Instrument Measurements

Instruments - a device or mechanism used to determine the value of a quantity under

observation.

Functions of Instruments
1. Visual indication of the quantity being measured.
2. Furnishes a record for historical information
3. Some instruments are used to control a quantity

Types of Instruments
1. Analog - signals or information represented by a continuously variable physical
quantity
2. Digital - signals formed from a discrete set of information, refers to something using
digits

Measurement - the process of determining an unknown quantity by comparison with an

accepted standard of the system of units employed.

Measurement Standards
In metrology (the science of measurement), there exists a four-level hierarchy of
standards:
1. Primary Standards
2. Secondary Standards
3. Tertiary Standards
4. Working Standards

Error in measurement
Any measurement is affected by many variables, thus, the results rarely reflect
the expected values. For example, using a thermometer to directly measure a liquid will
also
affect the temperature of the liquid. The degree to which a measurement
conforms/deviates from the expected value is expressed in terms of error.

Types of Error
1. Gross Error - When an error occurs due to the person using the instruments (incorrect
reading, incorrect recording, incorrect use), this is categorized as a gross error.
2. Systematic Error - the errors are due to instrument, environment or
observational
issues.
3. Random Errors - Errors that remain after the gross and systematic errors have been
substantially reduced or accounted for are characterized as random errors, which
generally are of unexplainable origin.

Compounding Errors
When a quantity is calculated from measurements made on two (or more)
instruments, the errors due to instrument accuracy combine in the worst possible way.
The resulting error is then larger than the error in any one instrument.
Types of Compounding of Errors
1. For both additive and subtractive measurements, the total error is the sum of
the absolute errors of each measurement.
For
X ± eX = A ± eA + B ± eB, or A ± eA – B ± eB
eX = ± ( eA + eB )

2. For both multiplicative and division of measurements, the total error is the sum of their
percentage errors of each measurement.
% eX = ±(% eA + % eB)

3. For exponential
If X = A^C,(C is a constant)
% eX = C * % e A

Basic Electrical Instruments

1. Ammeter – Measures current
2. Voltmeter – Measures potential difference
3. Ohmmeter – Measures electrical resistance
Types of Instruments
1. Multimeter 5. Micro ohmmeter
2. Clampmeters 6. Mega ohmmeter
3. Insulation Tester - can measure 7. Hi-pot tester
insulation up to hundreds of MΩs 8. Digital OScilloscope
4. Low Resistance Ohmmeters – a 9. LCR Meter
device used to check the conductivity 10. Spectrum/ Signal Analyzer
between points. 11. Power Analyzer
12. Logic Probe/Analyzer

Analog DC Electrical Instruments using PMMC Galvanometers

The concept of measuring current thru a compass deflection pushed through and
the resulting instrument was initially called a multiplier, later called a Galvanometer.

D’Arsonval Galvanometer
“ The galvanometer is a deflection instrument that uses a pointer which moves
over a calibrated scale to indicate the measured quantity.”
The “Ideal” Ammeter
• Electrically operates like a wire with no resistance/impedance (low-Z)
• Does not consume power
• Should not modify the circuit which it is connected to.

DC Ammeter

Defining the Parameters of a DC Ammeter

I – Ammeter current I – current flowing thru the

a m
I – current flowing thru the galvanometer
shunt
sh
V – voltage drop across
resistor the m
R – shunt Galvanometer
resistor sh
R – internal resistance of the
PMMC
m
Galvanometer

Example: Modifying a DC Ammeter for Different Scales

Calculate the value of the shunt resistance required to convert a 1-mA meter movement,
with 100 Ω internal resistance, into a 0- to 10-mA ammeter. (Ans. 11.11 Ω)

Multirange PMMC Based Ammeter

Using rotary switches and multiple shunt resistors, it is possible to design a single
ammeter which can measure at multiple ranges
One big drawback is during switching, it is possible to momentarily remove the
shunt resistance which leaves all the current to flow through the galvanometer.

Aryton Shunt / Universal Shunt

Invented by William Edward Aryton, an Aryton shunt eliminates the problem of

having the galvanometer without the shunt.

Example: Ayrton Shunt/Universal Shunt

A PMMC instrument has a three-resistor Aryton shunt connected across it to make
an ammeter. The resistance values are R = 0.05 Ω, R = 0.45 Ω, and R = 4.5 Ω. The
1 2 3
meter has R = 1 kΩ and FSD = 50μA. Calculate the three ranges of the ammeter.
m

DC Voltmeter

DC VoltmeterUsing a PMMC Galvanometer

The deflection of a PMMC instrument is proportional to the current flowing thru

the moving coil, which is also proportional to the voltage across the coil/PMMC.
Therefore, the scale of the PMMC meter could be calibrated to indicate voltage.

Completing the DC Voltmeter:

Adding a series resistance, R
s
• Increases the equivalent resistance of the voltmeter, making it more of an ideal
voltmeter
• Adjusts the range of the voltmeter
• The added resistance will also serve as a swamping resistance to the galvanometer’s
coil resistance

Example: DC Voltmeter
A PMMC instrument with FSD = 100μA and R
m = 1kΩ is to be converted to a Voltmeter
with a FSD of 50V. Determine the required multiplier resistance.

Ohmmeter
 A PMMC-based analog ohmmeter is significantly different with regards to its
visual scale, where the less the resistance, the higher the deflection in the scale.

Ohmmeter components

R : Adjustable series resistance. Comprised of a fixed and a variable portion.

z
R : Resistance to be measured. E : Voltage of the battery
x B
R and E is chosen in such a way that when pin X andY is shorted (R = 0Ω), the
z B x
galvanometer will deflect to its full scale deflection.

Adding the measured resistance R will reduce the current flowing across the circuit
X