Section A

EXPERIMENT1
To determine the resistance per cm of a given wire by
plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A long wire (of about 100 cm length) of unknown resistance, a battery eliminator or an accumulator (0 to
3V, a rheostat, one way plug key, a DC milliammeter(500mA), thick connecting wires, a meter scale
provided with terminals and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY/PRINCIPLE
Ohm's law states that
"The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential diference between any
two points of the conductor provided the physical condlitions namely temperature, pressure, etc. remain
Constant.
IfV be the potential difference across the ends of the conductor and / the corresponding current, then
according to Ohm's law,
Vox
V RI ..-0
where, A = constant of proportionality called resistance of the conductor

Resistance
Resistance of a given conductor or wire is the opposition to the flow of charges or current in it. For the
given conductor of unifom cross-section, the resistance depends upon the length , area of
Cross-section Aand the material of the conductor. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
The resistance of a wire is given by
R P A .()

where, p = of the material of wire, l

resistivity =
length of wire
A Cross-sectional area of wire.
The SI unit of resistance is ohm (Q).
Note The resistivity is the property of a material. Its Sl unit is ohm-meter (2-m).

13
 Determination of Resistance from the
Graph
As we know that the potential difference across the
is
conductor
directly proportional to the current flowing it. So on N
plotting a graph betweenV and/by taking them along X- and Y-axes
respectively, we get a straight line passing through the origin.
As from Eq. (i). V IR

So, the slope of graph is 1 M

R
i.e. Slope R V (volt
1 Graph showing linear
R relationship betweenV and
Slope
If7is the length of the wire, then resistance per unit length of wire or conductor =

Hence, by knowing the value of resistance of conductor and its

resistance per unit length, one can determine the
length of the conductor.
PROCEDURE
Draw the Circuit Diagram
1. First of all draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in figure below.

K
Rh

wwwwwww-

mA

1
wwwwww-
Circuit diagram to verify the Ohm's law and to
determine the resistance of a wire

Setting up the Elements of Circuit

2.Remove the insulation coating at the ends of
3.
connecting wires by using sand paper
Arrange various components like resistor, rheostat, voltmeter,
key as per the circuit diagram. milliammeter, battery eliminator and
4. Check whether the
pointers in milliammeter and voltmeter coincide with zero mark or not. If not
adjust the then
screw provided near the base of pointer needle by using screw driver. This
pointer to coincide with the zero mark. makes the
5. Note the range, least count and zero error of voltmeter as well as of milliammeter.
6. Now by using copper wire make the
tight connections according to the
circuit diagram. It should be
ensured that the
terminals of the voltmeter and ammeter are
+ve
7. Insert the key K and check the
joined with that of battery.
miliammeter and voltmeter are working properly.

14
Measurement of Resistance of the Wire
. NOW slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so that the small current is passed

through the resistance wire.

potential difference across the
tne voltmeter and milliammeter readings to get the value of
Note
resistance wire and current flowing through it.
10. Pull out the key K and allow the wire to cool if it gets heated.
11. Insert the key K again and shift the rheostat contact slightly to increase the applied voltage
12. Note again the milliammeter and voltmeter readings increased.
has been
Note ihS time, will get the increased value of current as the applied voltage
we
of rheostat and note the respective
13. Hepeat steps (10) to (12) for few more times for different settings
readings.
14. Note the obsenrvations in the tabular form.
and with the help of
15. Plot thegraph between V and / by taking them along X and Y-axes respectively
the following relation.
slope of the graph, determine the value of resistance by using
Resistance, R . 1 ... 2
Slope
Determination of Resistance per cm of the Wire
voltmeter and the other.
16. Cut the wire at the points where it leaves the one terminal of the
into
Note lt is to be ensured that the length of wire wound around the
terminals of voltmeter should not be taken
account.
and then stretch it against the meter scale.
17. Now remove the kinks in the wire (if any)
18. Measure the resistance per cm of the wire =

determined in step (15).

Here, A is the value of resistance which is

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

2. Least count of milliammeter = . . . MA
Range to.. MA
of milliammeter = 0

3.
5.
Zero error of milliammeter =.. mA

Least count of voltmeter =... V

4. Range of voltmeter = 0 to... V
6. Zero error of voltmeter =.. V
8. Measured length of the wire I= . . . m
1
Least count of meter scale m
=
7.
. . . . .

Table for Milliammeter and Voltmeter Readings

Voltmeter reading Milliammeter reading

. No.
V (volt) (mA)

4
-

15
PLOTTING GRAPH
(along Y-axis), we get a straight line passing through
On plotting graph between V (along X-axis) and/
between the potential difference
across the two ends of
the origin. Hence, there is a linear relationship
the conductor and current flowing through it.

Scale used on
X-axis, 1 cm V
Y-axis, 1 cm mA

Voltage

current
relation between voltage and
Graph showing
NM
formula, tan6
=
Slope =

1. Find the slope of graph using LM

S2
Resistance, nSlope
R
- .... 2/m
of the wire =

Determine resistance per unit length

2.

ERROR
As
be estimated as,
AV
The error in the result can R voltmeter and
least cOunts of
value. AV and Alare the
estimated error in the resistance
Here, AR is the
milliammeter respectively.

to the current through it. Hence

RESULT wire is directly
proportional
wire and
current
difference across a given difference across a given
1. The potential between potential
relationship
there is a linear
flowing through it.
==.... Q-m =....
Qcm
resistance per unit length
ofthe wire
2. The

especially on the
junctions.
PRECAUTIONS should be tighten
and clean and they used after
removing the
connections
should be neat wire should
be
1. All the or devices,
a thick copper
elements
connect the
2. To
insulations at its ends cross-section.
and it should
be
of uniform into
consideration
be taken
used should voltmeter must
be driver.
The wire m i l l i a m m e t e r and needle by using
a screw
3 both of the series with the
error in at the base a m m e t e r in
4. The zero of s c r e w provided and the
the help c o n n e c t e d in
parallel leaves at the
negative
removed with terminal and
should be
voltmeter
enters at the positive
that the
Take care that current
5. remembered

circuit. It must be
terminal.

16
 6. A low resistance rheostat must be used.
h e plug in the key should be inserted only while taking observations otherwise the current would
cause
unnecessary heating in the circuit.
8. Measuring instruments of appropriate ranges should be used.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The wire used may be of non-uniform cross-section.
2. The end resistance of wire may create some error in the result.
3. The instrument screws may be loosen.
4 The length of ends of the wire wound around the terminals of voltmeter may be included
5. The rheostat used may be of higher resistance value.
6. Due to the excessive heating, the resistance of the coil may be changed.

Viva-Voce
Q1 Why a voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the circuit? INCERT
A voltmeter s a high resistance device. Once it is connected in series with the circuit, a very small current
may fiow through the circuit. So, a voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the circuit.

ammeter is always connected in series with the circuit?

Q2 WhyAnanammeter NCERT
is a low resistance device. Once it is connected in parallel with the circuit then all the current
flows through the ammeter and it will cause a short circuit. So, an ammeter is always connected in series
with the circuit.
used for connecting different components in an electric circuit.
Q3 Why are copper wires normally NCERT
Because copper wire is a good conductor. lt is an ohmic device also. So, the current flows through the wire
proportional to the potential difference.
is allowed to flow the circuit continuously for long time?
Q4 What happens if the current through
[NCERT]

Q5 Why
The circuit may get heated.

do we need to measure resistance per unit length of wire?

By knowing the resistance per unit length of wire, we can make the resistance of desired value.
1
Q6 Is the resistance per unit length of a wire constant?
and made of homogenous material
Yes, provided the wire is of uniform cross-section

Q7 State Ohm's law.

The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between any
that the
conductor, provided and other physical conditions of the conductor
temperature
two points of the
remain constant.

On what factors does the resistance of a

conductor depend?
Q8
Resistance of conductor depernds
a on

) nature of the material (p)

(i) length of the conductor ()

conductor (A)
(ii) area of cross-section of

Q9 Why should the resistance wire used in

this experiment be of uniform cross-section and
composition?
unit length constant throughout the wire, the resistance wire should
In order to get the resistance per
have uniform cross-section
and composition.

17
EXPERIMENT 2
Tofind the resistance of a given wire using a meter bridge
and hence determine the resistivity (specific resistance)
of.
its material.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A meter bridge, a 1m long constantan or manganin wire of uniform cross-section of material whose
resistivity is to be determined, a resistance box, a jockey, a battery eliminator, a one-way key, a
galvanometer, screw gauge, thick connecting wires, a high resistance box, sand paper anda meter
Scale

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
Meter Bridge
A meter bridge is also known as slide wire bridge used to measure an unknown resistance of a
conductor by measuring its length. Acircuit diagram showing a meter bridge is shown below.

K
www
Rheostat
P
-wwwwwww RB
B
F

G
0 0 20 30
50 60 40
70 80 90 100
uluululul uluuluuluuilulunilLlulnluilunlulumlululul
R

A Jockey ()
- l cm- (100-1) Cm

Circuit diagram of meter bridge

Now, the circuit looks like a Wheatstone's bridge. The resistance of the wire between the points A and D
represents the resistance of arm A and the resistance between the points D and C represents the
resistance of arm S. The resistance of the resistance box and unknown resistance represent the
resistances of arms Q and Prespectively.
THEORYIPRINCIPLE
A meter bridge works on the princlple of Wheatstone's bridge. A
Wheatstone's bridge is an electrical network in which four resistors P

wwww-
w w w

Q, Rand S are connected to form the four arms of quadrilateral ABCD

as shown in the figure.
At the moment when the galvanometer shows zero deflection, then no
Current flows through the galvanometer and the bridge is said to be G
balanced. It happens when jockey is set at the point D called null
point in the meter bridge.
w ww-
wwww
Thus,

Deterination of Unknown Resistance

K
Since, the resistance (R) of a conductor is directly proportional to the
length (/) of the conductor Wheatstone's bridge

i.e R oe
Thus for bridge wire
Resistance ratio = Length ratio
In the meter bridge, at null deflection in the galvanometer or when the bridge gets balanced,
Length AD of bridge wire
Length DC of bridge wire

100- 1

Unknown resistance, X =Q

where, R = resistance introduced from the resistance box Q.

= length ADcalled balancinglength.
Hence, by knowing the balancing length of the wire, one can find its resistance.

Determination of Resistivity of the Material

2
Now with the help of unknown resistance, one can find the value of resistivity or specific resistance of
that wire. The specific resistance or resistivity (p) of the material of given wire and its resistance (X) are
related as
Xrr2
p
L
where, L = length of given wire'whose resistivity is to be measured.
Hence, by knowing the resistance and length of the wire, one can find its specific resistance.

PROCEDURE
Setting up the Meter Bridge
1. Take a sand paper and clean the insulation at the ends of the connecting wires.
2. Tighten ali the plugs of the resistance box (AB) by pressing each plug downwards and then
sCrewing them.

19
 Arange thecomponenls as por th0 circuil cllingramofnnoler brido nnd conWctalli(oponitnl
with the help of connecting wire.
4. Connect the resistance wito whose rosistance in to bo delorninod in ta loll qgap betweorn A und
Take care that no part of the wire lorms a loop.
5. Introduce a resistance R Irom tho rosistanco box in tho circauit arncd imot tho plug irto the oro Winy
koy K, so as to completo tho circul
Note Sometimes, a rheostat is providod to you imstoad of rositstanco box. Actuly, teontal i a vimintlo
resistance device which is macdo by wapping a long constantni wirO 1OUdO ConhGlng crnTH
cylinder. The slider of the thoostat can be slowt shctod hOm mininUn rOnataco polIon lowar
maximum resistance position to got tlho requirvd rosistanCo.

Testing the Correctness of the Connections

6. Touch the jockey gently to the loft ond A and right endCol the bridgo wire to chock the defloction in
the galvanometer.
7. Observe the deflection in the galvanomeler, I the galvanomelor shows deflections in the opposito

directions at both ends, then the connections aro mado corroct and
then null point will be
somewhere in middle of wire AC. If the galvanometer shows dellection in ong side only, then adjust
Iho wira AC (say belwoon 30 crm
the resistance R so that the null point is somewhere in the middle of
and 70 cm).
lault in the circuit connections. Check the
8. If there is one-sided delection yet, Ihen there is some
circuit especially junctions for their continuily.
is expectod lo bo al zor0 mark.
Note When nocurrent flows through the galvanometor, its poinlor
flows through the galvanometor, lho polnler may riol
Sometimes, it is observed that when no current Iho scrow bolow
can be adjusted to zero by gontly moving
exactly at zero mark. In such cases, pointer oblained by lapping the jockoy o
Otherwise null point must be
the base of pointer using screw driver.
the wire.
Wire
Measurement of Balancing Length of the in the
in the middle, so as to get a near null point
9. Now, slide the jockey along the wire nearly the wire
shows the zero deflectiorn (say point D) on
galvanometer. The point where the galvanometer
is called null or balanced point.
When the null point is the wire, note down the balancing length AD.
achieved on
10. sirnilar way by

2 11. By repeating the steps (6) to (10),

introducing different resistances
12. Interchange the positions of
steps (8) to (10) for the same
Note While interchanging the
take atleast lour sets of observations in the
from the resistance box (increasing order)
resistance box R and wire of unknown
five values of R.
unknown resistance X and resistance box,
into the one-way circuit.
resistance X and repeat the

it should be ensured that the length of

in the right gap as it was in left gap.
unknown resistance sBhould be same
wire of

Measurement of Diameter of the Given Wire

resistance of the wire of resistance X, cut
the wire at the points where it
13. In order to find the specific meter
terminals. Stretch it to remove the
kink and measure its length by using a
leaves the binding
Scale.
error of the given screw gauge.
14. Find the least count and zero at
zero correction) of the wire
diameter (or average diameter after
15. Measure the corrected average each place.
perpendicular directions at
thedifferent along its length in two mutually
places
Find the mean diameter of different values.
16.
the tabular form.
17. Note your observations in

20
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Determination of Unknown Resistance
Table for Unknown Resistance

X in the left gap X In the right gap

Resistance Arms length Unknown Mean
Resistanc Arms length Unknown
e from the resistance, from theBalancing resistance, resistance,
resistance elancing Length resistanc Lengin,
D'C
X X=tX2
Na 100-1X=Rx length
box, A(Q) ength,DC =
No. box, R()AD=1 100-
(cm)
box AD' = l' = 100-=R100- 2
(2) R(2) (cm) (2)
(cm) (cm)
(2)
X=
.s..S2

K . . .....S2
Aa........2

|X= ....S2

X .2

Mean resistance, Xmean X+Xg +Xg +X+Äs =......Q

5

Measurement of Diameter of the Given Wire

1. Pitch of the screw gauge = . . . . mm
2. Total number of division on the circular scale = .
Pitch of the screw gauge
3. Least count, LC= mmn
Total number of division on the screw gauge
4. Zero error, e =.

Table for Measuring Diameter of Wire

Reading along one direction Reading along mutually perpendicular Mean diameter
direction

S.No. Main scale

reading.
MSR P
Coincidingg
circular
scale
Diameter
D+ nx LCreading
Main
Scale
Coinciding
Circular
Scale
Diameter, d2
=p'+nx LC (mm)
d =*02 (mm)
2
2
(mm) = p (mm) division, n
(mm) divisions,n
mm

2
3

5. Mean diameter, da =1t02+O3 mm

3
6. Mean corrected diameter,d =do-(e) =. mm
3
7. Mean corrected radius of the wire, r = . ' ' ' ' ' .

Determination of Specific Resistance

1. Mean resistance, Xnean ...
2. Length ofwire of unknown resistance, L . . Cm=.m

3. Mean corrected radius of given wire, r = . mm =... m

Value of t = 314
4. 2

5. Specific resistance of material of wire, p= Ameant ... Q-m

L

21
ERROR
AS
P=X=n.
L
L
Hence, the error in the value of specific resistance can be calculated as
.

P- 2 , AL
pXT*T
RESULT
1. The value of unknown resistance is found to be X t AX =(..t..) Q
2. The specific resistance of the material of the wire is found to be
pt Ap =(... t...) 2-m.
where, X and p are mean values and AX and Ap are maximum of the five values of error.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Plugsin the resistance box should be pressed and tighten by screwing them a ltle in the clockwise
direction.
2. The bridge wire should not be pressed with the jockey too hard otherwise, we get different
cross-sections in the wire.
3 Try to obtain the null point near the middle of the wire (40 to 60 cm) so that the bridge can be used in
most sensitive way.
4. To protect the galvanometer from damage due to excessive current, use a high resistance in series

with it.
5. At one place diameter of the wire should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.

soURCES OF ERRODR
1. The screws bridge and of battery may be loosen.
of meter
non-uniform cross-section throughout its length
2. The wire of meter bridge may be of
of current which increases its resistance.
3. The wire may get heated due to passage
and backlash error.
4. The screw gauge may have wrong pitch
5. The plugs may not be cleaned

Viva-Voce length of
should find the resistance per unit
not of uniform wire and then the balancing length.
Q1 Ifthe meter bridge wire is
cross-section, then how
will it affect the is performed with
observations?
[NCERT) Q3 Ifthe same experiment
of 1 m, what changes
AC 50 cm instead
=

is of non-uniform (NCERT
If the meter bridge wireresistance per unit
would be there in the result?
cross-section, then the in the result
There will not be any change
wire will be diferent
over
the
length of bridge because the resistance depends
on

diferent lengths of
meter bridge. instead of entire length of bridge
length ratio
the length of meter
Is it necessary to keep
wire.
Q2 What, if not? not suitable for
wire 100 cm i.e. m ?
1 meter bridge
bridge INCERT Q4 Why is the low resistance? INCERT
works on the principle measuring very
No, the meter bridge the bridge is For measuring low resistance,
all the
Wheatstone's bridge. If the resistance of
of resistances in resistances including
balanced the product of wire galvanometer should
be low. The end
So, we can use in the result
arms issame.
thus introduce error
opposite meter bridge. Finally, we resistance
in the
of any length

22
Q5 Why is the meter bridge preferred for
determining the resistance of a wire over
the Ohm's law circuit?
INCERT
Because the meter bridge works on nul
deflection method so we prefer the meter
bridge for determining the resistance of a wire
over the Ohm's law circuit.
26 Why is the meter bridge not suitable for
measuring very high resistance? NCERT
The resistance forming bridge should be high
and the current in the galvanometer reduces
and the galvanometer will no longer be
sensitive
Q7 the meter bridge wire is not made of
material of uniform density, how will it affect
the observation? NCERT)
For a wire, the density is given by
y A
where m, l =constant
Also,
A
where, is the resistance per unit length]
Thus, the resistance per unit length changes
with density of the material. Hence, the
resistance ratio will difer in our observation.
Q8 Why are the appliances connected in
parallel in domestic and industrial circuits?
0 The potential across each appliance should be
same
Ci) Each appliance can be operated
independently by using a switch.
(i) if one appliance fuses, the other would
continue functioning.
Q9 Why should we obtain the balance point in
the middle of the bridge wire?
When the balance point is in the middle of the
wire, a small error in determining its position
introduces very small error in the value of
unknown resistance, thus there is maximum
probability of accuracy of the result.
Q 10 What are end resistances?
The resistances of thick copper strips on either
side of meter bridge wire are called end
resistances.
23
Q11 What is the condition for maximum
sensitivity of Wheatstone's bridge?
For maximum sensitivity of Wheatstone's
bridge, all the four resistances P, Q, R and
S should be of the same order.
constantan in the
Q12 Why we generally use
bridge wire?
The resistivity of constantan is very high
and its temperature coefficient of
resistance is very low. So, it expands very
ess.
In what way the temperature affect the
Q13
resistance of conductor?
Resistance of the conductor increases with
rise in temperature.
014 Why do we repeat the experimernt by
interchanging the position of unknown
resistance and resistance box?
In order to eliminate the error due to
contact resistances, we interchange the
position of resistance box and unknown
resistance wire.
Q15 Explain about sensitiveness of a
Wheatstone bridge.
A Wheatstone bridge is said to be sensitive
f it produces more deflection in the
galvanometer for a small change of
resistance in the resistance arm.
Q 16 Why a meter bridge is also called as
slide wire bridge?
While doing the meter bridge experiment,
a jockey is made to slide over the bridge
wire to geta null point. So a meter bridge
Q17
is also called as slide wire bridge.
Resistivities of copper, constantan and
silver are1.7x10 Qm, 39.1x 10 Qm
2
and1.6 x 10 Qm, respectively. Name
the material having highest conductivity.
Conductivity (o) Resistivity (p)
ie.
P
As, the silver has least resistivity so it has
the highest conductivity.
 EXPERIMENT 3
To verify the laws of combination of resistances (series and
parallel) using a meter bridge.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A meter bridge, two different resistances, a resistance box, a sensitive galvanometer, a battery
eliminator, a jockey, a one-way key, thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

R2
THEORY/PRINCIPLE www- wwwwww B
Resistances in Series -V2-
Resistances are said to be connected in series if they
are connected end to end as shown in the figure (a). For
n number of resistances connected in series, the
equivalent resistance is given by
R = R +R2 +Ra t . +R Combination of resistances in series

Resistances in Parallel R
wwww-

Resistances are said to be connected in parallel when V1

one end of each resistance is connected at one
2
common point and their other ends are connected to R2

3 other common point as shown in the figure (b).

For n number of resistances connected in parallel, the
equivalent resistance is given by
wwwwwww-

V2

Combination of resistances in parallel

PROCEDURE
Determination of Two Resistances
1. Take two wires of resistances (say X, and X)
2. Follow the same steps as in Experiment 2 to determine the values of X, and X one by one.
L
Determination of Equivalent Resistance of Series Combination
3. Draw a neat circuit diagram showing the two resistances X, and X2 connected in series
combination and connect the resistances X and X in series in the left gap of meter bridge as
shown in figure given ahead.
4. Find the equivalent resistance of series combination of resistances by following the same
procedure as in Experiment 2.
5. Take five sets of observations for series combination.

24
 of resistances X, and 2
of the five observations for series combination
. Find the mean value
K

()- Rheostat

www.www RB
B

20 30 40 5 0 60 70 HO 100
10
u l u l l u l u n l u u l u u l u l u u u l u l u l u s l i s l s u l i l u a s l u d u u a l i

Jockey (J C
A
cm - (100-1) c r n -

Meter bridge for vertying law of series combination of resistance

Determination of Resistance of Parallel Combination

Equivalent
8. Draw a neat circuit diagram showing two resistances X, and X2
connected in parallel combination.
of resistances X, and X, in parallel in
connect the wires
wwwm-
9 Now,
the left gap of meter bridge as shown in the figure below. E
10. Find the resistance of the combination and take five sets of
observations and find the mean of these five values same as
calculated in steps (5) to (7) for series combination of
Meter bridge for verfying law
resistances.
of parallel combination of
11. In the place of E in the above figure, such the combination of
resistances
resistor as

OBSERVATIONS
Table for Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistances

Resistance . of Resistance from Balancing Length, Resistance Mean

length, DC - x - 0 0 - 7 R@) resistance,
Used in the
left gap
observation the resistance
box, R(N) AD = I (cm) cm) X (2)
3
3
X, = ...

2 3 X= .
4

X, and X2 in
series Xs

X, and Xp in
3
parallel Xp
4

25
 CALCULATION
Verifying the Law of Series Combination
Experimental value of X, =... Theoretical value
Difference =Xg X, AX, = . .
-
of X =X^ X1 + Xp
= =
... Q
=
Q2
Verifying the Law of Parallel Combination
Experimental value of Xp = ... 2
Theoretical value of XpApX,X2
+Xo
.9
Difference= Xp'-Xp =AXp =... Q 2

ERROR
The error can be estimated in
experimental value of Xs as

AX =X

Similarly, for experimental value of Xp, AXp =

RESULT
Table for Verifying the Laws of Series and
Parallel Combinations of Resistances
Combination of Theoretically Experimentally
resistances expected value obtained value

Series A+ R2 . S2 X t AXs S2

Parallel R
RR2.
+ R2 XptAXp =.......

Within the limits of experimental error, the experimental and theoretical values of equivalent
resistances are nearly equal. So, the laws of combinations of resistances (series/parallel) are
verified.

PRECAUTIONS Same as in Experiment 2.

sOURCES OF ERROR Same as in Experiment 2.

Viva-Voce
Comment on the difference between theoretically expected and experimentally obtained
Q1 values of the effective resistances. NCERT
For theoretically expected value of equivalent resistance first we should obtain the values of X, and X

carbon resistor from the given values in case of resistance made of wires of
from the colour code on the or

materials like nichrome, constantan, etc.

using the formulae
The equivalent resistance can be calculated
X =X + X and X» =XXX
X +X2
in one of
obtained value first the two wires should be connected
On the other hand, for experimentally calculation of combinations of
and parallel. Follow the same procedure for
the gaps of bridge in series it. calculate the values as (X, t AX,) and
the result then, find Finally,
resistances. If any error is in
(X, t Xp.

26
 the maximum and
them to get
Q2 iven n resistors of resistance R each, how will you combine
minimum effective resistances?
NCERT
and the effective
the resistors are combined in series
norder to get the maximum effective resistance, all resistance, all the resistors will be connected in
esistance will be nR whereas for minimum effective

parallel and the effective resistance will be

n
and copper
3 H o w can we reduce the effect of end resistance at connections between the wire
NCERT
strips? The end resistance can be reduced by
he end resistance is caused due to improper soldering of wire.
unknown resistances in the two gaps. The mean of the unknown resistances
interchanging the known and
will give the result.
Q4 If bulbs are connected in
the parallel to the same supply, will the filament of the bulbs glow
with less brightness?
heat
resistance will decrease, thus current increases and hence,
more
No, because in parallel combination,
will be produced which makes the filaments glow brighter.
in the contrast to this, in series combination, resistance will increase, thus current decreases and hence,
less heat will be produced which makes the filaments of these bulbs glow with less brightness.
meter bridge
25 Arheostat is connected in place of resistance box. How will the sensitivity of
resistance position to maximum
change if the rheostat head is moved from minimum [NCERTI
resistance position?
be less
f the rheostat head is at the minimum resistance position, then the order of known resistance may
than that of other resistances. So, the bridge is less sensitive.
known resistance may be same
f the rheostat head is at the middle resistance position, then the order of
as that of other resistances. So, the bridge is more sensitive.
order of known resistance may be
f the rheostat head is at the maximum resistance position, then the
more than that of other resistances. So, the bridge is less sensitive.

thick copper strips are used to press the ends of meter bridge wire?
thethick
Q6 WhyThe copper strips have negligible resistance, so the effect of end resistance wil be minimum.

Therefore, thick copper strips are used at the ends of meter bridge wire.
Why the effective resistance increases in series combination and it decreases in parallel
Q7 combination?
In series combination, the charge carriers have to cross the longer distances, so the effective resistance
increases. On the other hand, in parallel combination, the charge carriers have to cross the broader

Q8
cross-section so, the effective resistance decreases.

How can you check the terminals of a battery?

In the battery eliminator, the red coloured terminal is positive while the black coloured terminal is
3
negative
Q9 What is an ideal value of null point?
The ideal value of nul point is at 50 cm of meter bridge wire.
Q 10 What do you mean by end resistance?
The resistances on the ends of bridge wire due to thick copper strips are called end resistances.

Q11 How are the coils wound in a resistance box?

The coils are doubly wound in a resistance box to avoid electromagnetic induction.
Q12 Give the definition ofresistance.
The opposition offered by the material of wire to th flow ofelectri current through it is called the
resistance of the wire (or conductor).

Q13 How the temperature affects the resistance of a conductor?

The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the temperature.
take null point near the middle of bridge wire?
Q 14 Why should we
In order to remove the end resistance, we prefer to take null point near the middle of bridge wire.

is a meter bridge so called?

15 WhyThe bridge uses one metre (1 m) long wire, so it is called meter bridge.

27
 EXPERIMENT 6
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half
deflection method and to find its figure of merit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A moving coil galvanometer (weston type), a battery eliminator (0-6 V), two resistance boxes of range
0-10 kQ and 0-200 S2, two one-way keys, a rheostat, a voltmeter, connecting wires and sand paper

THEORY/PRINCIPLE
Galvanometer
A galvanmeter is a sensitive device used for detecting feeble electric current. It consists of rectangular
coil pivoted between two poles (i.e. N and S) of a strong horse shoe permanent magnet. The coil in
between the two poles is made up of a fine insulated copper wire. The resistance offered by this coil to
the flow of current through it is called resistance of
galvanometer
Determination of Resistance of Galvanometer
The working principle of a galvanometer is that "When an electric current passes through a coil placed
in a uniform magnetic field, then the coil experiences a torque which rotates the coil." The deflection of
the coil is determined by the movement of a pointer attached to the scale of galvanometer.
When a coil carrying current l is placed in a radial High resistance box
magnetic field, it experiences a deflection 9so that
6 I=Ke
RB1
R

where, K = constant of proportionality called figure

of merit.
The figure below shows the circuit diagram
required for finding the resistance of galvanometer g
by half deflection method. -g S
I-lg
When only key K, is closed, we get
RB2
If the current g produces deflection 0 in the Low resistance box
galvanometer, then
Circuit diagram for finding the resistance of
Ke galvanometer (G)
E
= Ke
R+ G ..0
When the key K2 is also closed Now the key K2 is also closed and asmall resistance is introduced
from the resistance box RB2 as shunt resIstance. The value of
shunt resistance S is adjusted in such a
way that the deflection in the galvanometer needle becomes halt
ie

36
 resistance of the circuit 1
ASGandS are in parallel combination and R is in series with it, then the total
GS
R R +
G+S
Therefore, the total current I due to the emf E of the cell in the circuit is given by

E
GS

the current
AG+S then
If'gis flowing through the galvanometer,
S (ji)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
gG+S ES
...(v)
R(G+S)+GS is reduced to half of its inítial
Forgalvanometer current aif the deflection through the galvanometer
value, hence
.(V)

Using Eqs. (i). Giv) and (), we get

RS
Galvanometer resistance, G R-S
Hence, by knowing the values of R and S, one can find the galvanometer resistance G.
As. S is very smaller than R so S can be neglected in denominator part of Eq, ()
GS

Figure of Merit of a Galvanometer

By using Eq. (i), the figure of merit of galvanometer can be given as

Figure of merit, K =

R+G)
Hence, by knowing the values of E, R, G and 6, one can find the figure of merit of a galvanometer.
Note Before measuring the figure of merit of galvanometer, first the emf of the cell E is found by using a high
resistance voltmeter.
6
PROCEDURE
Setting up the Elements of Circuit
1. Make neat and tight connections as per the circuit diagram used for finding the resistance of the

galvanometer.Open both the keys K, and K2 by pulling out the plug from them.
Determination of Resistance R
high resistance box RB1, introduce a high resistance (say 5k2).and close the key K,
while
2. From the
the key K should be kept open.
RB1 till the full scale deflection (or the
3. Adjust the resistance R with the help of resistance box
maximum deflection) on the galvanometer dial is achieved.

4. When the full scale deflection is achieved, note

the corresponding reading of resistance R and
deflection 6.

Determination of ResistanceS
S 50 2) from the small
5. Now keeping the value of A fixed, introduce some small resistance (say
resistance box RB2. Insert the plug into key K, to close it.
resistance box, till the deflection of galvanometer reduces
6. Now, adjust the value of S with the help of
obtained in step (7).
exactly half the value you

37
 7. Whern the deflection i s observed, then note down the value of shunt resistance S. Take out the

S.
plug from key K, to close it after noting the value of shunt resistance,
8. Repeat the steps (5) to (11) and take at least five sets of observations so that e is even number of
divisions and keep changing the value of R and corresponding adjustment of S for each set of

observations.
Determination of Galvanometer Resistance G
values of R and S in the
9 Calculate the value of galvanometer resistance G by putting the observed
RS
formula,G= S
Determination of Figure of Merit K
resistance voltmeter, measure the value of emf E of the cell.
10. With the help of high
of merit K by putting the observed values
11. For each set of observations, calculate the value offigure
of E, R,G and in the following formula.

K-G
12. Take the mean of all values of G and K.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

1. The emí of the battery, E =.. V 2. Number of divisions on the galvanometer scale =...

Table to Find the Resistance and Figure of Merit of Galvanometer

-

Half deflection in

K-AG
G=KS

High Deflection in Shunt

resistance the galvanometer, R-S
resistance the
S. No. (2)
from RB1, galvanometer, from RB2,
S ()
(div)
2 (Adiv)
R (2) (cliv)
G ...2 K ...S2

2
G2 . K2=.
2 G3 2 Ka....
S2
4 GA ...QK4. * . .S

3. Mean value of galvanometer resistance, G =1t G2 *G3 tG4 + G5_ . 2

4. Mean value of figure of merit, K= A1tR2 +Ka +

K4 +Ks .

. . Adiv
5

RESULT
1. Resistance of the given galvanometer by half deflection method, G =... 2
2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer, K=... A/div
3
PRECAUTIONS
1. The key K, should be closed only after high value ofA has been taken out from resistance box (HB
otherwise, the galvanometer coil may burn.
2 To measure the value of emf, always use a high resistance voltmeter
3. The emf E of cell or battery must be constant throughout the experiment.
4 Adjust the resistance R in such a way that deflection in the galvanometer should always be equal to
even number of divisions.
5. Use high values of resistance R as practically as possible in order to get the correct value of
galvanometer resistance G.

38
sOURCES OF ERROR
1. The resistance of the coil in the Resistance Box (RB) used may not exactly be same as marked.

2. The emf of the battery may not be constant.

3. The divisions in the gailvanometer may not be of equal size.
4. The plugs in the resistance box may be loosen or they may not be cleaned by sand paper.

Viva-Voce The current sensitivity is

Q1 How can we use galvanometer for
measuring current? INCERT
Actually, a galvanometer measures very small
range of current. In order to measure current
of higher order, a low resistance called shunt
is connected in parallel to the galvanometer,
so that maximum current passes
through the
shunt and galvanometer shows deflection for
small current passing through it.
Q2 Out of galvanometer, ammeter and
voltmeter which has the highest resistance
and which has the lowest? Explain. [NCERT]
The voltmeter has very large resistance so
that when put in parallel with the circuit, it
should not divert much current from the
parallel branch. The ammeter on the other
hand has very less resistance, so that when
put in series with the circuit, it should not
reduce much the original current to be
measured.
Q3 Which of the two meters has lower
resistance a milliammeter ora
microammeter? NCERT
Re
It is clear from Eqs. () and (ii) that the current
sensitivity decreases with r introduced in the
cell, ie. C<C. Thus, the voltage sensitivity
also decreases.
Q6 What do you mean by full scale deflection
Currentq?
Maximum current which can be passed through
the galvanometer for which the galvanometer
needle shows maximum deflection is called full
scale deflection current
Le. gKe
Q7 Why do we use galvanometer in electric
Circuit?
The galvanometer is a sensitive device to
detect current in the circuit. The galvanometer
produces a deftection proportional to the
current flowing through it.
Q8 Why do we use a high resistance in series
with the galvanometer in half deflection
method for finding resistance of a

6
A milliammeter (mA) has current range more
than thot of microammeter (uA). So, a galvanometer?
milliammeter has lower resistance than a As we employ a high resistance in series with
microammeter. the galvanometer, thern a low current passes
through the galvanometer. Hence, the
Q4 What are the factors on which sensitivity galvanometer is protected from damage due to
of a galvanometer depends? NCERT excessive current.
N
There are following factors on which
Q9 Suppose no resistance is connected across
sensitivity of galvanometer depends:
(i) Number of turns (N) in the col the galvanometer then what would be the
(ü) Magnetic field (B) reading in the galvanometer scale?
(u) Area (A) of coil Zero. Here in this case, the total current flows
(iv) Torsional constant of springs through the zero resistance shunt.
Q5 We use a freshly charged accumulator Q 10 Under what condition the galvanometer
whose internal resistance is zero for resistance is equal to the shunt resistance,
galvanometer experiment. If the internal i.e. G= S.
resistance of the battery eliminator is finite, RS
then how will it affect the result? [NCERT
For fresh charged accumulator (r = 0), the
GR-S
if R >> S then G = S
Current sensitivity is (r = 0) So, the galvanometer resistance is equal to
the shunt resistance only when the series
C resistance Ris more greater than shunt
Re
When the internal resistance () is finite then resistance.
terminal potential diference is V = E - Ir

39
 Section B

EXPERIMENTL
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a
Concave mirror and to find the focal length.

APPARATUS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED

An optical bench along with three uprights, concave miror, mirror holder, two optical needles, index
needle and meter scale.

TERMS RELATED TO EXPERIMENT

Index Correction
It is defined as the difference of the actual
distance and the observed distance between
two uprights. It is also known as Index needle
bench-correction. The readings of two
uprights do not give the actual distance
between the tip of the pin O and pole P of the
mirror. Hence, a correction must, therefore, be
applied. It is called the index correction.

In order to determine the index correction, an

1
index needle is used to measure the distance
B
between two uprights by using a meter scale. ulul.. ululululululm
But before measuring the distance between
two uprights, the height of the needle O
is Ak- ------B
and the pole of the
adjusted so that its tip
mirror lie in the same horizontal line. Then,
the
that its one end touches the tip of the needle O and the other end
index needle is held in such a way
mirror.
touches the pole P or centre of the
the uprights positions on the optical bench and y is the
If the distance x is measured by considering
and centre of mirror measured by using index needle, then
distance between tip of the needle
correction and y- x gives the index error.
difference x -

y gives the index

Removal of Parallax
The method of locating the position of an image on the optical bench by a pin is called parallax
of an object is always known to us but its image is to be projected.
method. As we know the position
between the tip ot real inverted image of object needle and the tip of erect
The parallax is to be removed
image needle.

67
 s y , the heights of image needle and object needle are so adjusted that their tips lie on a horizontal
g n t ine passing through the pole of mirror and then keep one eye closed and the other eye Open
wIcn is moved to left and right. If the image needle moves in the opposite direction of eye, then one
needs to take away the image needle from the mirror but if the image needle sets closer to the eye, then
one needs to take the needle towards the mirror. The position of the image needle IS adjusted till the
tups or the erected image needle and image of the object needle coincide with each other. When they
both coincide, the parallax gets removed.
THEORY/PRINCIPLE
Object and Image Distances for Concave Mirror
In a spherical mirror, the distance of the object from its pole is called the object distance (u). The
distance of the image from pole of the mirror is called the image distance ()

Focal Length
The distance of the principal focus from the pole is called focal length (f) The relation between
quantities (u, v and ) is called mirror formula.
It is expressed as
orf Uv

U+V
where u, v and fused with their signs.
are

This formula is valid in all situations for all spherical mirrors and for all positions of the object.

Determination of Focal Length of a Concave Mirror

Consider an object like an iron needle is placed in front
of the reflecting surface of the concave mirror in such a B
way that the position of an object lies in between
principal focus of the mirror (F) and the centre of
A
curvature (C). Then a real, inverted and magnified P
C A
image is formed in between the centre of curvature of
mirror and infinity (o) as shown in the figure below.
The image formed in this case will be clear and easier to
be seen. Thus, the focal length of the concave mirror B
can be found by placing the object in between the
pointFormation of Image of an object placed in
between C and F of the concave mirror
C and focus F.

PROCEDURE
Determination of Approximate Focal Length
1. Find the approximate focal length of the
given concave mirror by focusing the image of a distant
object. This can be done by obtaining a bright and clear image of a distant building or tree on a
sheet of paper
2. Measure the distance between the mirror and the
image which gives approximate focal length (1)0
the concave mirror.

Setting up the Apparatus

3. Place the optical bench on a horizontal adjusted rigid table. If the table is not horizontal, then set it
with the help of levelling screws and spirit level.
4. Place the three uprights on the optical bench
5. Clamp the concave mirror with the mirror holder to the upright nearest to the
bench.
one end of the optical
Note Itis to be ensured that the mirror shOuld be vertical
and perpendicular to the length of the optical bench.

68
 6. Fix the two optical needles, P and P, to the uprights in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror.
7. Now adjust the heights of both the neecles so that their tips and pole (or centre) of the mirror lie in
the same horizontal line.

Image

Image needle-
P2 Object needle
P
M

Experimental setup for determination of

focal length of a concave mirror

8. Adjust the position of the upright holding object needle P, so that it lies in between the centre of
Curvature C and focus F of the concave mirror.
9. Move an object needle Pon the optical bench back and forth so that its image touches to the tip of
the image needle P and ensure that this meeting of the two tips is seen at the pole of the concave
mirror
Removing the Parallax
10. Remove the parallax between the image of the object needle and image needle by moving the
image needie P towards or away from the mirror.
11. If on moving the eye left and right, the image needle moves in a direction opposite to that of eye,
then take away the image needile from the concave mirror. In the contrast to this, if on moving the
eye, the image needle sets closer to the eye, then take the image needle towards the concave
mirror.

Determination of Image and Object Distances

12. When the parallax gets removed, note the position of the uprights holding the concave mirror
object needle and image needle on the optical bench. The distance between the pole of the mirror
and image needle P2 will give you the observed image distance (v) of the object whereas the
distance between the pole of the mirror and object needle R will give you the observed object
distance (u)

Applying the Index Correction

13 To find the index correction, place a thin straight index needle in such a way that its one end
touches the tip of the needle P and the other end touches the pole P of the mirror.
14. Now, by using meter scale deternine the actual distance by measuring the length of the index
needle touching the tip of the needle P and centre of pole Pof the mirror. This will give you the actual
length between the object needle P and pole of the mirror. The diference between observed
distance (measuredin step 12) and actual distance will give you the corection to be applied to the
observed object distance.
15. Find the index correction for the image needle P by following the sarme steps (13) to (14) and apply
the correction to the observed image distance.

Determination of Focal Length

16. Find the focal length (/) by usingthe following relation, = -+

Here, u and v represent the corrected object and image distances respectively.

69
 e p O a t the oxperiment lor at least five different positions of object u and aelermine the
corresponding values of v.
6.
Fnd the focal length for each set of observations and then take the mean ot all values of focal
length.
19. Note your observations in the tabular form.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

For Approximate Focal
Length
1. Rough or apprOximate focal length of the given concave mirror =.. Cm

For Index Correction

2. Actual distance ofthe object from the pole ofthe mirror using index needle, i.e. =...Cm
3 Observed distance of the object from the miror = Position of mirror upright - Position of object

needle upright on the scale, ...... cm

4. Index correction for object distance, i.e.ep = Actual distance Observed distance = - = . . . Cm
5. Similarly, for image needle, e, , {=.cm = -

Table for Determination of Focal Length of Given Concave Mirror

Position of Observed distances Corrected distances
Focal length
S. No. Mirror Object Image V=V'+e, f= (cm) Af (cm)
(cm) needle, needle, u' (cm) V (cm) U +V
(cm) (cm)
R (cm) Pe (cm)
.. .Cm
2 .. cm
. C M

4 Cm
...CM

6 |'6 . . . Cmn

6. Calculate the corrected values of u and v by using

u =u'+¬p and v v+e =

For Focal Length

7. Compute the value of f by using mirror formula.= - + or f=
U+V
Find the value of focal length for each set of observations.

8. Find the mean value of focal length f. f =1thth+l4 +s +fs . . . CM

ERROR
Av
The error in focal length,

A= +
where, Au and Av are the least counts of optical bench scale, with the help of which, they are
measured, u and v are the corrected object and image distances respectively and f is the mean value of
focal length of concave mirror.

70
RESULT
1. Ihe values of v (image distance) for different values of u (object distances) are recorded in the

observation table.
2. The focal length of the given concave mirror is ft Af =...t... cm.

PRECAUTIONS
1. The optical bench should be levelled properly
2. he uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and mounted vertically on the optical

bench.
3. The object needle should be kept in between the centre of curvature and the focus of the mirror
distinct.
45. The aperture of mirror should be small else the image formed will not be
The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must touch the tip of the image needle and must

not overlap.
6. The image and object needles should not be interchanged throughout the experiment.
7. Awhite screen or plane background may be used for seeing the clear image of the pin.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. If the top of the optical bench is not horizontal then error arises.
fthe tips of needle and pole of the mirror are not in the same horizontal level then error may
occur.
2.
3. Ihe concave mirror may not be front-coated so that multiple reflections may occur from the

reflecting surface of the mirror.

4. The parallax and index correction may not have been considered.
5. The uprights may not be set vertically on the optical bench.

Viva-Voce
Adentist uses concave mirror to see the Q4 Does the focal length of a mirror
Q1
tooth. In what way, does it help the dentist?
[NCERT]
Dentists use concave mirror to see the large

image of the teeth to examine

the teeth of a
change due to (i) change in medium
and (i) colour of light?
No, the focal length of a mirror does not
change. Since, focal length of a mirror
1
holads small concave mirror in does not depend upon the externa
person. He/She
a

Such away that the tooth lies within its focus medium and wavelength of light.
and a magnified image of the tooth is seen by
Q5 What are paraxial and marginal rays?
the dentist. The rays which are very close to the
of
Q2 Why is it advised to use a small aperture principal axis or subtend a very smal
mirrors for doing the experiments? angle are called paraxial rays. The rays
mirrors which are away or subtend large angle
It is advised to use a small aperture of
the experiments because it allows a with principal axis are called marginal
for doing
beam of rays through the mirror. As rays.
very narrow
result of it, a clear and distinct image free from mirror
a
aberrations is formed by the mirrors. Q6 Why do we not use a concave
for search light?
Which mirror is used by a surgeon and why? We do not use a concave mirror for
Q3
A concave mirror of small aperture is used by a search light as large aperture of concave
a narrow and sharp
beam of mirror will cause spherical aberration.
Surgeon to throw
nose and throat for Rays from sources of light coming at the
light into the ear, eye, focus, will not be parallel after reflection
medical check-up.
from mirror.

71
 Q7 If the optical bench
is not levelled
what
difficulty will it pose in locatingproperly,
the
Q14 Aman standing in front of a mirror
finds his image having a very large
position of the
image? head and legs of normal size. What
The line
joining the tips of the
object needle and the centre ofimage needle,
the mirror will
type of mirrors are used in designing
not remain Such a mirror?
horizontal. As a result, it becomes
difficult to locate the image. The upper part of such a mirror is
Concave mirror and the lower part is a
Q8 Is
silvering done by depositing silver coating plane mirror.
or some other material?
Q15 The image formed is observed to be
Silvering is done by depositing silver nitrate
only virtual, erect and larger than the
in good
quality mirrors. But in commercial object. Identify the mirror and the
mirrors, silvering is done by
Oxide. depositing mercuric position of the object.
The mirror used is concave mirror. The
Q9 Suggest a very simple method for position of the object is in between the
determining the focal length of a concave pole of the mirror and its principal
mirror in the
laboratory. focus.
One pin-method is
very simple method for
a
Q16 What is the principal focus of a
determining the focal length of a concave mirror concave mirror?
in the laboratory.
Principal focus of a concave mirror is the
Q 10 Write the nature of the
image formed by a point on the principal axis at which the
concave mirror when the object is placed light rays incident on the mirror parallel
between its pole and the focus? to t he ncipal axis meet after reflection
The nature of the image formed is from the mirror.
and magnified. virtual, erect
Q17 What is the relation between focal
Q11 How can you reduce parallax? length and radius of curvature of a
If two objects which are placed at diferent spherical mirror?
positions from eye, the nearer object moves in a Since, the focal length of a spherical
direction opposite to that of eye and the farther mirror is half of its radius of Curvature.
one in the direction of the eye. Once their relative So, mathematically, it is given by
positions are known, they can be brought to the
same position by shifting them suitably. When f
two objects occupy the same position in space where, f = focal length,
with respect to the eye, then the apparernt shift R=radiuS of curvature.

1 Q12
disappears. Thus, parallax is removed.

Why does a ray oflight passing through the

centre of curvature of a concave mirror after
getting reflection, is reflected back along the
same path?
A ray of light passing through the centre of
Curvature of a concave mirror falls perpendicular
to the surface of the mirror i.e. Li =0. According
to the law of reflection Lr = i =0. Therefore,
the ray is reflected along the same path.
Q 13 Name the type of mirror which is used in
solar furnace. How is high temperature
achieved by this device?
Concave mirror is used in a solar furnace. The
mirror.
the
rays are focused ata point by
concave
The concentrated beam of Sun light at a point
increases the temperature at that point.
Q18 What do you mean by focal length of a
spherical mirror?
The distance between pole and principal
focus of a spherical mirror is called the
focal length of spherical mirror
Q 19 Why are the mirrors silvered at the
back surface?
The mirrors are silvered at back surface
to avoid damaging of mirror due to
rough handling.
a
Q 20 Define index correction.
The difference between the corrected
distance and observed distance of the tip
sun
of the needle from the pole of a mirror is
called the index correction.

72