CHAPTER 3

RESPONSE TO HARMONIC EXCITATION

Expected outcome:
1. Students can determine steady-state response of undamped and damped SDF systems
to harmonic excitation.
2. Students can determine dynamic properties of SDF systems by using vibration test.

Excitation could be classified as

- Periodic excitation, for example, harmonic excitation

- Transient excitation, for example, pulse, or earthquake
In this chapter, we will focus on the harmonic excitation which involves the simplest form of
solutions among various types of excitation.

3.1 Harmonic excitation

Period, T  2 
p(t) Amplitude, po

Figure 3.1 Harmonic force

Harmonic excitation is the external force that varies as the sinusoidal function (Fig. 3.1)

p(t )  po sin t (3.1)

where  is the angular frequency of external force p(t).

Equation of motion governing vibration of an SDF system subjected to harmonic excitation is

mu  cu  ku  po sin t (3.2)

Solutions of this equation depend on whether   n .

3-1
3.2 Response of undamped SDF systems to harmonic excitation

The equation of motion is

mu  ku  po sin t (3.3)

When   n , the solution of equation of motion is

 u  0  po  / n  p 1
u  t   u  0  cos n t    sin n t  o sin t (3.4)
2
 n
 k 1   / n   k 1   / n 2
 
Transient response Steady  state response

The steady-state vibration has frequency equal to force frequency. The transient vibration
depends on the initial displacement and initial velocity and exists even if u  0   u  0   0 .

Period, T  2 
p(t)
Amplitude, po

u(t)/(ust)o Total response

2
Steady-state response
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
t/T
Figure 3.2 (a) Harmonic force; (b) response of undamped system to harmonic force:
 n  0.2; u  0   0; and u  0   n p0 k

3-2
Steady-state response

If we consider only the steady-state response in Eq. (3.4),

po 1  1 
u t   sin t   ust o  2
sin t (3.5)
k 1    / n  2
1   / n  

po
where  ust o  is “the peak value of static deformation” as the static deformation due to
k
p(t )  po sin t is

po
ust (t )  sin t (3.6)
k

The subscript “o” at  ust o denotes the peak value and this designation will be used with

other quantities as well; for example, uo  max u  t  is peak value of u  t  over all time t .
t

Deformation response factor and phase angle

Deformation response factor Rd is the ratio between peak deformation of steady-state

vibration and peak static deformation:

max u (t ) uo 1
Rd  t
 
 ust o  ust o 1   / n 2 (3.7)

Then, the steady-state response can be written as

u  t    ust o Rd sin t    (3.8)

where  is called “phase angle”

 0 if   n

 if   n

3-3
 Figure 3.3 Deformation response factor Rd and phase angle 

Phase angle indicates the timing of peak response relative to peak of applied force.

Resonance

When   n , the response of undamped SDF system is

1 po
u t    nt cos nt  sin nt  (3.9)
2 k

Response amplitude increases indefinitely, and this phenomenon is called “resonance.”

3-4
 30

20 Envelope curve
10
u(t) / (ust)o

0 t / Tn
0 2 4 6 8 10
-10
-20 uj
 u j 1
-30

Figure 3.4 Response of undamped system to sinusoidal force of frequency

  n ; u  0   u  0   0

3.3 Response of Viscously Damped SDF systems to Harmonic Excitation

The equation of motion is

mu  cu  ku  po sin t (3.10)

The solution of this equation again depends on whether   n

When   n , the solution of this equation is

p
u  t   ent  cos D t     o Rd sin t    (3.11)
  k 
 
transient response steady-state response

Similar to undamped SDF system, the response to harmonic excitation consists of two
parts: transient and steady-state responses. The transient response depends on initial
displacement and initial velocity. If damping is present, the transient response will decay
exponentially as time increases. The transient response oscillates with damped natural
frequency while steady-state response oscillates with force frequency. The amplitude of
steady-state vibration is
po
uo  Rd   ust o Rd (3.12)
k

3-5
Figure 3.5 Comparing total response of undamped and damped SDF system to harmonic
excitation, transient vibration will disappear and only steady-state vibration will
remain as vibration goes on.

3-6
Steady-state response

Steady-state response will remain present as long as the harmonic force is applied

u  t    ust o Rd sin t    (3.13)

where the deformation response factor Rd is

uo 1
Rd   (3.14)
 ust o 1   /  2   2  /   2
2

 n   n 

and the phase angle  (or phase lag) is

2  / n 
  tan 1 (3.15)
1   / n 
2

The deformation response factor affects the amplitude and the phase lag affects timing
that peak responses occur relative to the peaks of harmonic force. Note that phase angle
depends on both frequency ratio  / n and damping ratio  .

3-7
 3 (a) ω/ωn=0.5
Dynamic:
2
Rd=1.29 Static:
1
u(t) / (ust)o

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-1
T t/T
-2  / 2  0.041
T
-3

(b) ω/ωn=1 Rd=2.5

3
2
1
u(t) / (ust)o

t/T
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-1
-2
 2  0.25
-3

3 (c) ω/ωn=2

2
1 Rd=0.32
u(t) / (ust)o

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-1
t/T
-2
 2  0.459
-3

Figure 3.6 Steady-state response of damped system   0.2  to sinusoidal force for three

values of frequency ratio: (a) ω/ωn=0.5, (b) ω/ωn=1, and (c) ω/ωn=2

3-8
Resonance

When   n , the response of damped SDF system is

1 po  nt    
u t   e  cos D t  sin D t   cos n t  (3.16)
2 k   
  1  2  

20
Envelope curve Steady-state amplitude
1/2
10
u(t)/(ust)o

0 t / Tn
0 2 4 6 8 10
-10
1/2
-20

Figure 3.7 Response of damped system with   0.05 to sinusoidal force for frequency

  n ; u  0   u  0   0

 ust o
In Fig. 3.7, note that response amplitude of damped system is bounded by .
2

30

20 

10
u(t)/(ust)o

0 t / Tn
0 2 4 6 8 10
-10
-20
-30

Figure 3.8 Response of three systems   0.01, 0.05, and 0.1 to sinusoidal force for

frequency   n ; u  0   u  0   0.

3-9
 Number of cycles before the amplitude reaches the limit varies with damping ratio  .
Small damping ratio will take more cycles to reach steady state amplitude (blue dashed line
in Fig. 3.8).

Maximum deformation and phase lag

A plot of amplitude of a response quantity versus excitation frequency is called a

frequency-response curve (Fig. 3.9).

(a) Deformation response factor

5
=0.01
Deformation response factor Rd = uo/(ust)o

4 =0.1

=0.2
2

=0.7
1
=1

0
0 1 2 3
(b) Phase angle, or phase lag
180
=0.01
=0.1
Phase angle f

=0.2 =1 =0.7

90

0
0 1 2 3
Frequency ratio 𝜔/𝜔n

Figure 3.9 Deformation response factor and phase angle for damped systems excited by
harmonic force.

3 - 10
 More damping reduces deformation response factor Rd and deformation amplitude at

all excitation frequencies.

Maximum deformation

Magnitude of this reduction strongly depends on excitation frequency and is

examined in the following three regions of frequency ratio  / n :

1. If  / n  1 (force varies slowly), Rd is only slightly larger than 1 and is essentially

independent of damping
po
uo   ust o  (3.17)
k

Response is similar to static deformation and is controlled by stiffness of the system.

2. If  / n  1 (force varies rapidly), Rd tends to zero as  / n increases and Rd is

unaffected by damping. From

uo 1 1
Rd   
 ust o 1   /  2   2  /    2  / n 2
2

 n   n 

 ust o po
then uo   (3.18)
 /   m 2
2
n

Response is controlled by mass of the system.

3. If  / n  1 (force frequency is close to natural frequency of the system), Rd is very

sensitive to damping and is much larger than 1 for small damping implying that
dynamic deformation can be much larger than static deformation.

 ust o po
uo   (3.19)
2 cn

Note that Rd  1 for all frequency ratio when   1

2

3 - 11
Example 3.1
The displacement amplitude uo of an SDF system due to harmonic force is known for

two excitation frequencies. At   n , uo  12.5 cm ; at   5n , uo  0.05 cm Estimate the

damping ratio of this system.

1
Solution At   n , uo   ust o  12.5 cm refer Eq. (3.19)
2

At   5n which is much greater than 1,

 ust o  ust o
uo    0.05 cm refer Eq. (3.18)
 /  
2
25
n

 ust o  0.05  25  1.25 cm

1
Then, substitute  ust o in the relation uo   ust o for   n
2

 ust o 1.25
   0.05
2uo 2 12.5

Phase angle or phase lag

Phase angle (  ) defines the time that peak of response lags behind the peak of force
as examined in the same three regions (Fig. 3.6):

1. If  / n  1 (force varies slowly),  is close to 0 and the displacement is in phase

with the applied force. When the force acts to the right, the system displaces to the
right (Fig.3.6a and 3.9).

2. If  / n  1 (force varies rapidly),  is close to 180o and is essentially out of phase

relative to the applied force. When the force acts to the right, the system displaces to
the left (Fig.3.6c and 3.9).

3. If  / n  1 (force frequency is close to natural frequency of the system),  = 90o for

all damping ratio. The displacement attains its peaks when the force passes through
zeros (Fig.3.6b and 3.9).

3 - 12
Dynamic response factor

The deformation response factor ( Rd ) is the ratio of the amplitude uo of the vibratory

steady-state displacement to the amplitude of static displacement  ust o as defined earlier in

Eq. (3.7) and the steady-state displacement can be written as Eq. (3.8):

u t 
 Rd sin t    (3.20)
po k

Differentiating above equation with respect to time t, we get

u  t 
 Rv cos t    (3.21)
po km

where the velocity response factor ( Rv ) is related to Rd as


Rv  R (3.22)
n d

Differentiating equation for velocity, we get

u  t 
  Ra sin t    (3.23)
po m

where the acceleration response factor ( Ra ) is related to Rv and Rd as

2
  
Ra  Rv    Rd (3.24)
n  n 

From Eq. (3.23), the amplitude of acceleration uo is

po uo (3.25)
uo  Ra or Ra 
m po m

Ra is the ratio of the amplitude of the vibratory acceleration to the acceleration of a mass m

due to a force po .

3 - 13
 5
=0.01
4 =0.1

3
=0.2
Rd

2 =0.7
=1
1

0
0 1 2 3

5
=0.01

4 =0.1

3 =0.2
Rv

2 =0.7
=1
1

0
0 1 2 3

5
=0.01
4 =0.1

3 =0.2
Ra

2 =0.7
=1
1

0
0 1 2 3
Frequency ratio 𝜔/𝜔n

Figure 3.10 Deformation, velocity, and acceleration response factors for damped systems
excited by harmonic force

3 - 14
Four-way logarithmic plot

Because the dynamic response factor of displacement, velocity and acceleration are
inter-related through

2
  
Ra  Rv    Rd (3.26)
n  n 

They can be plotted simultaneously in the same figure. Rv can be read from the vertical axis

whereas Ra and Rd are read from diagonal axes.

Figure 3.11 Four-way logarithmic plot of deformation, velocity, and acceleration response
factors for a damped system excited by harmonic force (Source: Chopra, 2012)

3 - 15
3.4 Resonant frequencies and resonant responses

Resonant frequency is defined as the forcing frequency at which the largest response
amplitude occurs. From frequency-response curve, we can see that peaks of displacement,
velocity and acceleration occur at different forcing frequencies. These resonant frequencies
can be determined by taking derivatives of Rd , Rv , and Ra . The resonant frequencies are

frequencies  where derivatives of those quantities equal zero.

For damping ratio   1 2 , the resonant frequencies for displacement, velocity and
acceleration are (see Fig. 3.10):

Displacement resonant frequency = n 1  2 2

Velocity resonant frequency = n

Acceleration resonant frequency = n  1  2 2

For an undamped system, these resonant frequencies are the same and equal to n .

The responses at these resonant frequencies are so called “resonant responses,” (see Fig.
3.10) which are:

1
Rd  (3.27)
2 1   2

1
Rv  (3.28)
2

1
Ra  (3.29)
2 1   2

3 - 16
3.5 Half-power bandwidth

5
Deformation response factor Rd

1 2= Half-power bandwidth

0
0 1 2 3
Frequency ratio 𝜔/𝜔n
Figure 3.12 Definition of half-power bandwidth.

If a and b are the forcing frequencies lower and higher than the displacement

resonant frequencies where the amplitude of vibration is 1 2 times the resonant amplitude,
then the half-power bandwidth is
b  a
 2 (3.30)
n

b  a fb  f a
or    
2n 2 fn

This important result enables evaluation of damping from forced vibration test without
knowing the magnitude of applied force.

3 - 17
Derivation of half-power bandwidth

1
When Rd  of peak Rd at resonant frequency as in Eq. (3.27), we have
2
1 1 1

2 2
1   / n     2  / n   2 2 2 1   2 (3.31)
   

Inverting both sides of Eq. (3.31) and square them, we obtain

 
     
               
 
(3.32)
 n   n 

Find the roots of the quadratic Eq. (3.32) and obtain


 
         
 
(3.33)
 n 

If we neglect high-order term of  ,


   (3.34)
n

Keep only the first term in Taylor’s series expansion of right-hand side of Eq. (3.34).


 1  (3.35)
n

Difference between the two values of forcing frequencies is

b  a
  (3.36)
n

where b = 1   and a = 1   in Eq. (3.35).

3 - 18
3.6 Vibration generator

Vibration generator is a shaking machine developed to provide a source of harmonic

excitation for testing of full-scale structures. Vibration amplitude of structure is measured and
used to compute natural frequency and damping ratio of the structure. A type of vibration
generator has two masses rotating in horizontal plane about the same vertical axis with same
frequency in opposite directions.

The inertia forces of the two masses cancel in x-direction providing resultant in only
y-direction (Fig. 3.13) as

p  t    me e 2  sin t (3.37)

where

Each mass equals to me / 2

e = radius of rotation of each mass

 = angular frequency of the mass rotation (rad/sec)

Figure 3.13 Vibration generator: (a) initial position; (b) position and forces at time t.

3 - 19
Response to vibration generator

The equation of motion of an SDF system subjected to harmonic force from a vibration
generator is

mu  cu  ku   me e 2  sin t (3.38)

po
Amplitude of steady-state response uo is Rd where po  me e 2 , which is proportional to
k
square of rotating frequency  2 , so

2
m e 2 m e  
uo  e Rd  e   Rd (3.39)
k m  n 

For the acceleration amplitude, refer to Eq. (3.25) and substitute po  me e 2 :

2
me e 2 me en2   
uo  Ra    Ra (3.40)
m m  n 

When the acceleration response amplitude ( uo ) is normalized by constant me en2 / m

and plotted versus  n , it keeps on increasing as a function of force frequency square (   ).

10
9
=0.01
8
7 =0.1
6
5 =0.2
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3
Frequency ratio  n

Figure 3.14 Acceleration amplitude of steady-state response of an SDF system to vibration

generator running at frequency  n

3 - 20
3.7 Harmonic test

Concept of vibration under harmonic force provides a basis to determine a natural

frequency and damping of a structure from its measured response to vibration generator.

Measured value can be compared to the value computed from structural idealization.
This process allows the improvement of structural idealization for a better representation of
the actual structure.

Resonant testing

If amplitude of displacement response can be measured and static displacement due to

peak force can be determined, damping ratio can be calculated from the displacement
amplitude when forcing frequency is equal to natural frequency of the structure (not the same
as resonant frequency)

1  ust o
  (3.41)
2  uo  
n

where the natural frequency ( n ) is detected by changing the force frequency until the phase

angle is 90o.
Usually the acceleration amplitude is measured instead of displacement amplitude. In
general, the static displacement is difficult to obtain.

3 - 21
Frequency response curve

Because it is difficult to determine static displacement response due to peak force

from vibration generator, the natural frequency and damping ratio is usually determined by
frequency-response curve experimentally.

Amplitude of structural steady-state response is observed when the vibration

generator with two rotating masses is operated at a certain frequency and transient response is
already damped out.

Similar measurement is repeated for another selected forcing frequency until a

frequency response curve that includes the natural frequency of the structure can be plotted.

The measured response is usually acceleration amplitude uo . As the force frequency

increases, the peak harmonic force increases as a function of  2 as in Eq. (3.37), so the
frequency response curve of measured acceleration will increase as discussed earlier.

To obtain a frequency-response curve for acceleration with constant peak force

similar to Ra curve, the measured acceleration response amplitude is divided by  2 for each

forcing frequency.

And if the frequency-response curve for acceleration with constant peak force is
divided by  2 again, we will obtain the frequency-response curve for displacement similar to
Rd curve.

Then, we can use half-power bandwidth method to determine damping ratio and
natural frequency of the structure.

3 - 22
3.8 Force transmission and vibration isolation

In a mass-spring-damper SDF system, the force transmitted from the mass to the base
( fT ) is the sum of spring force and damper force

fT  f S  f D  ku  t   cu  t  (3.42)

Substituting value of u  t  and u  t  from Eq. (3.13) in Eq. (3.42), we obtain

fT  t    ust o Rd  k sin t     c cos t     (3.43)

The maximum value of fT  t  over time is

 fT o   ust o Rd k 2  c2 2 (3.44)

Using  ust o  po k and   c 2mn , we can write

 fT  o
2
  
 TR  Rd 1   2  (3.45)
po  n 

Substituting Rd from Eq. (3.14), we get the ratio of maximum force transmitted to the base to

the force amplitude po called “transmissibility” (TR) and it is plotted vs  n in Fig. 3.15.

1/2
 
1   2  / n  
2
 
TR   2  (3.46)
 1   / n     2  / n   
2 2

  

Unlike frequency-response curve shown earlier where damping reduces response at

all forcing frequencies, damping reduces the transmissibility only for  / n  2 . When

 / n  2 , more damping increase transmissibility. This means no damping is desired for

high frequency force.

If the applied force comes from vibration of nearby rotating machine, flexible support,
such as natural rubber, is often used to minimize the transmitted force from ground to the
system by making  / n  1 . When the machine starts from low speed and increases its

3 - 23
rotation speed to normal operation, it will pass through resonant frequency n , so adequate

damping has to be provided to suppress strong vibration at during resonant speed.

5
0.01

4 0.1
Transmissibility, TR

0.2
2
0.7 1

0
0 1 2 3
Frequency ratio  n

0.01
10
Transmissibility, TR

0.1

0.2 0.7 1
1

0.1
0.1 1 10
Frequency ratio  n

Figure 3.15 Relationship between transmissibility TR and frequency ratio  n for

damping ratio  = 0.01, 0.1, 0.2, 0.7, and 1 in (a) linear and (b) log scales

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Response to ground excitation

For harmonic ground excitation,

ug  t   ugo sin t (3.47)

peff  t   mug  t    mugo sin t (3.48)

By replacing po in earlier result by  mugo , we get

mugo
u t    Rd sin t    (3.49)
k

Note that total acceleration is ut  t   ug  t   u  t 

The ratio of peak total acceleration ( uot ) transmitted to the mass and the amplitude of

ground acceleration ( ugo ) is known as transmissibility (TR), which is same as Eq. (3.46).

1/2
 
1   2  / n  
2
t
u  
TR  
o
2  (3.50)
ugo  1   /      2  /    
2 2

 n   n 


If the excitation frequency (  ) is much smaller than the natural frequency ( n ), the

mass moves rigidly with the ground and TR approaches 1, or uot  ugo .

If the excitation frequency (  ) is much higher than the natural frequency ( n ), the

mass stays still while the ground beneath it vibrates and TR approaches 0.

Example 3.2

A frame model is excited by a shaking table. Acceleration amplitude of a mass on the

frame uot and shaking table ugo were recorded. The ratio between total acceleration of the

mass and acceleration of the shaking table is called “transmissibility”

uot
TR  (3.51)
ugo

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 The shaking frequency is varied, and TR is plotted as shown in the frequency response
curve below called “transmissibility curve.” Determine the natural frequency and damping
ratio of the frame using half-power bandwidth method.

Figure 3.16 Frequency response curve

Solution

The peak of the frequency-response curve occurs at 3.59 Hz. Assuming that the
damping is small, then the natural frequency f n =3.59 Hz.

From Eq. (3.46), when frequency ratio  n is close to 1, or force frequency is near

natural frequency of the system, TR  Rd 1  2  n   Rd for small damping ratio. So,

2

we will assume that the frequency response curve in Fig. 3.16 is proportional to Rd and we

could use half-power bandwidth method to estimate the damping ratio.

The peak value of the transmissibility curve is 12.8. Then draw a horizontal line at

12.8 / 2  9.05 which intersects the frequency response curve at fb =3.74 Hz and f a =3.44
Hz. From half-power bandwidth concept, the damping ratio is

3.74  3.44
   0.042  4.2%
2  3.59 

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Example 3.3

A sensitive instrument with mass 100 kg is to be installed at a location where the

vertical acceleration is 0.1g at a frequency of 10 Hz. This instrument is mounted on a rubber
pad of stiffness 300 N/cm. and damping such that the damping ratio for the system is 10%.

(a) What acceleration is transmitted to the instrument?

(b) If the instrument can tolerate only an acceleration of 0.005g, suggest a solution
assuming that the same rubber pad is to be used. Provide numerical results.

Solution

(a) Determine TR.

30000 N m
n   17.32 rad/sec
100 kg

 2 (10)
  3.628
n 17.32

uot 1  [2(0.1)(3.628)]2
TR    0.1014
ugo [1  (3.628) 2 ]2  [2(0.1)(3.628)]2

Therefore, uot  (0.104)ugo  (0.1014)0.1g  0.01014 g

(b) Determine the added mass to reduce acceleration. The acceleration transmitted can be
reduced by increasing ω/ωn, which requires reducing ωn by mounting the instrument on
mass mb. Suppose that we add a mass mb = 135 kg; the total mass = 235 kg, and

30000 N m 
n   11.3 rad/sec  5.561
235kg n

To determine the damping ratio for the system with added mass, we need the damping
coefficient for the rubber pad:

c  2 mn  2  0.1100 17.321  346.4 N-sec/m

c 346.41
   0.0652
2(m  mb )n 2(235)11.3

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Substituting for  / n and   in Eq. (3.50) gives

uot / ugo  0.0413, uot  0.00413 g

It is satisfactory because it is less than 0.005g.

Instead of selecting an added mass by judgment, it is possible to set up a quadratic equation

for the unknown mass, which will give uot  0.005 g .

Exercises

1. The structure below supports a rotating machine located at mid-span running at 1000 rpm
which produces vertical harmonic force with amplitude of 1000 N. Estimate the vertical
displacement amplitude of the beam. Assume that damping ratio is 5%. The lumped mass
of machine is 2000 kg and mass of beam is negligible. Cross section of the beam has
rigidity EI=2,000,000 N*m2 and span length is 5 m.

m = 2000 kg
EI =2,000,000 N*m2

L=5m

Figure P3.1 A simple beam structure for exercise problems 1 to 4

2. Compute the force amplitude at the connection between the machine and the beam by
concept of transmissibility.

3. When start up the machine and rotation speed of machine increases until causing
resonance, estimate the peak amplitude of vertical displacement at resonance. Assume
that machine vibrating force amplitude is 1000 N.

4. If an additional mass 2000 kg is attached to the center of the beam above, recalculate
natural frequency and vertical deflection amplitude of the beam. Assume that damping
coefficient remains unchanged, but damping ratio may be affected by the added mass.

3 - 28