Bridges 4.1 Introduction The measurement of resistance is as important as the measurement of any other electrical parameter. From the point of view of measurement, the basic knowledge of resistance measurement is necessary to understand the working of other instruments used for the measurement of other electrical quantities. Basically resistances are classified as low resistances, medium resistances and high resistances. This classification is based on the values of the resistances. But practically this classification truly indicates different techniques or methods applied for the measurement of resistances such as low resistance measurements, medium resistance measurements and so on. 4.2 Classification of Resistances Let us study first, the basic methods used to measure resistance, From the measurement point of view the resistances are classified as : i) Low resistances : All the resistances of the order of 1 Q or less are classified as low resistances. ii) Medium resistances : From 1 Q onwards upto 0.1 MQ the resistances are classified as medium resistances. ) High resistances : Resistances of the order of 0.1 MQ and higher are classified as high resistances. The classification of resistances given above is not rigid but forms the basis for the methods used for the measurement of the resistances of different classes.4.6 Wheatstone Bridge The bridge consists of four resistive arms together with a source of emf. and a null detector. The galvanometer is used as a null detector. ‘The Fig. 4.7 shows the basic Wheatstone bridge circuit. Ratio Unknown resistance Fig. 4.7 Wheatstone bridge ‘The arms consisting the resistances R, and R, are called ratio arms. The arm consisting the standard known resistance R, is called standard arm, ‘The resistance Ry is the unknown resistance to be measured. The battery is connected between A and C while ealvanometer is connected between B and D. ee 46.1 Balance Condition When the bridge is balanced, the galvanometer carries zero current and it does not show any deflection. Thus bridge works on the principle of null deflection or null indication. To have zero current through galvanometer, the points B and D must be at the same potential. Thus potential across arm AB must be same as the potential across arm AD. Thus 1)R, = 1, R, ~( As galvanometer current is zero. l= 4; and = ly 2Considering the battery path under balanced condition, E We hep te = @) E and a ~@ Using equation (3) and (4) in equation (1), E _ =z Rew ™ * Ree R, (Ry +Ry) = Ry(Ry +R) R,R5+R,Ry = RB) Ry +R, Ry R, Ry + Rog ~® This is required balance condition of Wheatstone bridge. The following points can be observed. 1. It depends on the ratio of Ry and Ry hence these arms are called ratio arms. 2. As it works on null indication, the results are not dependent on the calibration and characteristics of galvanometer 3. The standard resistance Ry can be varied to obtain the required balance 4.7 Sensitivity of Wheatstone Bridge When the bridge is balanced, the current through galvanometer is zero. But when bridge is not balanced current flows through the galvanometer causing the deflection. The amount of deflection depends on the sensitivity of the galvanometer. This sensitivity can be expressed as amount of deflection per unit current. Deflection D Sensitivity S = “EO As the current is in microampere and deflection can be measured in mm, radians or degrees, the sensitivity is expressed as mm/wA, radians/WA or degrees/iA. More is the sensitivity of a galvanometer, more is its deflection for the same amount of current.Vo, = Bi RetaR OR m™m R3 +R, +R Ry +R stil e Fig. 4.9 Bridge under unbalance Using above relation in equation (6), Ves = Ry+AR Ry TH” S TRG+RUF4R RZ FR, = {RoR + RsQRo RG + RAR-RoRs = RY “ReAR (Rs ). ER; 4R (Ry +R,)? +(Ry +Ry) AR But as AR is very small, (R; +R,)AR<<(R; +R,)* Now Sp = BTR Bridge sensitivity and AR/R = AR/R, as there is change in Ry. From the galvanometer sensitivity Sy, © = Sy xe where e = Voltage across galvanometer = V,, Using @ in the expression of Sp, Sy Vg _Sy ER;ARRy Sy ERR, Sp — Sv ERS Ry AR/R, (Ry +R,)? RE F2Ry Ry +RY Sy Sp = ge Ry Ry ~~ 8 Rite Thus the bridge sensitivity depends on the bridge parameters, the supply voltage and the voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer. Koy Point: Tus maximum sensitivity occurs when z 4 For higher or lower values of Ry/R,, the sensitivity decreases considerably. 4.8.1 Thevenin’s Equivalent and Galvanometer Current ‘The Thevenin’s voltage Vy, across the galvanometer is already obtained. Let us obtain equivalent resistance as viewed across the terminals BD, when battery E is replaced by short circuit. Thus circuit becomes,Ry Ry AW 4 AWW Br ~ ‘ AMA AWW i RC Ry i Fig. 4.10 Reg = (Rill Ra) #(R5 iIRy) While Vin = Ean Eg with Ry not changed by AR . Ez E = 1, Ry-1,R Rk 4 RR,TH Thus Thevenin’s equivalent is as shown in the Fig. 4.11. ane 2), Let R, = Galvanometer resistance 1, = _Galvanometer current vm C Or tf em : ® "| RG+R, fie 411 where Vyy = Thevenin’s voltage 4.8.2 Galvanometer Current Under Unbalanced Condition - (10) (11) Let the resistance Ry is changed by AR which has caused the unbalance in the As derived earlier, ER, 4R Vn = — (Ry +Ry) And now Rog = (RyIR2) +(R5IIRy +48) Ry (Ry +AR) | RyRy Ry +R #AR *R, +R; Neglecting AR compared to R3 and Ry, Rp, = BR, RiRp a" RS 4R, RyRy o I, = gv BORG +R, For bridge with equal arms Ry =) =Ry =Ry =R then Vn, = ERAR_ EAR TH = Var "GR R? | R? and Rog = 3Rt age EAR “FR _F(AR/ 4) "RR RR (12) + 13)4.8.3. Sp Interms of Current Sensitivity of Galvanometer The deflection of galvanometer for a small change in unknown resistance R, is, Sy ER,AR Sy e=Sy Vy s Whil sy = - . YS RR where S; = Current sensitivity of galvanometer oe S$, ER, AR (Roy +B) +R? Sp = <0 = —_SIERSRa and BS ARR,” Ry RRs +R)? ~ 6) where Reg = (RillR2) +(RsllRy + AR) This is the bridge sensitivity interms of current sensitivity of the galvanometer. Key Point: Practically Rey cam be assumed to be Ryyy as AR is small compared to actual valwes of the resistances. Rey = Roy =(RifRo]+1R5||Ralms Example 6.2: The Wheatstone bridge is shown in the Fig. 6.12. Calculate the value of unknown resistance, assuming the bridge to be in balanced condition. Fig. 6.42 Solution : As per the bridge shown in the Fig, 6.7 earlier, Ry = 10K2, Rr =2KQ, Ry = 5K and Reo Re Under balanced condition, Wegesesa25k0 Ripe ee ‘Thus unknown resistance is 25 kQ. mp Example 6.3: Calculate the current through the galoanometer for the bridge shown in the Fig. 6.13.Solution : From the Fig. 6.13. R= 7k, Kz =2 kA Rr =4k Re = 20k, E=BV. Use Thevenin’s equivalent for I. Vin = Van =Vap - Vas = R-hR E E "Rok Rae © o{gea7} = 044 V Thus B is positive w.rt D. Now Roy = [Ri |]Rz]+[Rs |] Rs] -- with E shorted RiRz | RRs 9 =n ey 7 1808 \, Tg ges oe im © Ry Re + Re 4.88810 +300 * = 85.62 pA Fig. 6.15 This is the current through the galvanometer. 4.13 Kelvin Bridge - Measurement of Low Resistance In the Wheatstone bridge, the bridge contact and lead resistance causes significant error, while measuring low resistances. Thus for measuring the values of resistance below 1 Q, the modified form of Wheatstone bridge is used, known as Kelvin bridge. ‘The consideration of the effect of contact and lead resistances is the basic aim of the Kelvin bridge.4.14 Kelvin's Double Bridge Method for Low Resistance Measurement This bridge consists of another set of ratio arms hence called double bridge. The Fig. 4.18 shows the circuit diagram of Kelvin’s Double Bridge. The second set of ratio arms is the resistances ‘a and 'b. With the help of these resistances the galvanometer is connected to point °3. The galvanometer gives null indication when the potential of the terminal '3' is same as the potential of —l the terminal ‘4’ Fig. 4.18 Kelvin's double bridge ‘Thus S13 ol) Here Ey, = Potential across R,. Es); = Potential across Ry and b. ‘The ratio of the resistances a and b is-same as the ratio of Ry and R> al a, 2 7 R @ E Now Es = RGR Consider the path from 5-1-2.6 back to 5 through the battery E. The resistance between the terminals 1-2 is the parallel combination of Ry and (a +b). B = Ix[R5 +R, ||atb)+R.] (+ bR, B= [rye] = (d) Substituting in equation (3), Ry [ (a+ b)R, Bes a IRR tp 8) For E513, consider the path from the terminal 5 to 2 as shown in the Fig. 4.19. Now from the Fig. 4.19 we can write,Now Lv Fig. 4.19 Ry (a+b) “TR arb rare aM +B bf Ry@rd)] ws fps “Oo bd [Ry +b) ' [rs Seas “%IR +R, | b [Ry (a+b) RR, [Rs +R Sar| t[Roas a+beR, GOR, RR, b [Ry (a+b) Rst®tiybeR, "Ry |? *aeblatbeR, aR Bi 4 OR a R)bR, Fatd RR, Fatb) (a+b)R, 2 9) This is the standard equation of the bridge balance. The resistances a, b and Ry, are not present in this equation. Thus the effect of lead and contact resistances is completely eliminated. Key Point : The important condition for this bridge balance condition is that the ratio of the resistances of ratio arms must be same as the ratio of the resistances of the second ratio arms. In a typical Kelvin's double bridge, the range of a resistance covered is 19 to 10 uO with an accuracy of + 0.05 % to +0.2 %.wm Example 4.4: In a Kelvin’s double bridge, there is error due to mismatch between the ratios of outer and inner arm resistances. The bridge uses, Standard resistance = 100.03 1 Inner ratio arms = 100.31 © and 2000 Outer ratio arms = 100.24 © and 2000 The resistance of the connecting leads from standard to unknown resistance is 700 w Calculate the unknown resistance under this condition. Solution : From the given data, Ry = 10003 nO, R, = 100.240, R, = 2000 b = 100312 a= 2000, R, = 700 yo ‘Thus unknown resistance is, -». Refer equation (8) of section 4.14. 200%100.03%10°° ,_100.31x700x10% _{_200___200 } 100.24 [700x106 +200+100.31] {100.24 ~ 100.31) = 1.995810 +(2.338] x10) (1.392310) = 1.999%10™ = 199.905 12Examples with Solutions ma Example 6.5: The wheatstone bridge is shown in the Fig. 6.33. The galeanometer hhas a current sensitivity of 12 mmMA. The internal resistance of gatoanometer is 2002. Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused due to 5 9 unbalance in the arm BD. tov Fig. 6.33 Solution : From the given bridge, R, = 1000 R= 1008 Ry = 2000 R, = 2002 Now Ri Ra = 100%2000 = 200000 R2Rs = 2001000 = Jo0000 For Rs = 2000 2, the bridge is balanced: But there is unbalance of 5 Q in the resistance of arm BD ie. Ry Re = 200045 = 20052Due to this imbalance current will flow through the galvanometer. By Thevenin’s equivalent, = 10 pe, 100+200 7000+ 2005. = 10 [0.6667 ~ 0.6672] =~ 5.213 mV ‘The negative sign indicates that D is more positive than C. Ro Ra Re = . 2005 2005) = 733.8880 Hence Thevenin’s equivalent is, ta Vn me Ro+R, vn) Maths a aiid 735.888 200 1D = 5.582 WA Now deflection of galvanometer is D = Sx +12 mm/pA x 5.582 WA = 66.98 mm Example 6.6: The four arms of the Whealstone bridge have the following resistances, AB = 1000 Q, BC = 1000 9, CD = 120.9, DA = 120 Q The bridge is used for strain measurement and supplied from 5 V ideal battery. The galvanometer has sensitivity of 1 nimA with internal resistance of 200 9. Determine the deflection of the galvanometer if arm DA increases to 1210 and arm CD decreases to 119.2.Solution : The bridge given is shown in the Fig. 6.34. Fig. 6.34 Now. R, = 1000 R, = 1000 Ry = 1229 Rg=119Q Let us calculate Thevenin’s equivalent due to change in Ry and Re. = Bp es Se Ww = ESR eee Ss ouittne 19: 2] * > | 10004721 ~ 1000119 | = 5 [0.1079 - 0.1063] = 7.973 mV RYRs Ra Re = RoR; Ra+Reu 1211000 | 119% 1000 121 +1000 * 119+ 1000 = 107.9393 + 106.3449 = 214.2842 0 Thevenin‘s equivalent circuit is, R, nt ly = | . cy + Ry 7) 's @r,=2000 _ _2975«107 14RD +200 = 19.24 pA = = Fig. 6.34 (a)Now the deflection of the galvanometer is proportional to its sensitivity. D Bis op Sx 1= 1 mm/pA » 19.24 pA 19.24 mm bd This is the deflection of the galvanometer. um Example 6.7: Using the approximation of slightly unbalanced bridge, calculate the current through the galvanometer having internal resistance of 125 0, for the bridge shown in the Fig. 6.35. Solution ; For the bridge shown, R= 5009 and ar = 200 Using approximate result, ware ee ole aR 4x500 = o01V Ry = R = 5000 1259 given Ve Rat = 160 pAimp Example 6.8 : In the Fig. 6.36, the Kelvin's double bridge és shown, The ratio of Ry to Ry #8 1200.0 while Ry i 100 and Ry = 0.5 Ry. Calculate the value of unknown resistance Ry. Fig. 6.36 Solution : From the Fig. 6.36 and the balance condition we can writ RRs Ry Rk For Kelvin’s double bridge, Be = ratio of resistances of ratio arms 1 and Re = ratio of resistances of second ratio arms RL Re ROR Ro Ret R; _R, 1200 Now R, = 100 R, = O5R: Ri 1 R= Os “05 = 2002 Ro. lt 20 ~ 7200 = 2. Ry = opp = 000672 This is the value of unknown resistance R, given by Kelvin’s double bridge.mb Example 6.11: A Whenistone’s bridge circuit consists of ratio arms as-1000 0 and 100 2. The adjustable arm is adjusted to its maximum of 4 KQ. The supply voltage of 10 V is used for the bridge. 1) Draw the circuit diagram. 4) Determine maximum unknown resistance which can be measured. fii) f gatvanometer internal resistance is 80 2 and its sensitivity is 70 mmAA, find the unbalance in bridge required to cause the deflection of 3 mm if the unknown resistance equal 10 its maximum value is used in the circuit. Neglect internal resistance of the battery. Solution : i) The circuit diagram is shown in the Fig. 6.39. ii) At bridge balance ; Ri Ry = Re Re eo RERs 10004 «109 oe Re 100 = 40k 4) Roe = (Ri || Re]+[Rs |! Ra] 1000 + 100 J "| 40x10? + 410% = 90.9090 + 3.6363 x10? = 3.7272 kQ S, = Current sensitivity = 70 mm/pA oo Given “ S$, ERs AR. (Rr + Ry) (Ra + Ra)® Now ° vo Assuming Roy = Rr {70x 10*]x10x4x108 xAR 3 = yami0 + wojfaet0 vaoxdospe w= 710% mma 33807.2%1.936«10" OR Shei eloxaxre ~ 789720 This much unbalance is necessary to cause the deflection of 3 mm.