, FRAME, AND HAIR SPRINGS
The coil is made of thin

enameled copper wire and it is
wound around an aluminum
frame. Aluminum
frame
Why is the frame made up of
aluminum? Why not plastic? We’ll
discuss later!
The ends of the coil are

attached to hairsprings. These
provide electrical connection,
and the opposing torque to
help bring the needle to zero
position when current stops
flowing
IRON CORE
Maximum torque is
experienced by the coil if
the magnetic flux lines from
the poles are perpendicular
to the coil.
Therefore, the moving coil

is mounted on a static iron
core. This core helps make
the magnetic force line
always perpendicular to the
coil.

IRON CORE
Maximum torque is
experienced by the coil if
the magnetic flux lines from
the poles are perpendicular Magnetic flux lines are
always perpendicular
to the coil. to the plane of the coil

no mater what the
orientation of the coil is
Therefore, the moving coil

is mounted on a static iron
core. This core helps make
the magnetic force line
always perpendicular to the
coil.

PIVOT
The coil is mounted on a

rod called pivot.
The pivot sits on two

jeweled bearings, which
hold the pivot firmly in
place without restricting
its circular movement.
Jeweled
bearing in a
wrist watch

FORCE ON THE COIL
The force on a wire in magnetic

field is given by:
where,
• is the magnetic field
• is the current flowing through
the wire
• is the length of the wire
• is the angle between
magnetic field lines and the
current-carrying wire

FORCE ON THE COIL
The force on a wire in magnetic

field is given by:
If the magnetic field is

perpendicular to current-carrying
wire then:
If a coil contains turns, then the

force on one side of the coil will
be:

FORCE ON THE COIL
turns, then the force on one

side of the coil will be:
The torque experienced by one

side of the coil is:
Because a coil has two sides, therefore, the combined torque on

the coil is:
where is the area of the coil.

MAIN POINTS
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
 When current flows in the coil, the electromagnetic (EM)

torque causes the coil to rotate
 The EM torque is counter balanced by Aluminum
the mechanical
frame
torque of the spring

 EM torque
T=BAIN
B: Magnetic flux density
A: Coil area
I: Applied current
N: Number of coil turns

MAIN POINTS
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
 B, A, N are fixed
 T = C1  I
Aluminum
 Opposing spring torque frame
T=Kθ
K: spring constant
θ : deflection angle
 In steady state
C1  I = K θ
θ = C1  I / K
θ = C2  I

EXERCISE #1
WHY IS COIL FRAME MADE UP OF ALUMINUM?
If the coil is wound on a plastic

frame, there will be a lot of
oscillations in the pointer. To
remove these oscillations we Aluminum
frame
need a damping system. The
aluminum frame provides this
damping using a technique
called Eddy Current Braking
V
5
10
0
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WHAT IS EDDY CURRENT BRAKING
 A conductive surface moving past a stationary

magnet will have circular electric currents called eddy
currents (or Foucault's current) induced in it by the
magnetic field, due to Faraday's law of induction.
 By Lenz's law, the circulating currents will create their

own magnetic field which opposes the field of the
magnet. Thus the moving conductor will experience a
drag force from the magnet that opposes its motion,
proportional to its velocity.
 The electrical energy of the eddy currents is

dissipated as heat due to the electrical resistance of
the conductor.

WHAT IS EDDY CURRENT BRAKING?

If the coil is wound on a plastic

frame, there will be a lot of
oscillations in the pointer. To
remove these oscillations we Aluminum
frame
need a damping system. The
aluminum frame provides this
damping.
When the frame moves through the magnetic field,

Eddy currents are induced in the frame. The magnetic
field of the Eddy currents interacts with the main
magnetic field and opposes the motion of the frame. A
braking effect is thus produced, which damps the
motion of the coil. Hence no oscillations is seen in the
meter movement.
V
5
10
0 SONY
Made in USA

D’ARSONVAL RESPONSE
 Because a D’Arsonval meter movement has
mechanical inertia and a controlled amount of built-
in damping, therefore, this kind of meter can not
follow rapid variations in coil current.
 The meter can only follow currents that are

changing very slowly.
 For currents that are changing very fast, the meter

will just show the average value of the coil current.

D’ARSONVAL RESPONSE
EXTRA CREDIT QUIZ [2 MARKS]
Suppose a signal is applied to a galvanometer with a

full-scale deflection of (i.e., this meter can measure
currents from to ).
What value of current will be displayed by the meter?

FULL SCALE DEFLECTION CURRENT
Full scale deflection current is the amount of current

needed by the galvanometer to show a full scale
movement.
10
0
SONY
Made in USA
𝐼 𝐹𝑆𝐷 𝐼 𝐹𝑆𝐷

ELECTRICAL SYMBOL
𝑅𝑀
where is the resistance of meter’s coil

DC Ammeters
AMMETER
 A galvanometer is basically a very sensitive ammeter. A

typical galvanometer will give full scale deflection for .
 To increase the range of the galvanometer, we need to

modify it so that it can handle large currents without getting
damaged.

AMMETER
 Suppose we have galvanometer that gives us full scale
deflection for .
 Now to measure currents up to with this galvanometer,

we add a resistance in parallel with the galvanometer.
This is called a shunt or bypass resistor because it will
bypass much of the current away from the meter’s coil
allowing only or less to pass through it to produce
deflection.

AMMETER
2𝐴 50 μ 𝐴 2𝐴
𝑅𝑀
𝑅𝑠
2 𝐴 −50 μ 𝐴
The shunt resistor helps bypass

much of the current () away from the
meter’s coil. A proper value of shunt
resistance is, therefore, crucial for
the proper operation of an ammeter

AMMETER
𝐼𝑇 𝐼 𝐹𝑆𝐷 𝐼𝑇
𝑅𝑀
𝑅𝑠
𝐼 𝑇 − 𝐼 𝐹𝑆𝐷
The shunt resistor helps bypass much of the current () away from the
meter’s coil, so that only – the current necessary for full scale
deflection – passes through the coil.

AMMETER
𝐼𝑇 𝐼𝑇
𝑅𝑀
𝑅𝑠
𝐼 𝑇 − 𝐼 𝐹𝑆𝐷
How can we find the value of shunt resistor?

The shunt is in parallel with meter’s coil, so both of them will have the same
voltage across them.

AMMETER
I
Is Im
Rs
Rs Rm
Rm
Shunt PMMC meter
Rs = ImRm/Is

MULTIRANGE AMMETER
Usually we have different ranges in an ammeter to measure current.
Now let us design a multirange ammeter having
and
ranges.
Ammeter (A)
10
1
0.1

MULTIRANGE AMMETER
0 − 0 . 1 𝐴
𝐼𝑇1 𝐼𝑇1
𝐼 𝑇 1 − 𝐼 𝐹𝑆𝐷 𝑅𝑀
𝑅𝑠1 𝐼 𝐹𝑆𝐷 𝑅 𝑀
𝑅 𝑆1=
𝐼 𝑇 1 − 𝐼 𝐹𝑆𝐷
𝑅𝑠2
Example:
𝑅𝑠3
Ammeter (A)
10
1
0.1
𝐼 𝑇 1= 0 .1 𝐴
MULTIRANGE AMMETER
0 − 1 𝐴
𝐼𝑇2 𝐼𝑇2
𝑅 𝑠 1=2 𝑚 Ω 𝐼 𝐹𝑆𝐷 𝑅 𝑀
𝑅 𝑆2 =
𝑅𝑠2
Example:
𝑅𝑠3
Ammeter (A)
10
1
0.1
𝐼 𝑇 2= 0 . 1 𝐴
MULTIRANGE AMMETER
0 − 10 𝐴
𝐼𝑇3 𝐼𝑇3
𝑅 𝑠 1=2 𝑚 Ω 𝐼 𝐹𝑆𝐷 𝑅 𝑀
𝑅 𝑆3 =
𝑅 𝑆2 =0 . 1𝑚 Ω
Example:
𝑅𝑠3
Ammeter (A)
10
1
0.1
𝐼 𝑇 3 =0 . 1 𝐴
MULTIRANGE AMMETER
𝑅𝑀
𝑅 𝑠 1=2 𝑚 Ω
0 − 0 .1 𝐴
𝑅 𝑆2 =0 . 1𝑚 Ω
0 −1 𝐴
0 − 10 𝐴
Ammeter (A)
10
1
0.1

MULTIRANGE AMMETER
BIG PROBLEM WITH THIS APPROACH
9𝐴 𝐼9
𝐹𝑆𝐷 =50
𝐴 μ𝐴 9𝐴
𝑅𝑀
9 𝐴 −0
50 μ 𝐴
𝐴 𝑅 𝑠 1=2 𝑚 Ω
0 − 0 .1 𝐴
𝑅 𝑠 2=0 .1 𝑚 Ω
0 −1 𝐴
0 − 10 𝐴
This ammeter design is awful for the galvanometer

Ammeter (A) because when the selector switch changes range, there is
10
a short amount of time – between the switch changing
position from one contact to another – when the full
1
0.1 applied current flows through the coil. This full current
passing through the coil is guaranteed to permanently burn
the coil.

MULTIRANGE AMMETER
𝐼𝑇 𝐼𝑇
𝑅𝑀
𝑅𝑠1
𝑅𝑠2
𝑅𝑠3
Ammeter (A)
10
To improve the previous multirange ammeter
design, we now use a make-before-break selector
1
0.1 switch. This switch ensures that there is always a
shunt resistor in parallel with the meter no matter
where the selector switch is.
𝐼 𝑇 =0 . 1 𝐴

MULTIRANGE AMMETER
DISADVANTGES OF MAKE-BEFORE-BREAK SWITCHES
Make-before-break switches are very bulky and also not

very reliable.
Therefore, ammeters with make-before-break switches

are big and also tend to have a short life span.

Measurements and Instrumentation
D r. R a f i q M a n s o o r
Week
DC Ammeters (continued)
INTRODUCTION TO AYRTON SHUNT
 The Universal Shunt or the Ayrton Shunt eliminates the
possibility having the meter in the circuit without a shunt.
 By this the overall meter resistance will be higher.
 Direct current ammeters are
available over wide ranges from
20 µA to 50 A full scale. With the
external shunt, the range can be
extended to 500 A.
 Ammeters should be connected
in series with the voltage source.

MULTIRANGE AMMETER
WITH AYRTON SHUNT RESISTANCE
Ayrton shunt resistance ammeter is an improvement

over the previous design.
This ammeter does not require the use a make-before-

break switch.
A simple selector switch can be used in this design.

MULTIRANGE AMMETER
𝑅 𝑆1
𝐼 𝑇 =0
𝑅𝑀
𝑅 𝑆2
𝑅 𝑆3
No current can flow through the coil if the selector is in between the two
contacts.
The meter is therefore protected from damage in this design.

MULTIRANGE AMMETER
SIMPLE AMMETER VS. AYRTON SHUNT AMMETER
𝐼𝑇 𝐼𝑇
𝑅𝑀 𝑅 𝑆1
𝑅𝑠1
𝐼 𝑇 =0
𝑅 𝑆2 𝑅𝑀
Vs.
𝑅𝑠2
𝑅 𝑆3
𝑅𝑠3
Simple Ammeter Ayrton Shunt Ammeter

MULTIRANGE AMMETER
𝑅 𝑆1
𝐼𝑇
𝐼 𝐹𝑆𝐷 𝑅 𝑀
𝑅 𝑆2
𝑅𝑀 𝑅 𝑆2 =
𝑅 𝑆3
𝐼𝑇
As shown in the figure above, the shunt resistance is now and the meter
resistance is now .
Example:

WHAT IS LOADING EFFECT OF THE AMMETER
 A low sensitivity meter may give correct reading when
measuring voltages in low-resistance circuits, but it is
certain to produces very unreliable readings in high-
resistance circuits.
 To connect a voltmeter connect two points in a highly

resistive circuit, acts as a shunt for that portion of the
circuit.
 The meter will then give a lower indication of the voltage

drop than actually existed before the meter was
connected. This effect is called the loading effect of an
instrument. It is caused principally by low-sensitivity
instruments.

LOADING EFFECT OF THE AMMETER
Ideally, an ammeter inserted in a circuit to measure the
current should not effect the value of current being
measured in any way.
But that’s never possible. An ammeter always has a

loading effect because an ammeter has an internal
resistance.
This internal gets in series with the circuit whose current

is being measured by the ammeter.

Let us now first find the total internal resistance of an
ammeter. Once we find , we can then find the loading
effect of ammeter.
𝑅𝑀
𝑅𝑆
𝑅 𝐼𝑀
 A voltmeter connected across a high resistance, acts as a shunt and reduces the equivalent
𝑅 𝑆reading
resistance perturbs the current, hence the voltage 𝑅𝑀
𝑅𝐼=
𝑅voltmeter
 This effect is caused mainly by a low-sensitivity 𝑆 + 𝑅𝑀

Now lets find the loading effect of the ammeter
𝑅 𝐼𝑀
𝐼1 𝐼2
+ +
𝑉 𝑅 𝑉 𝑅
- -
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡= 1 –

(𝐼2
𝐼1
𝑥 100 %
)
(
¿ 1−
𝑅
𝑅+ 𝑅 𝐼 𝑀 ) 𝑥 100 %
PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING AN AMMETER
1. DON’T CONNECT AN AMMETER ACROSS A VOLTAGE SOURCE
V
5
+
𝑉
10
𝑅𝑀
0
- 𝑅𝑆
SONY
Made in USA
The voltage source is essentially shorted when you connect the ammeter parallel to source. Excess
meter current, which forces the pointer hard against the mechanical stop at the upper ends of the
scale, could permanently damage the pointer or destroy the coil or the shunt

2. CONNECT AMMETER IN THE RIGHT POLARITY
Connecting ammeter in the wrong polarity can press the coil and
pointer hard against the mechanical stop at the lower end of the scale
and permanently damage the pointer or the coil
V
5
10
0
+¿ SONY
Made in USA
−
− +¿
3. ALWAYS SET THE RANGE OF THE AMMETER TO HIGHER SETTING FIRST
Always use the highest possible current range on the ammeter first
and then progressively move the lower current ranges if needed.
This will prevent the possibility of ammeter getting damaged due to

overcurrent in smaller current ranges
Ammeter (A)
10
1
0.1
𝐼 𝑇 =0 . 1 𝐴

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TOLERANCE

Tolerance is a term that is

It describes the maximum

1 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

The minimum likely value is .

The maximum likely value is:

The maximum likely value is .

2 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

Significant figures are critical when reporting scientific

For example, a voltage reading of 3.246 V is more

3 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 Measuring instruments specially electrical

 Note that these will be studied one by one

 A galvanometer is an instrument used to detect the

 These are of two types PMMC galvanometers

We will first discuss D’Arsonval galvanometer and then

10 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

It’s pronounced either as dahr-suh n-vawl

11 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

On 21 April 1820, during

This discovery of the

12 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

13 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

14 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

Such "meter movements"

16 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

Because it is not possible to

18 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

19 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

The coil is made of thin

The ends of the coil are

Therefore, the moving coil

21 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

to the coil. to the plane of the coil

Therefore, the moving coil

22 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

The coil is mounted on a

The pivot sits on two

23 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

The force on a wire in magnetic

24 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

The force on a wire in magnetic

If the magnetic field is

If a coil contains turns, then the

25 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

turns, then the force on one

The torque experienced by one

Because a coil has two sides, therefore, the combined torque on

where is the area of the coil.

26 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 When current flows in the coil, the electromagnetic (EM)

torque of the spring

27 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

28 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

If the coil is wound on a plastic

30 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

 A conductive surface moving past a stationary

 By Lenz's law, the circulating currents will create their

 The electrical energy of the eddy currents is

31 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

32 Copyright © 2015 Adnan M. Niazi. All rights reserved.

If the coil is wound on a plastic

When the frame moves through the magnetic field,