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Chapter 2: Materials
2101804
Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Structures

Assist. Prof. Dr. Pitcha Jongvivatsakul

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Content
1. Concrete and its properties
2. High strength concrete
3. Fiber reinforced concrete
4. Light weight concrete
5. Reinforcement
6. Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)

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Concrete and its properties

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Concrete
▪ Elastoplastic material (Stress is not proportional to strain.)
▪ Stress-strain relationship is curved line.
▪ Properties of concrete (Hardened concrete)
• Strength: Compression, tension, flexural, etc.
• Deformation:
o Time-independence
• Modulus of elasticity
• Poisson’s ratio
o Time-dependence
• Creep factor
• Drying shrinkage strain
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Concrete in compression
▪ Stress-strain curve can be
obtained from the compression
test.
▪ Stress-strain curve shows
nonlinear because of the
gradual development of
microcracking in concrete.

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Concrete in compression

Normal concrete Lightweight concrete

▪ Strain at the maximum compressive stress is about
• 0.002-0.003 for normal concrete
• 0.003-0.0035 for lightweight concrete
▪ High strength concrete is more brittle than lower strength. 6
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Concrete in compression
▪ There are 4 major stages in the
development of microcracking and
failure in concrete under uniaxial
compressive loading.
▪ Microcrack
1. Bond cracks = cracks at interface
between paste and aggregate
2. Mortar cracks = cracks cross the
mortar

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Concrete in compression
▪ Stages until failure
1. 0-30% of compressive strength
• Stress-strain curve is linear.
• There are cracks due to shrinkage of
paste during hydration.
= No-load bond cracks
• These cracks have little effect on the
Micro-
concrete at low load. crack

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Concrete in compression
▪ Stages until failure
2. 30-50% of compressive strength
• Stress will exceed tensile and shear
strength of the paste-aggregate
interfaces.
• Bond cracks initiate.
• These cracks propagate only if the
load is increased. → Stable cracks.
• Stress can transfer via unbroken
interface and mortar.
• Curve becomes nonlinear.

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Concrete in compression
▪ Stages until failure
3. Beyond 50% - 60% of compressive
strength
• Mortar cracks develop between bond
cracks.
• Stable crack propagation: cracking is
increased with increasing load

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Concrete in compression
▪ Stages until failure
4. At 75% - 80% of compressive strength
• The number of mortar cracks increases.
• Continuous pattern of microcracks is
formed.
• Undamaged portion to resist load become
limited.
• Curve becomes more nonlinear.

5. Reaching compressive strength

• The load-carrying capacity of uncracked
portions reaches a maximum value which
is called the compressive strength.
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Concrete in compression
Lateral strain (3)

• Lateral strain (3) is tensile strain

and it increases as is expected from
the Poisson's effect.
• The more microcracks, the more
lateral strain (3).
• After 0.75fc’ to 0.85fc’, the cracks
and lateral strains increase rapidly.
• After that, strain increases more
Concrete loaded in uniaxial compression and more rapidly until failure
occurs.

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Compressive strength of concrete

▪ Refer to the uniaxial compressive strength
▪ Measured by a compression test of a standard cylinder
▪ Diameter = 150 mm, Length = 300 mm
▪ Average of 2 cylinders from the same sample tested at 28
days
▪ Variation in compressive strength
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Cylinder VS Cube

Why compressive strength of concrete cube is greater than that of cylinder?

▪ In compression test, friction between testing machine and the head/end
of specimens prevents lateral expansion.
▪ In cube, contact area with the testing machine is more which results in
more confinement → resist against specimen expansion → more
compressive strength.
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Cylinder VS Cube

f ’cylinder0.85f’cube 15
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Factor affecting compressive strength

1. Water/Cement ratio
2. Type of cement
3. Supplementary cementitious materials
• Fly ash/ silica fume
4. Aggregate
5. Mixing water
6. Moisture conditions during curing
7. Temperature during curing
8. Age of concrete
9. Rate of loading
10. Etc.

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Factor affecting compressive strength

1. Water/Cement ratio
• Lower w/c reduces the porosity of the harden concrete.
• Thus, the number of interlocking solids is increased.
2. Type of cement
Type 1: Normal
Type 2: Modified
Type 3: High early strength
Type 4: Low heat
Type 5: Sulfate resisting
▪ The rate of strength slightly
different in early age.
▪ However, all five types tend to
approach the same strength after
a long period of time. 17
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Factor affecting compressive strength

3. Supplementary cementitious materials
• Fly ash/ silica fume = pozzolans
• Fly ash → slow the rate of concrete strength but not the
final strength
• Silica fume
→ very fine particle
→ produce low-permeability
concrete
→ enhance durability
and/or high strength

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Factor affecting compressive strength

4. Aggregate
▪ Strength of aggregate
• Normal-strength concrete made with high-
strength aggregates fails due to mortar cracking.
o Stress-strain curve of this failure shows an
appreciable declining branch after the
maximum stress.
• In high strength concrete, aggregate failure
proceeds mortar cracking.
o Such failure occurs abruptly with a very
steep declining branch.
▪ Surface texture
• Concrete strength is affected by bond between
aggregate and cement paste.
• Bond is better in crushed, angular pieces of
aggregate.
▪ Grading
• Well grad aggregate leads less porous in concrete 19
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Factor affecting compressive strength

5. Mixing water
- Durability problem
6. Moisture conditions during curing
- Prolonged moist curing leads to the
highest concrete strength.
7. Temperature during curing
-7-28-day strength are reduced by
cold curing.
8. Age of concrete
- Roughly, 7-day strength = 65% to
70% of 28-day strength
9. Rate of loading
-At high rates of loading, the
strength increases.

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Concrete under tension

▪ Tensile strength of concrete = 8-15% of compressive strength
▪ Important when considering cracking, shear and torsion
▪ 3 types of tests for tensile properties

1. Direct tensile test

– not reliable for predicting
the tensile strength of concrete
due to minor misalignment and
stress concentrations in the
gripping device

Direct tensile test

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Concrete under tension

2. Split-cylinder test (ASTM C496)
• Specimen size: 150 x 300 mm. cylinder
• Vertical diameter of specimen is
stressed in biaxial tension and
compression

2𝑃
𝑓𝑡 =
𝜋𝑙𝑑
𝑓𝑐𝑡 = 0.56 𝑓𝑐′ (MPa)

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Concrete under tension

Relationship between splitting tensile strengths and
compressive strengths
▪ Tensile strength
is proportional
to square root Mean
of compressive ACI
strength.

𝑓𝑐𝑡 = 6.7 𝑓𝑐′ (psi)

𝑓𝑐𝑡 = 0.56 𝑓𝑐′ (MPa)

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Concrete under tension

3. Flexural strength/Modulus of rupture (fr)
• Load by three-point bending test until it fails
• Specimen size: 150 x150 x700 mm
• Modulus of rupture = maximum tensile strength in
concrete in bending
6𝑀
𝑓𝑟 = 2
𝑏ℎ
• fr =11% to 23% of compressive strength
• ACI prescribes as
𝑓𝑟 = 0.62 𝑓𝑐′ (MPa)

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Concrete under tension

Approximate range of tensile strength
Direct tension < Splitting tension < Flexural tension

Strength (MPa)
Direct tensile strength 0.25 to 0.58 𝑓𝑐′
Spitting tensile strength 0.50 to 0.66 𝑓𝑐′
Modulus of rupture 0.66 to 1.00 𝑓𝑐′
Factors affecting tensile strength
• Same factors that affect compressive strength
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Modulus of elasticity
▪ A change of stress with respect to strain in elastic range
▪ Represent stiffness or resistance of the material to
deformation
▪ The slope of the initial straight portion of stress-strain

• Can be calculate from f’c

• fc’ up to 42 MPa
• Unit: MPa
=0.4f’c
For lightweight concrete
𝐸𝑐 = 0.043𝑤𝑐1.5 𝑓𝑐′
Where wc=unit weight ACI
For normal weight concrete
𝐸𝑐 = 4700 𝑓𝑐′
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Poisson’s ratio ()

▪ Ratio of transverse to longitudinal strain under axial stress in
elastic range

 = x/y

▪  = 0.15-0.2
(both normal and lightweight)
= 0.18 (in average)

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Material model for concrete in compression

• Five properties used in establishing mathematical models.
1. Initial slope of curves = Ec (initial tangent modulus)
• Ec increases with the increase in compressive strength.

2. Parabola curve Stress-strain curves of concrete

– Vertex at the maximum stress
in compression
3. Determine 0 (strain at maximum stress) 2
- 0 increases as the compressive strength
increases. 4

4. Descending branch
- Results from the destruction of the
structure of concrete caused by the
spread of microcracking. 1
- slope increase with increase in f’c

5. Maximum strain reach cu 3 5

- cu decreases with an increase in
concrete strength.
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Material model for concrete in compression

• Mathematical model for stress-strain curve of concrete in compression

2
4

3 5
0.003

▪ Modified Hognestad stress-strain curve ▪ Convenient for use in analytical model

▪ Common representation of the stress- because the curve is given by one
strain curve for concrete. continuous function.
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Material model for concrete in tension

=0.0127 mm

1. Before peak stress ft:

• Linearly increase up to 50% of ft
• Then it is slightly curved.
• Strain at peak = 0.0001 (pure tension) or 0.00014-0.0002 (flexure)
2. After peak: stress drops very rapidly.
• Tensile capacity drops to zero when crack is completely formed. 30
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Biaxial loadings
▪ Loaded in two perpendicular directions
▪ No stress or restraint of deformation in the third direction

Biaxial state of stress Example: biaxial stress in web of beam

▪ Strength and mode of failure varies as a function of the
combination of stresses.

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Stress at failure of biaxial

Zone 1 : Biaxial tension
• 1 and 2 are both tensile.
• The strength is close to that in
uniaxial tension.
• Failure occurs by tensile
fracture perpendicular to
maximum principal tensile
stress.
Point B
2 2=ft

Zone 2: Tensile vs compressive

cracked • Cracks at lower stress than those
cracked 1
1 of uniaxial strengths
2 2 • Failure: tensile fractures on
2 2
planes perpendicular to the
1
1 principal tensile stress.
Zone 2
Zone 1 32
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Stress at failure of biaxial

Zone 3: Uniaxial compression

• Crack parallel to direction of
compressive stress = plain of
maximum tensile strain

2 2
crushed
Zone 3

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Stress at failure of biaxial

Zone 4: Biaxial compression
• Biaxial compression loads
delay the formation of
crushed bond cracks and mortars
1 crack.
• Thus, the period of stable
2 2
crack propagation is
1 longer and concrete is
more ductile.
• Higher strength of
concrete comparing to
• Failure occurs by series of parallel uniaxial.
fracture surface on plane parallel • At point C, 107% of f’c
to unloaded side

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Triaxial Loadings
▪ Strength and ductility under triaxial compression are more than
those under uniaxial.

• Test results of cylinder

specimens which 2=3.
• Based on the test, 1 at the
failure was
1 = f’c+4.13 (psi)
• 1 is more than f’c in triaxial
loading.

▪ In concrete column or beam-column joints, concrete in compression

is enclosed by hoops or spirals.
▪ The triaxial state of stress in concrete confined by hoops or spiral
increases the ductility and strength of confined concrete. 35
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Other concrete properties

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Shrinkage
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Shrinkage
▪ Shortening of concrete during hardening and drying under
constant temperature
▪ Depend on relative humidity (RH)
▪ Many codes have proposed equations to predict the shrinkage
strain.

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Creep
▪ Loaded Elastic strains develop.
▪ If load remains on member creep strains develop with time.
▪ Because adsorbed water layer in concrete become thinner.
▪ c continues to increase over a period of 2-5 years.

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High strength concrete

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High strength concrete

▪ fc’= 56-138 MPa or higher
▪ Water/ Cementitious materials ratios ≤ 0.4
(normally 0.25-0.35)
▪ Only the amount of water needed to hydrate the cement in
the mix is provided.
▪ High strength concrete is one type of high-performance
concrete.
▪ High-performance concrete is referred to concrete with
special properties
• High early-age strength/ durability

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Mechanical properties of HSC

▪ HSC shows less internal microcracking for a given
strain than normal concrete.
▪ Failure occurs by fracture of the aggregate.
▪ Higher elastic modulus
▪ Longer range of linear elastic response
▪ Lower creep coefficient
▪ Reduce initial and long-term deflections

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High strength concrete

▪ Disadvantage
• Brittle behavior in compression

• Smooth fracture surface

• Little aggregate interlock

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High strength concrete

Compressive strength (MPa)

UHPC
200 Ultra High Strength
Concrete
150
High Strength
Concrete
100
Normal Concrete
50

0 5 10 15 20 50 60 70
Slump Slump flow (cm)
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Fiber reinforced concrete

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Fiber reinforced concrete

▪ Concrete is strong in compression but weak in
tension and tends to be brittle.
▪ The weakness in tension can be overcome by the use
of
• conventional reinforcement
• a sufficient volume of fibers

Steel bars Fibers

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Fiber reinforced concrete

▪ The use of fibers modifies behavior of the fiber-
matrix composite after it has cracked.
▪ The fibers are generally stronger and can elongate
more than the matrix under tension
▪ Thereby improving its toughness.

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Types of fibers
1. Steel fibers ❑Nylon
2. Glass fibers ❑Polyester
3. Synthetic fibers ❑Polyethylene (PE)
❑ Acrylic ❑Polypropylene (PP)
❑ Aramid ❑Poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) etc.
❑ Carbon 4. Natural fibers

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Steel and Synthetic fibers

Steel fiber-30mm Steel fiber-60mm

30 mm 60 mm

Polypropylene (PP) Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) PET

30 mm 30 mm
30 mm
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Natural fibers
❑ Coconut ❑ Sisal ❑ Bamboo

❑ Sugarcane bagasse ❑ Jute (ปอ) ❑ Wood

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Concept of toughness
▪ Toughness is defined as the area under a load-deflection (or stress-
strain) curve.
▪ Adding fibers to concrete greatly increases the toughness of the
material.
▪ Fiber reinforced concrete is able to sustain load at deflections or
strains much greater than those at which cracking first appears in
the matrix.
FRC
Toughening effect of
the fibers in concrete
Stress (load)

Usual
concrete

Displacement51
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Mechanism
▪ At the cracked section,
crack
• the matrix does not resist any tension and
• the fibers carry the entire load.
▪ With an increasing load,
• the fibers will tend to transfer the additional
stress to the matrix through bond stresses.
» This process of multiple cracking will continue until either
❑ the accumulated local debonding will lead to fiber pull-out or
❑ fibers fail

or

fiber pullout fiber rupture 52

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Response under compression

Loading platten
Stress-(nominal) strain curve
Displacement
100 extensometer

Strain gauges
80
Circumferential
extensometer
Tensión (MPa)

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HSCcon with 3 Specimen
HAR 8080 kg/m
kg/m.cu.
offibras
steel metálicas
fibers
Stress

de
40 HSC
HAR

20 Hormigón
NSC
Convencional

0
0 3000 6000 9000 12000
Axial
Deformación strain
axial (microstrains)
(microdeformaciones) 53
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Comparison of the tensile response

• Different fiber-reinforced
cement-based composites

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Lightweight concrete

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Lightweight concrete
Made from
▪ Lightweight aggregates concrete
▪ Aerated concrete

Code Criteria
ACI 318 Density between 1,440 and 1,840 kg/m3
BS EN 1992 Density of not more than 2,200 kg/m3
fib Density between 800 and 2,000 kg/m3
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Lightweight concrete
▪ f’c=70%-100% of normal concrete
▪ Ec of lightweight concrete is smaller that normal concrete.
▪ Thus, ultimate strain at failure is higher.

Aggregate is weaker than cement

paste

Aggregate does not fail.

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Lightweight concrete
Comparison of design specifications (ACI 318)
▪ Modification factor reflecting the reduced mechanical
properties of lightweight concrete (λ)
1 for NC
f ct
 = 0.85 for sand-LC =  1.0
'
0.56 f c
0.75 for all-LC
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Reinforcements and
their properties

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Reinforcing steel bars

▪ Thai Industrial
Standards (TIS)
▪ มาตรฐานผลิตภัณฑ์
อุตสาหกรรม

Yield strength Ultimate

Class
(MPa) strength (MPa)
SD30 295 480
SD40 390 560
SD50 490 620

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Reinforcing steel bars

▪ ASTM A 615: Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain
Carbon-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement

Yield Ultimate
strength, strength, MPa
MPa (psi) (psi)
Grade 280 280 420
(Grade 40) (40,000) (70,000)
Grade 420 420 620
(Grade 60) (60,000) (90,000)
Grade 520 520 690
(Grade 75) (75,000) (100,000)

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Stress-strain curve for steel

4. The curve become flat when
the tensile strength is reached. • High strength bars
generally
do not have a well
defined
yield point and
enter strain
3. Stress begins to increase again hardening
→ strain hardening immediately.
2. Yield plateau
• A horizontal portion of the curve where
strain continues to increase at constant
stress
• Yield point
1. Elastic portion
Es= 200,000 MPa,
=0.3
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Stress-strain curve for steel in design

▪ For design

fs=sEs when  s   y

fs=fy when s   y

su
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Prestessing steel
▪ Wires
▪ Seven-wire strand
▪ High strength steel bar

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Prestessing steel
▪ No yield plateau or sharp
yielding point
▪ So, define yield stress
from total elongation
• 0.010 for strand and
wire
• 0.007 for alloy steel
bars
▪ Higher strength than
reinforcing steel bars but
less ductility

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Prestessing steel
▪ Modulus of prestressing steel varies depending on the type of
steel.
• For unbonded strand, Ep= 179,000 MPa
• For bonded strand, Ep= 186,000 MPa
• For smooth round wires, Ep= 200,000 MPa
• For alloy steel bars, Ep= 186,000 MPa

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Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)

▪ High corrosion resistance
▪ Easy to install
▪ Reducing labor cost

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FRP
▪ FRP materials have
elastic-brittle stress-
strain curves.
▪ Strength and elastic
modulus depend on
type of fibers.

Types Made with Elastic Compressive strength

modulus
GFRP Glass fibers 20-25%Es 55% of ft
AFRP Aramid fibers 20-60%Es 20% of ft
CFRP Carbon fibers 60-80%Es 78% of ft

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FRP
Carbon Aramid E-Glass
Strength High High High
Modulus High Intermediate Low
Moisture Excellent Good Low
Cost High High Low
Excellent in Impact
resistance
Sensitive to galvanic sustained
corrosion loads

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Q&A

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