Advanced Concrete Technology

Failure Mechanisms
in Concrete
Failure in concrete:
• Concrete is multi-phase composite material consisting of cement paste, aggregates, discontinuities, fluids, etc.
The properties of it depend largely on the properties of its constituents.

• Concrete failure refers to the failure of concrete to respond under intended or expected environments or
conditions (e. g. loads, forces, environmental factors, etc.)

• Concrete being a fairly brittle material, tends to fracture under excessive loads without or very little plastic
deformation unlike ductile material.

• Failures of concrete structures often imply large deformations, severe honeycombing and cracking with
spalling and ultimately collapse.
Main types of concrete failure:
• Mechanical: physical impacts, collisions, overloading

• Chemical: ASR, sulfate attack, contaminants from soil

• Fire: When exposed to extreme temperatures, problems such as expansion and deterioration can occur.

• Corrosion: when concrete fails to provide adequate protection from extremities such as road salts, seawater
and chlorides, the steel rebar will corrode. Cracks, low cover, porosity and low alkalinity are also other causes
of inadequate protection.
Sources of failure
Environmental factors such as abrasion/erosion, chemical attacks, bacterial attacks, climatic conditions. These are
difficult to be controlled by human.

Production factors including type (quality) of aggregates, degree of compaction, w/c ratio, quality and type of
cement.

➢ Effects of the sources of concrete failure described gives defect to concrete. Consequences of defects are
deformation of concrete surface, cracking of the surface and disintegration of the surface.
DEFORMATION UNDER LOAD
• It is a stress strain relationship under normal loading and under sustained loading.
• Under normal loading: the first effect of applying a load to concrete is to produce an elastic deformation i.e. as
the load increases deformation increases.
• Under sustained loading: the continue application of stress causes a slow deformation known as creep. The
increase of deformation is not proportional , as the time passes the deformation is lesser.

Elastic deformation:

• When the applied load is released, the concrete

does not fully recover its original shape.

• Under repeated loading and unloading, the

deformation at a given load level increases.
Modulus of elasticity
• Defined as the ratio of load per unit area (stress) to the elastic deformation per unit length (strain).
• The modulus of elasticity for most concretes at 28 days, ranges from 15 – 40 kN/mm2.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
• E= =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀
• The stress–strain relationship for concrete is non-linear and
the material is not strictly elastic.
• Three types of E-value are used, namely secant modulus, tangent
modulus and initial tangent modulus.

A typical illustration of deformation of concrete

subjected to constant load.
Deformation and Failure of concrete under uniaxial loading:
Mechanisms of fracture and cracking in concrete;
• Concrete can generally support loads up to 60% of ultimate strength without any apparent signs of distress.
• As the load is increased above this level, at about 70–90% of ultimate, small cracks appear on the surface. At
this stage sustained loads result in eventual failure.
• Cracks spread and interconnect until, at ultimate load and beyond, the specimens are increasingly disrupted
and eventually fractured into a large number of separate pieces.
• The formation and propagation of small microscopic cracks 2–5 μm long (microcracks) have long been
recognized as the causes of fracture and failure of concrete and the marked non-linearity of the stress–strain
curve near and beyond ultimate strength.

Comparison between
stress-strain curve of
steel and concrete
Stages of concrete fracture: The fracture processes in concrete depend primarily upon the applied state of stress and the
internal structure of the specimen. Even before loading, intrinsic volume changes in concrete due to shrinkage or thermal
movements can cause strain concentrations at the aggregate–paste interface. There appear to be at least three stages in the
cracking process;
• Stage I: Within this stage localized microcracks are initiated at the at isolated points throughout the specimen where the
strain concentration is the largest. Irrecoverable deformation being small. This shows that these cracks are stable and, at
this load stage, do not propagate. As the applied load is increased during Stage I, there will continuous process of stable
crack initiation.

• Stage II: As the applied load is increased beyond Stage I, initially stable cracks begin to propagate. There will be gradual
transition from one stage to another. During Stage II the cracks propagate but in a slow stable manner. The extent of the
stable crack propagation stage will depend upon the applied state of stress, being very short for brittle fractures under
predominantly tensile stress states and longer for more plastic fractures under predominantly compressive states of stress.

• Stage III: This occurs when, under load, the crack system has developed to such a stage that it becomes unstable, the
cracks self-propagate until complete disruption and failure occurs. Once Stage III is reached, failure will occur whether or
not the stress is increased. This stage starts at about 70–90% of ultimate stress.
Original crack
• The interface damage is likely to happen because there are original cracks in interface.
• Original cracks refer to the cracks formed in the interface of coarse aggregates and mortar before the concrete is loaded.

Types of original crack

• Dry shrinkage
• Cold contract
• Volume decrease
• Settlement
• Plastic shrinkage
• Bleeding path forming

sketch map of original crack

Stages of cracking in concrete
Crack Propagation
• Micro cracks initiate in the interfacial zone at very low load levels (as a result of the
load being concentrated around the areas of high stiffness, i.e. the aggregates).
• These micro cracks propagate further into the mortar, localize, and lead to the
ultimate failure of the concrete.
• This behavior is depicted in the schematic diagram shown in Figure. As seen in this
figure, when the load is below 30 – 40%, the cracks are limited to micro cracks in the
ITZ. When the load level increases to about 50%, the micro cracks become larger. At
higher loads (~ 75%), these cracks start propagating into the mortar, and then localize
to cause the ultimate failure.
Crack initiation and propagation
Main fracture (damage) mechanisms
• In concrete, “weaker planes” occur at the interface of the cement mortar and the aggregate: as a result of
bleeding, shrinkage, etc.
• The microcracks that appear at the interface tend to propagate along the aggregate surfaces.
• These microcracks can combine to form macrocracks.
• In addition there can be “mortar cracks” which run through the matrix material, as well as “aggregate cracks”
which tend to split apart the aggregates.
Failure under compression:
• The propagation of internal microcracks and micro-voids is reflected in the macroscopic stress-strain behavior
of concrete.
• For instance, under uniaxial compression, growth of microcracks aligned to the direction of loading leads to
stress softening.
There are three types of damage in concrete under compressive load;
• Hardened cement damage
• Interface damage
• Coarse aggregates damage

A. Undamaged concrete
B. Hardened cement damage
C. Aggregate-paste interface damage
D. Coarse aggregate damage
• Under uniaxial compressive stress evidence suggests that, first, stable cracks are initiated in the matrix parallel to the
direction of applied compression. As the load is increased, the cracks multiply and extend in this same direction until, in the
vicinity of mineral aggregate inclusions, the fracture path divides and travels around, rather than through, the hard
aggregate particles. After final disruption and failure, this fracture mechanism produces isolated particles of aggregate
adhering to which are small ‘cones’ of mortar at each end aligned in the direction of maximum principal compressive
stress.

Failure mode in compression

• Study of the remnants after concrete failure indicates that the probable mechanism of crack propagation and ultimate
failure in concrete under a uniaxial compressive stress is by cracks forming in the cement paste matrix due to the presence
of microcracks and flaws and the stress and strain intensification around aggregate particles (ITZ).

• Figures indicate that crack propagation paths may occur at the aggregate–paste interface, in the cement matrix or in the
particles of aggregate (as in the case of weak particles).
• Crack development pattern
Compressive strength test
• Compressive strength is the capacity of cubical or cylindrical specimens of concrete to withstand axially
directed loads pushing on it.
• The compressive strength of the specimen is calculated by dividing the maximum load achieved during the test
by the cross-sectional area of the specimen. This can be performed by compressive strength testing apparatus.
• A concrete cube test or concrete cylinder test is generally carried out to assess the strength of concrete after 7
days, 14 days or 28 days of casting.
• ASTM C39/C39M provides Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens.
• BS EN 12390-3:2019 provides standard compressive strength test of cube and cylinder specimens.
For a given mix, testing strength of a concrete specimen is mainly influenced by the following factors:
a. the ratio of the size of the specimens to the maximum size of the aggregates
b. the rate of application of the load
c. the end restraint due to the platens of the compression machine
d. the slenderness ratio of the specimens (i.e. the length to diameter ratio)
e. the size of specimen.
Effect of size
• As a thumb rule, the cylinder strength will be
0.8-0.84 times cube strength or compressive
strength of a cube is about 20% higher than
a cylinder made of the same concrete mix.
• The main difference between cylinder & cube
testing procedures is capping. Cylinder ends
are not plane or parallel enough to mate properly
with platens of compression testing machines, and
thus must be capped with sulphur, neoprene, or
other suitable material for proper distribution of the
load.
• Cube however are not capped but cast in rigid molds
with sides that are plane & parallel. When tested
they are flipped on their sides so that machine platens
mate properly with cube surfaces.
• A factor also affecting the cylinder/cube strength
ratio is, specimen geometry such as slenderness General relationship b/w strength ratio & h/d ratio
ratio as cylinders tend to be casted with ratio of
length to diameter equal to 2. Given the casting,
curing, rate of loading and aggregate grading
kept same.
• For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 150mm X 150mm X 150mm or 100mm X 100mm x
100mm depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of the works cubical molds of size 150mm X
150mm X 150mm are commonly used.
• According to experimental study, it is it is reasonable to assume that the larger the volume of the concrete, the
more likely it is to contain an element of weaker strength. As a result, for a concrete specimen of the same
batch, it is reasonable to expect that its strength and its variability will decrease as the specimen size
increases.

• Strength obtained on 100mm

cubes is higher than 150mm
cubes and the variation in the
values of compressive strength
of concrete ranges between 5
to 6%.

• The more homogeneous the

concrete the smaller will be
the size effect.

28-day compressive strength of 100mm and 150mm cubes

• There are quite a few studies available on the strength comparison of 100mm and 150mm diameter cylinder specimens
and of 100mm and 150mm cube specimens.

• Lessard (1990) found that the compressive strength of cylinders of 150mm diameter by 300mm was about 94% that of
cylinders of 100mm dia. by 200mm height.

• Baalbaki et al (1992) repeated the experiment on a total of 126 cylinders and found that the strength of the cylinders of
150mm diameter was 93% that of cylinders of 100mm dia..

• Neville (1977) suggested that the strength of the 100mm cubes was about 104% that of the 150mm cubes.
Effect of loading rate
• Load is applied continuously at the rate of 0.25±0.05 MPa/s (ASTM C39) or ranging from 0.2 up to 1.0 MPa/s according to BS
EN 12390-3 without shock increase corresponding to 140 kg/cm2.min.
• With variation in rate of loading on concrete specimen, the strength varies proportionately.
• At higher rate of loading, the compressive strength increases.
• The increment is from 30% to almost 50% of the original strength.
• However, at lower rate of loading, the reduction in strength of concrete cube compared to its true strength is insignificant.
• In order to determine the true strength of concrete cube, the obtained strength shall be divided by suitable correction
factor.
 Cube
Advantages
Rigid molds and loading
on side eliminates need
for capping
Lighter, easier to handle
Less materials required
for casting
Less storage space
needed in curing vessels
❑ Based on past research, replacing cylinder testing with cube testing is not recommended.
Cylinder
disadvantages Advantages disadvantages
More specimens needed
Cylinders with h/d=2 have
due to greater variability Less variation in test
weights 1.5 times that of
in results esp. smaller results
cubes
specimens
If segregation occurs,
Lower variability allows
cube flipping may give Capping required
use of less specimens
misleading results
More sensitive to changes Capping adds extra
Tested in the direction of
in aggregate grading, material and cost to the
casting
platen, h/d variations, etc. testing process
Only rigid multi-use molds Single-use and multi-use
permitted molds permitted
Effect of max. aggregate size
experimental facts proved that the larger the aggregate size the smaller the surface area to be wetted per unit
mass and therefore if the water/cement ratio is kept constant there will be more water. Concrete samples made
with smaller coarse aggregate size have higher strength than concrete samples made with bigger size of coarse
aggregate due to the weak bonds in the later resulting from greater heterogeneity, internal bleeding and the
development of microcracks.
Testing the compressive strength of concrete can be done with two methods:
1. The non-destructive testing (NDT) method with the rebound hammer
2. the classical destructive method by crushing specimens.
o By crushing specimens in the compressive testing machine we obtain the compressive strength as the test result.
Therefore, it is a direct test method which is globally standardized.
o This NDT technique is an indirect method because a rebound value is measured and not the compressive strength. It
complements the classical method in a perfect way because:
• The method does not damage the structure like the classical method, where cores must be taken for the evaluation of the
compressive strength.
• Tests can be done in-situ on the whole surface of a concrete structure, hence the quality of the entire structure is tested
but not only the quality of a few specimens crushed with the classical method.
• It is a fast, inexpensive and easy to perform method using a light and portable test equipment.
Failure under tension:
• Tensile strength of concrete is approximately one-tenth of compressive strength.
• The fracture process in compression is more stable than for uniaxial tension since the loaded area is less influenced by the
cracking.
• The behavior is much more unstable under uniaxial tension since cracking reduces the loaded area of the concrete whereas
under uniaxial compression the cracks are aligned in the direction of loading and do not significantly influence the loaded
area. It is for this reason that the tensile strength of concrete is much less than the compressive strength.
• Under uniaxial tensile states of stress, the fracture path runs essentially orthogonal to the maximum tensile stress direction
leads to strain softening behavior..
• For strong, naturally occurring, dense aggregates the crack path tends to follow the aggregate–paste interface.
• With weaker aggregates, including lightweight, the fracture path passes through the aggregate particles.
• The tensile strength of these concretes is dependent, therefore, mainly on the aggregate–paste (tensile) bond strength.
• For tensile stresses, stable crack propagation (Stage II) is of short duration, since the cracks propagate very rapidly through
the mortar matrix and around the aggregate–paste interface.
• Under sustained load, stress-concentrations will cause stress intensification at cracks or weak links such as aggregate-paste
interface where pores are existent.
• The presence of steel reinforcement reduces crack widths: stiffening effect on the post peak behavior.
• At higher applied stress levels (Stage III) cracks begin to propagate around the aggregate particles as the aggregate–paste
bond fails. The culmination of Stage III is failure of the element by cracking parallel to the maximum principal compressive
stress or orthogonal to the maximum principal tensile stress.
• According to previous studies, the maximum tensile strain for concrete is between 0.00015 and 0.00025;
the average maximum tensile strain being 0.0002 corresponding to initial cracking points.
Stress concentration at crack position Failure mode in tension
Failure Types in Cubes and Cylinders
Failure of concrete under multiaxial loading
• Under biaxial compressive states of stress, the alignment of the fracture path in both directions of principal compressive
stress produces a crack pattern such that, at final disruption, the ‘cones’ of mortar on aggregate are extended to form
complete ‘haloes’ around the particles.
• However, the principal problem to be addressed when measuring the deformational and strength characteristics of
concrete under multiaxial stresses is the specimen/testing machine interaction.
.

Zone 1 type failures are evident

over most of the C/T region,
with Zone 2 failures near
uniaxial stress.
Elsewhere Zone 3 failures are
produced with cracking
orthogonal to the unloaded
direction which is the direction
of zero stress
(minimum compression).

Biaxial strength envelops and failure modes

Effect of confinement
• Under confinement compressive strength of concrete increases.
• Confining pressure acts to prevent crack propagation and leads to more ductile response.
• In elastic zone, the behavior of confined and unconfined columns is very similar. On plastification small stress
increment causes large radial expansion.
• Confining pressure minimizes the expansion and growth of tensile cracks in concrete & results in higher failure
loads.

Stress-strain response of concrete

Typical stress–strain relationships for a concrete under equal biaxial compressive stress using various loading
devices.
Stress–strain relationships for a concrete under Volumetric strain–axial stress relationships
triaxial compression with various confining for a concrete under triaxial compression
pressures. with various confining pressures.
• Stage I response. For triaxial compression at high confining pressures the mode of failure changes from brittle to ductile as
evidenced by the stress–strain relationships and no clear fracture mechanism is visible since the cracks are extremely small
and localized.
• Stage II response. Defined by the stage at which the volume change relationships attain a minimum value before dilating to
failure.
• Stage III (failure mode). The cracking of concrete under multiaxial stress results in the complete disruption of specimens at,
or beyond, the ultimate stress level in a manner which is dependent on the type of stress state imposed.

Typical failure mode for concrete under triaxial ‘compression’ at high confining pressure
Confinement by wrapping with FRP
• Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are typically made of fibers such as glass, aramid, and carbon embedded in a
polyester or vinyl ester resin matrix.
• The strength of FRP depends on the elastic properties of the fiber and matrix, their relative volumes, and length and
orientation of fibers within matrix.
• GFRP: Made of glass which is not as strong as carbon fiber. It is much cheaper and significantly less brittle.
• CFRP: Made of carbon fibers about 5-10μm in diameter. It has high modulus, high tensile strength.
• AFRP: Made of aramid fiber.
• FRP composites are corrosion resistant, lightweight, and have high strength.
• FRPs are commonly used in aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction industries.
• Applications include the construction of FRP bridge deck systems, concrete decks with reinforcing FRP rebar, and the
strengthening and repair of existing structures.
Confinement by FRP wrap
Property ranges for different type of FRPs
Effects of multiaxial stresses on cube and cylinder specimens
Preparation of FRP wrapped specimens
Wrapped specimens after testing
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