Chapter One

Introduction to process dynamics and control

 Introduction
• Control engineering is an engineering science that is used in many
engineering disciplines- for example, chemical, electrical, and
mechanical engineering.
• The two main subjects of this course are process dynamics and process
control.
• The term process dynamics refer to an unsteady-state or transient
behaviour processes.
• Dynamic studies provide us the behaviour of the process under
unsteady-state conditions

Process dynamics and Control

2
 Cont’d…
The primary objective of PC is
 To maintain a process at the desired operating conditions.
 To keep the safety and efficiency.
 To satisfy environmental and product quality requirements.
The subject of process control is concerned with how to achieve these
Goals.

Process dynamics and Control

3
 Cont’d…
• Process-refers to the collection of unit operations or any physical /
chemical conversion of raw materials to useful product.
• A chemical plant is an arrangement of processing units (reactors, heat
exchangers, pumps, distillation columns, absorbers, evaporators, tanks,
etc.), integrated with one another in a systematic input feedstock into
desired products using available sources of energy, in the economic
way and rational manner.
• A process variable is a condition of the process fluid that can
change the manufacturing process in some way.
• Common process variables include: Pressure, Flow rate, Level,
Temperature, Compositions

Process dynamics and Control

4
 Cont’d…
• The set point is a value for a process variable that is desired to be
maintained.
• Process control is the methods that are used to control process
variables when manufacturing a product.
For example, factors such as:
 the proportion of one ingredient to another.
 the temperature of the materials.
 how well the ingredients are mixed.

Process dynamics and Control

5
 Cont’d…
• During its operation, a chemical plant must satisfy several
requirements imposed by its designers and the general technical,
economic, and social conditions in the presence of ever changing
external influences (disturbances).
Such requirements are the following:
Safety
 The safe operation of a chemical process is a primary requirement
for the well-being of the people in the plant and for its continued
contribution to the economic development.
 Thus the operating pressures, temperatures, concentration of
chemicals and so on should always be within allowable limits.

Process Dynamics and Control

6
 Cont’d…
• Production specifications
 A plant should produce the desired amounts and quality of the
final products.
For example, we may require the production of 2 million pounds of
ethylene per day, of 99.5% purity. Therefore, a control system is needed
to ensure that the production level and the purity specifications are
satisfied.
Environmental regulations
 Various federal and state laws may specify that the temperatures,
concentrations of chemicals and flow rates of the effluents from a
plant be within certain limits.
 Such regulations exist for example on the amounts of SO2 that a plant
can eject to the atmosphere, and on the quality of the water returned
to a river or lake. Process Dynamics and Control 7
 Cont’d…
Operational constraints
 The various types of equipment's used in a chemical plant have
constraints inherent to their operation. Such constraints should be
satisfied throughout the operation of a plant.
For example,
• Pumps must maintain a certain net positive suction head;
• tanks should not overflow or go dry;
• distillation columns should not be flooded;
• the temperature in a catalytic reactor should not exceed an upper
limit since the catalyst will be destroyed.
Control systems are needed to satisfy these operational constraints.

8
 Cont’d…
Economics
The operation of a plant must conform with the market conditions,
that is,
 the availability of raw materials and
 the demand of the final products.
Furthermore it should be as economical as possible in its
utilization of
 raw materials
 energy
 capital and human labor.
Thus, it is required that the operating conditions are controlled at
given optimum levels of minimum operating cost, maximum
profit and so on
9
 Component of control system

Three basic component of control system

Measurement (M)
 measure the variable to be controlled.
 sensor-transmitter combination.
Decision (D)
 Controller decides what to do to maintain the variables at its
desired value.
 feedback controller.
Action (A)
 System must take an action based on controller’s decision.
 control valve (final control element).

10
 Control Systems
Control systems are used to maintain process conditions at their desired
values by manipulating certain process variables to adjust the variables
of interest.
There are three general classes of needs that a control system is called to
satisfy:
 Suppress the influence of external disturbances
This is the most common objective of controllers in a chemical plant.
These disturbances are usually out of the reach of human operators and
must be addressed automatically.
 Ensure the stability of a chemical process
Some systems have unstable responses to disturbances and require external
control for stabilization.
 Optimize the performance of a chemical process
Once safety and specifications are met, it is desired that plant operational
parameters are able to be changed smoothly to optimize process economics.
11
 Design Steps of Process Control Systems

In the design of a process control system, one should be able to have answers to the
WHAT, WHY and the HOW methods of achieving the process needs.
Series of steps to follow during the design of a control system to follow the decision
making process.
Design of control system involves:
1. Identifying the control objective
2. Identifying and classifying the process variables and developing
model
3. Selecting the appropriate control configuration
4. Selecting the appropriate controller type
5. Selecting the appropriate instrumentation and preparing the P & ID
6. Tuning the controllers

A good starting document for design of control systems is the schematic diagram
of the process or process flow diagram (PFD).
12
 Process control
1. Identifying control objective
The control objectives should be identified and
clearly defined.
-Control objectives can be defined as follows:
 To maintain the outlet temperature T at 65oC
 To maintain the liquid level at h = 4 m

13
 Process Control
2. Identifying and classifying the process variables
(variables related to the control objective)
• Process variables are classified into
 Output variables :- Variables that reflect the effect of mass,
energy, component or momentum variation in the system.
 Controlled Variables(CV):- Output variables that
should be maintained at a specified desired value
using a controller.
 Input variables :- Variables that affect the process
(output variables) but which are not affected by the process.
 Manipulated variable (MV):- Input variable that can be adjusted by an
automatic controller or a human operator to bring the CV to a desired
value.
 Disturbance Variable (DV):- Input variable that affects the process (the
output variable) but we do not have control over.

14
 Cont’d…

In the figure.1.3 below, the inputs x1 and w1 are the disturbances, while x2 and w2 are
manipulated inputs. The output variables x and w can be measured easily and they are
considered measured or the controlled outputs.

15
 Process control
3. Selecting the appropriate control configuration/ strategy
There are three most common types of control
configurations.
1) Feedback control strategy :- The manipulated variable is
adjusted based on the measurement of the controlled variable
(CV).

16
 Feedback Control
Distinguishing feature of feedback control strategy
• Take corrective action based on measurement of the
controlled variable(CV).
Advantages:
• Corrective action is taken regardless of the source of the
disturbances.
• Reduces sensitivity of the controlled variable to
disturbances and changes in the process.

Disadvantages:
• No corrective action occurs until after the disturbance has upset the
process.

17
 2) Feedforward Control
• The manipulated variable is adjusted based on the measurement
of the disturbance variable (DV).
Distinguishing feature of feedforward control strategy
• Take corrective action based on measurement of a
disturbance variable
Advantage:If all sources of the disturbances are known and these values can be
measured accurately. ⇒ Perfect Control !
• Correct for disturbance before it upsets the process.
Disadvantage:
• No corrective action for unmeasured
disturbances
• In industrial applications, feed forward control should
be used in combination with feedback control.

18
3) Inferential control
• Take secondary measurements and estimate the values of the primary
measurements, because the controlled variables are not measured, to
adjust the values of the manipulated variables.
• The objective is to keep the (unmeasured) controlled variables at
desired levels.
• The estimator uses the values of the available measured outputs, along
with the material and energy balances that govern the process, to
compute mathematically (estimate) the values of the unmeasured
controlled variables.

19
 Type of Controller
4. Determining the type of controller /Design of controller
• In every control configuration, the controller is the active element
that receives the information from the measurements and takes
appropriate control action to adjust the values of the manipulated
variables.
The appropriate type of controllers should either be selected from a
set controllers or designed from the desired control performance and
the model of the plant.
 For feedback control strategy the most commonly used controllers are ,
Proportional(P), Proportional Integral (PI) or Proportional Integral Derivative
(PID)
 For feedforward control system the controller is generally designed from the
model of the process and the desired response.

20
 Type of Controller
• Depending on how many controlled outputs and manipulated inputs,
we can distinguish the control configurations as either SISO or MIMO
control systems.
1)MIMO (multiple input multiple output): a system having more than
one manipulated variables and more than one output variables.
2)SISO (single input single output): a system with one manipulated and
one controlled output variables.
Criteria in selecting manipulated variables:
The choice of appropriate manipulated variables should affect the
performance of control systems significantly.
In general the manipulated variables: Should have direct and strong
effect on the controlled variables be simple to adjust Eg. Flow rates
can be adjusted easily with a control valve.
21
Example: Continuous stirred-tank heater (CSTR)

Assume that inlet temperature changes with time. How can we

ensure that T remains at or near the set point TR?

22
Example: Continuous stirred-tank heater (CSTR)
Possible Strategies
1 Measure T and adjust Q or [2] Measure Ti and adjust Q.
3 Measure T and adjust w or [4] Measure Ti and adjust w.
5 Measure T and Ti and adjust Q or 6 Measure T and Ti and
adjust w.
7 Place a heat exchanger on the inlet stream.
8 Use a large tank.
Classification
1 and 3: Feedback control
2 and 4: Feed forward control
5 and 6: Feed forward-Feedback control
7 and 8: Design change
23
 Process Instrumentation
5. Selection of the appropriate instruments (in
addition to the controller)
 Sensors
 Transmitters
 Final control element
• Selection of instruments depends on:
 The type of variable measured (Temperature,
pressure,…)
 The range of the variable measured
 The dynamic behavior of the process
 The control performance requirement

24
 Process Instrumentation
• The hardware elements involved in a process control system
are the following:
Chemical Process: It represents the material equipment together with
the physical or chemical operations that occur there.
Sensors or the measuring instruments: the instruments used to measure
the variables (disturbances, controlled output or secondary output
variables) and are the main sources of information about what is going on
in the process.
Characteristic examples are:
 thermocouples or resistance thermometers: for measuring the
temperature,
 venture meters: for measuring the flow rate,
 gas chromatographs: for measuring the composition of a stream, etc.
25
 Factors affecting sensors
selecting
Accuracy: conforming with or closeness to the true value of the
quantity being measured.
Precision: the repeatability of the reading taken of the same value by
the same instruments.
Resolution: the smallest change in the input signal which can be detected
by the instruments.
Sensitivity: the measure of the change in output caused per unit change
in input.
Cost effective

26
Transmission lines: used to carry the measurement signal from the
measuring device to the controller.
For example :
 Cables for electrical signals
 Tubes for pneumatic signals
Transducers: a device used to change one type of signals to another. It is
a device that translates a mechanical signal into an electrical signal. Eg.
I/P: current (electrical signal) to pressure (pneumatic signal).
 A converter is a device that converts one type of signal into another
type of signal. For example, a converter may convert current into
voltage

27
Transmitters: is a device that converts a reading from a sensor or
transducer into a standard signal and transmits that signal to a monitor
or controller. Transmitter types include:
 Pressure transmitters (PT)
 Flow transmitters(FT)
 Temperature transmitters(TT)
 Level transmitters (LT)
An indicator is a human-readable device that displays information about
the process.
A recorder is a device that records the output of a measurement devices

28
Controller: is a device that receives data from a measurement instrument,
compares that data to a programmed set-point, and, if necessary, signals a
control element to take corrective action. Controllers may perform
complex mathematical functions to compare a set of data to set-point or
they may perform simple addition or subtraction functions to make
comparisons.
 All parameters are controlled by arrangement of various equipment
like measuring devices, valves, controller.
 Controller: A device that outputs a signal to the process based on
the magnitude of the error signal.
 Error: the difference between the measured variable and the set-point
and can be either positive or negative.
 The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate error

29
The final control element: the hardware element that implements in
real life the decision taken by the controller. It adjusts the value of
the manipulated variable responses to the signal from the controller.
The most frequently used in chemical process industries final
control element is the control valve (pneumatic valve).
The other final control elements are:
 Relay switches (on-off)
 Variables speed
 pump Variables
 speed motors

30
 Process control
6. Tuning:- Setting up of the controller parameters
Most controllers have one or more parameters to be
adjusted.
The adjustment depends on the
 type of controller,
 the dynamic behaviour of the process and
 the desired closed-loop (controlled) response.
PID controller has three parameters to be adjusted:
 Controller gain (Kc),
 Integral time (I) and
 Derivative Time (D)
31
Example – Heat Exchanger
We want to design a control system to maintain the temperature of
oil leaving the heat exchanger at 75oC.

32
 Example 2 – Heat Exchanger, Cont.
Design of a control system
1. Defining the Control Objective
 To maintain the outlet temperature of the oil at T=75oC

2. Identifying and Classifying the Process variables:

Process variables : T, Fs, T0, F
Classification:
 Controlled variable (CV): T
 Manipulated variable (MV): Fs
 Disturbance variable (DV) : T0, F

33
 Example 2 – Heat Exchanger, Cont.
3. Selecting Control strategy :Feedback
Selection depends on:
 The dynamic behavior of the process
 The available measured process variables
 The required control performance

34
 Example 2 – Heat Exchanger, Cont.
Feedback controlled heat
exchanger

35
 Process control-Cont.
4. Selecting Type of controller: PID
Selection depends on:
 The dynamic behavior of the process
 The required control performance
5. Process instrumentation
 Identification of the hardware elements for the control system
 A sensor :-Thermocouple
 A transmitter :- Temperature transmitter
 A controller :- Temperature controller
 A final control element :- Control valve
 Preparing specification of the above hardware elements
 Drawing and interpretation of the piping and instrumentation
diagram (P&ID).

36
P&ID (Piping and Instrumentation Diagram)
• P&ID for a feedback controlled heat exchanger

37
Tuning of controllers
6. Tuning (Setting the controller parameters) : For PID
controllers, tuning means adjusting the values of
Kc, I and D
Selection of , Kc, I and D for PID controller depends
on :
 The dynamic behavior of the process
 The required control performance

38
Representative process control problems
• Common processes can be continuous, batch or semi-batch.

Shell and tube Heat Exchanger (Continuous)

Control problem: The exit temperature of the process fluid is

controlled by manipulating the cooling (heating) medium flow rate.
Disturbances: Variations in the inlet temperatures and process
fluid flow rate.
39
Continuous Processes, cont.
Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTR)

Control problem: If the reaction is highly exothermic, it is necessary

to control the reactor temperature by manipulating the flow rate of the
coolant in a jacket or cooling coil.
Disturbances: The feed conditions (composition, flow rate,
and
temperature).
40
Continuous Processes, cont.
Thermal Cracking Furnace

Control Problem: The furnace temperature and amount of excess

air in the flue gas to be controlled by manipulating the fuel flow
rate and the fuel/air ratio.
Disturbances: The crude oil composition and the heating
quality of the fuel.
31
 Continuous Processes, cont.
Multi-component distillation column

Control Problem: Distillate composition can be controlled by

adjusting the reflux flow rate or the distillate flow rate.
Disturbances: The feed conditions.

42
Batch and semi-batch processes, cont.
• Batch or semi-batch reactor: The reactor temperature is
controlled by manipulating a coolant flow rate.

• Batch digester: The end point of the chemical reaction is

indicated by Kappa number, a measure of lignin content. It is
controlled to a desired value by adjusting the digester
temperature, pressure, and/or cycle time.

43
Thank You!

44