SECTION - A

1. Using an ammeter & a voltmeter, measure the potential difference V between the ends of a given
wire and the corresponding current I flowing in the wire plot graph of V versus I Hence verify
Ohm’s Law and measure the resistance per unit length of the wire.
APPARATUS:
Ammeter, voltmeter, Rheostat, battery Eliminator, Resistance wire, connecting wires, plug key etc.
THEORY:
Ohm’s law states that at a given temperature, the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to this potential difference (V) between the two ends of the conductor.
Thus I V
1
 I  .V
R
1 I
 
R V
V
 R   constant
I
Where, R is the resistance of the conductor
 
+ A
B _ Rh +
V _

Here, B – Battery R – Resistance wire

A – Ammeter V – Voltmeter
Rh – Rheostat K – Key
If, l = length of the given wire
R = resistance of the wire
R
Then the resistance per unit length of the wire   Ohm.cm 1
l 
WORKING FORMULA:
V R
(1) R  (2) Resistance per unit length   cm-1
I l
NATURE OF GRAPH:
A graph plotted, taking voltage (V) along X-axis and current (I) along Y-axis
 The nature of graph is a straight line passing through the origin
 The slope of the graph gives the reciprocal of the resistance.

I in current
𝜃
C B

O V in Volt X

Page | 1
PROCEDURE:
 A circuit diagram was drawn in the rough practical record and connections were made
accordingly
 The unknown wire whose resistance calculated and connected parallel between the two terminals
of the voltmeter.
 The key was inserted in the plug and rheostat (Rh) was adjusted till the ammeter reading becomes
0.2 ampere. The corresponding voltmeter reading was noted.
 The current was increased in step of 0.2 amperes by adjusting the rheostat and corresponding
voltmeter reading was noted, the voltmeter reading were again noted by decreasing the value of
current in the same steps of 0.2 A. The average value of the two corresponding readings of the
voltmeter for increasing and decreasing was taken as the true voltmeter reading for a particular
value of current observation.
OBSERVATION:
L.C of Ammeter= 10 mA
L.C of Voltmeter = 0.1 Volt
Table for Resistance of wire (R):
NO. of Ammeter Reading in Voltmeter Reading in volt Mean voltmeter Resistance R in Ω
obs. mA Reading in volt from graph
Current Current
increasing decreasing
1
210 0.4 0.4 0.4

2
250 0.5 0.5 0.5

3
290 0.6 0.6 0.6

4
330 0.7 0.7 0.7

5
370 0.8 0.8 0.8 2.5Ω

6
410 0.9 0.9 0.9

7
450 1.0 1.0 1.0

8
490 1.1 1.1 1.1

9
530 1.2 1.2 1.2

10
570 1.3 1.3 1.3

Page | 2
Page | 3
CALCULATION:
The length of the given wire (l) =36 cm
The resistance of the wire (R)= 2.5Ω
Total Resistance of the given wire
Resistance per unit length 
Total length of the given wire
R 2.5
   cm1  6.94  10 2  cm1
l 36
CONCLUSION:
 The Ohm’s law is verified
 The resistance of the given wire is 2.5 
 Resistance per unit length is 6.94 102  cm1

PRECAUTION:
 All the connections are made be rigid.
 While connecting the specimen wire we must see that only a small portion of wire remain under the
binding screw.
 Necessary adjustment should be mode for setting of meters.
 Battery and meters should be connected with proper polarity.

2. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:- To find the resistance of a given wire using meter bridge and
hence determine the resistivity of its material.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:- A meter bridge , galvanometer, one way key, a resistance box, a battery,
jockey, unknown resistance wire about 1 meter long, screw Gauge and connecting wires.
THEORY:
A meter bridge is the practical application of wheat stone bridge arrangement. The four resistance are
connected to each other and if the bridge is in balanced state i.e. there is no deflection in the
galvanometer (G).
X
R

G
J
l 100-l

 
B

We can use the relation to find the unknown resistance of the given material of wire. The unknown
resistance ‘X’ can be found by meterbridge which uses the principle of wheat stone bridge. The
unknown resistance ‘X’ of the given wire is obtained by relation;
R l

X 100  l
R100  l 
 X
l
On interchanging,
X l Rl
 X
R 100  l 100  l
Page | 4
 X  r 2
And specific resistance of the material of a given wire is,  
L
Where L=length of the resistance wire
Working Formula:
R 100  l 
X ....(1)
l
Rl
X ....(2)
100  l
X  r 2
 ....(3)
L
PROCEDURE:
 The connecting wires were cleaned by sand paper and connections were made as per the circuit
diagram.
 .The positive of the cell (E) was connected to zero cm mark of constantan or manganin wire and
negative to the 100 cm mark of it.
 A galvanometer was connected between the known resistance box(R) and unknown resistance (X),
the other end of it was connected to the jockey.
 Some suitable resistance ‘R’ from the known resistance box (R) was taken out.
 The jockey was taught at zero and then at extreme end so that the deflections of pointer of the
galvanometer were left in each of zero-end & right on extreme-end showing correct connection.
 The jockey was placed at a position of the resistance wire so as to indicate zero deflection of
galvanometer.
 The null point was obtained from the fixed meter scale which was used in the meterbridge.
 The length was noted AB (l) and BC as (100-l )
 The known resistance (R) and unknown resistance wire (X) were altered and the balancing lengths
were found.
 The same procedures were repeated for different value of R.
 The length was measured using ordinary scale and radius of wire using screw gauge.
 The resistivity of the unknown wire was calculated using the values of the radius (r), length (l) and
resistance of unknown wire in the equation.
X .r 2

L

Table for resistance of the unknown wire (X):

No Resistance in Resistance Position Nature of Inference Unknown resistance X in 𝛺 Mean
of left gap in in Right of deflection X in 𝛺
obs ohm gap in Jockey
ohm in cm
Ext. Left Null point lies Rl
1 0 X 
Ext. in between 39
2 100 100  l
X Right cm and 41 cm.
3 2Ω 39 2  40.2
Left l=40.2cm.   1.344
4 41
5 40.2
Right 100  40.2 1.352Ω
Null
Ext. Left Null point lies R100  l 
1 0
Ext. in between 59 X 
2 100 l
Right cm and 61 cm.
3 2Ω X 59
Left l=59.5 cm. 2100  59.5
4 61   1.361
Right 59.5
5 59.5
Null

Page | 5
Table for diameter of the unknown wire (D):

No. of Pitch L.C I.C.S.C N.C.R(N) F.C.S.C(F) ECSD(I~F) PSR CSR TSR Mean
obs. (P) in in cm (I) (P×N) (I~F)×L.C (PSR+CSR) d
cm in cm in cm in cm in cm
1 0.1 .001 30 0 98 32 0 .032 .032
2 0.1 .001 29 0 98 31 0 .031 .031
3 0.1 .001 31 0 98 33 0 .033 .033 0.032
4 0.1 .001 30 0 98 32 0 .032 .032
5 0.1 .001 30 0 98 32 0 .032 .032

CALCULATION:
The unknown resistance of the wire X=1.352 Ω
d 0.032
Radius of the given wire r  
2 2
r= 0.016 cm
Length of the wire L=25.5 cm
X   r 2 1.352  3.14  0.016 
2
Specific resistance of the material of the given wire   
L 25.5
 0.00004337 cm
 43.37  106 cm  43.37 108 .mt
Conclusion:-
The resistance of the given wire is 1.352Ω and resistivity of the given wire is 43.37 108 .mt .
PRECAUTION:-
i) The connecting points of meterbridge should be cleaned properly with sandpaper.
ii) The Jockey and the wire should not contact for a long time.
iii) All connection should be neat and tight.
iv) The jockey should be holded perpendicular to the wire.
v) The jockey should not be slide on the wire.

METER BRIDGE SERIES AND PARALLAL

3. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:-To verify the laws of combination (series and parallal) of
resistances using a meter bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:- A meter bridge , galvanometer, one way key, a resistance box, a battery,
jockey, two resistance wire and connecting wires.
THEORY:
A meter bridge works on the principle of Wheat stone’s bridge which is as, if four resistance P, Q, X and R
are so joined that they form a close network ABCD and if a cell is connected between A and C, a
galvanometer between B and D then the values of P, Q, R, X are so objected that the galvanometer shows no
P X
deflection. The bridge is now said to be balanced and the relation  is obtained
Q R
P l
But 
Q 100  l
Where l=null point the meter scale
P l X
Thus  
Q 100  l R

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  l 
 X  R ...........(i )
 100  l 
P l R
On interchanging,  
Q 100  l X
 100  l 
 X  R .........(ii )
 l 
Law of series combination of resistance when resistance say X1 and X2 are connected in series, their
equivalent resistance is equal to their algebraic sum.
X s  X1  X 2
Law of parallel combination of resistance if resistance X1 and X2 are connected in parallel, their equivalent
resistance Xp is given by.
1 1 1
 
X p X 1 X 2 in parallel
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Q
P
Xs
R
G

X R
G
J
l 100-l

K
   
B
B

xp
R

G
J
l
K
+ -
B
Here B=Battery
G=Galvanometer
R.B=Known Resistance Box
Xs= Series Known Resistances
J= Jockey
K=Key
WORKING FORMULA:
 l 
1. X  R 
 100  l 
 100  l 
2. X  R 
 l 
3. X S  X1  X 2

Page | 7
 1 1 1
4.  
X p X1 X 2
PROCEDURE:
 All the connections were made as per the circuit diagram.
 Initially fixed resistance (R) and unknown resistance wire (X1) were placed in the right and left gaps
respectively on the meterbridge.
 The jockey was placed at the two end of wire AC and extreme deflections conformed that the circuit
connections were correct.
 The null point was obtained by moving the jockey suitably on the wire AC at certain point.
 The balancing length was noted using the meter scale.
 Then the fixed resistance (R) and unknown resistance (X1) were interchanged and the balancing
lengths were measured further.
 The mean value was taken as the unknown resistance X1.
 The same procedure was followed for second unknown wire X2.
 Then X1 and X2 wires were connected series and combination was used as unknown series resistance
(Xs).
 The same procedures were followed for series combination of X1 and X2.
 The values of X1, X2 and Xs were checked by using the relation 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 ≅ 𝑋𝑠.
 For parallel combination of resistances, the similar procedure were observed to find the unknown
resistance wires X1 and X2.
 Then X1, X2 wires were connected parallel and the combination was used as unknown parallel
resistances.
 The same procedure were followed for parallel combination of X1 and X2.
1 1 1
 The values of X1, X2 and Xp were checked by using the relation  
X p X1 X 2
OBSERVATION:
Tabulation for unknown resistance (X1):
No of Resistance in Resistance Position Nature of Inference Unknown resistance X1 Mean
obs left gap in ohm in Right of Jockey deflection in 𝛺 X1 in 𝛺
gap in in cm
ohm
Null point Rl
1 0 Ext. Left X1 
lies in
2 100 Ext. Right
between 25 100  l
3 R=2Ω 25 Left
4 X1 26 Right
cm and 26 2  25.5
cm.   0.684 0.699Ω
5 25.5 Null 74.5
l=25.5cm.
1 0 Ext. Left
Null point R100  l 
lies in X1 
2 100 Ext. Right l
between
3 R=2Ω X1 73.5 Left
4 74 Right
73.5 cm 2  26.3
and 74 cm.   0.714
5 73.7 Null 73.7
l=73.7 cm.

Tabulation for unknown resistance (X2) :

No of Resistance in Resistance Position Nature of Inference Unknown resistance X2 in Mean
obs left gap in ohm in Right of Jockey deflection 𝛺 X2 in 𝛺
gap in in cm
ohm

Page | 8
 Null point Rl
1 0 Left X2 
lies in
2 100 Ext. Right
between
100  l
3 X2 R=0.5Ω 16 Left 0.5  17
16 cm and
4 18 Right   0.102
18cm. 83 0.1035Ω
5 17 Null
l=17cm.
Null point R100  l 
1 0 Ext. Left lies in X1 
l
2 100 Right between
3 R=0.5 Ω X2 81 Left 81 cm and 0.5  17.4
  0.105
4 83 Right 83cm. 82.6
5 82.6 Null l=82.6
cm.
Table for Resistance in series (Xs):
No Resistance Resistance Position Nature of Inference Unknown series resistance Mean
of in left gap in Right of Jockey deflection Xs in 𝛺 Xs in 𝛺
obs in ohm gap in ohm in cm
Null Rl
Ext. Left point lies Xs 
1 0 100  l
Ext. in
2 100 2.5  24.4
Right between
3 Xs R=2.5Ω 24   0.807
Left 24 cm 75.6
4 24.6
Right and 24.6
5 24.4
Null cm.
0.824Ω
l=24.4cm.
Null R100  l 
Ext. Left point lies Xs 
1 0 l
Ext. in
2 100 2.5  25.2
Right between
3 R=2.5Ω Xs 74   0.842
Left 74cm and 74.8
4 75.5
Right 75.5cm.
5 74.8
Null l=74.8
cm.

Table for Resistance in series (Xp):

No Resistance in Resistance in Position Nature of Inference Unknown series resistance Mean
of left gap in ohm Right gap in of deflection Xp in 𝛺 Xp in 𝛺
obs ohm Jockey
in cm
Null Rl
point lies Xp 
1
1 1
0 Left in 100  l
2 R  100 Ext. Right between 2.5  3.2
3 Xp X1 X 2 2 Left 2 cm and   0.083
4 4 Right 4cm. 96.8
5  2.5 3.2 Null l=3.2 cm. 0.093Ω

Null R100  l 
point lies Xp 
1 0 Ext. Left l
1 1 in
2 R  100 Right
between 2.5  4
3 X1 X 2 Xp 95 Left
95cm   0.104
4 96.5 Right 96
5  2.5 96 Null
and 96.5
cm. l=96
cm.

CALCULATION:
Resistance of first unknown wire (X1) = 0.699 Ω
Resistance of second unknown wire (X2) = 0.1035 Ω
Series resistances X s  0.824 

Page | 9
 Parallal resistance Xp=0.093 Ω
Xs=X1+X2=0.699 Ω +0.1035 Ω=0.8025 Ω
X s  X1  X 2
1 1 1
 
X p X1 X 2
X 1  X 2 0.699  0.1035
 Xp    0.09
X1  X 2 0.8025
1 1 1
  
X p X1 X 2

CONCLUSION:

From the above calculation the values of X1 and X2 were obtained. The result obtained for series and parallal
combination of XS and Xp were nearly equal to the theoretical values. Hence the laws of combination of resistances
are verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) All connections should be made neat and tight.
(ii) While connecting resistances, a very small portion should be taken under the binding screw.

POTENTIOMETER - I (E1~E2)

4. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: To compare the EMF of two given primary cells (E1 & E2) using
potentiometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Two cells whose EMFs are to be compared (Lechlanche & Daniel cell) ,potentiometer either 4 wire or 10
wire, Ammeter, a low resistance Rheostat, one way plug key, a two way plug key, galvanometer, High
Range Resistance box, Battery Eliminator, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY:
Potentiometer is an electric circuit used to measure the internal resistance of a cell, to compare the E.M.F
of two cells and potential difference across a resistor. It consists of a long wire of uniform cross sectional
area and of either 4 m or 10 m in length. The material of wire should have a high resistivity and low
temperature coefficient. The wires are stretched parallel to each other or a wooden board. The wires are
joined in series by using thick copper strips. A meter scale is also attached on the wooden board.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
When a constant current is passed through a wire of uniform area of cross-section the potential drop across
any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion.
E.M.F of 1st cell, E1  l1
or, E1  Kl1 ……..(i)
Where K=potential gradient of along PQ.
Similarly, E.M.F of 2nd cell, E2  l2
E2  Kl2 ……..(ii)
From equation (i) & (ii), we get
E1 Kl1 l1 E1 l1
  or, 
E2 Kl 2 l2 E2 l 2

Page | 10
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Here, A = Ammeter
B = Battery
E1 = Lechlanche cell
E2 = Daniel cell
G = Galvanometer
R = Known Resistance
K = key

WORKING FORMULA:
E1 l1

E2 l 2
PROCEDURE:
 All the connections were made properly as per the circuit diagram.
 The jockey was pressed at zero-end & extreme–end of the potentiometer to note the directions of the
galvanometer.
 The pointer of galvanometer was deflected to left for the jockey at zero-end and to right for the
jockey at the extreme-end. So that the connections were correct.
 The plug key (K) of one-way key and the plug key between the terminal ‘a’ and ‘c’ were inserted.
 The jockey was moved along the potentiometer wire and stopped when null point was obtained.
 The length was measured between these points.
 It was the balancing length (l1) for cell E1.
 The cell E1 was disconnected by removing the plug key from the gap ‘a’ & ‘c’ of the two way key.
 Again the cell E2 was connected by inserting the gab ‘b’ & ‘c’ of the two way key.
 The jockey was slide along the wire of potentiometer to obtain the null point.
 The balancing length (l2) for the cell E2 was marked.
 The reading on ammeter was kept at a constant value throughout the observation.
 For further observations, the current was increased by adjusting the rheostat.
 Five such observations were made.
OBSERVATION:
EMF of Auxiliary Battery E = 0  5 V
EMF of 1st cell (Lechlanche Cell) E1 = 1.5 V
EMF of 2nd cell (Daniel Cell) E 2 = 1.08 V

No. of Correct Position of null point in cm E1 l1 E1

obs Ammet  Mean
For cell E1 For cell E2 E2 l2 E2
er Trail i Trail ii Mean l1 Trail i Trail ii Mean l1
reading
in mA
1 40 850.5 850 850.25 607.6 607.3 607.45 1.399
2 42 803.3 803.8 803.55 577.2 577.0 577.1 1.392
3 44 762.2 762.0 762.1 545.0 545.1 545.05 1.398 1.393
4 46 732.2 732.5 732.35 524.8 524.5 524.65 1.396
5 48 690.9 691.1 691.0 500.0 500.2 500.1 1.382

Page | 11
VERIFICATION:
EMF of cell E1=1.5 volts
EMF of cell E2=1.08 volts
E1 1.5 v
  1.389
E 2 1.08 v
E1
From our observation it is found  1.377
E2
The two results are numerical equal, hence verified.

PRECUATION:
i) The EMF of the auxiliary battery should be greater than the EMF of either of the two cells
ii) The +ve pole of the battery and the +ve poles of the two cells must be connected to the zero-end
terminal of potentiometer wire.
iii) The rheostat should be low resistances.
iv) The current should remain constant for each set of observations.

POTENTIONMETER-II (INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

5. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell
using potentiometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:- Potentiometer either 4 wire or 10 wire, a cell, an auxiliary battery, Ammeter,
low resistance Rheostat, two one way plug key, a sensitive galvanometer, two resistance boxes, a jockey,
connecting wires, and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY:
S l  l 
The internal resistance of a cell is given by the relation r  1 2 ohm
l2
Where r=internal resistance of the given cell in ohm
S= shunt resistance in ohm
l1= balancing length with key K2 open. i.e. without shunt in cm
l2=balancing length with key K-closed.
i.e. with shunt in cm

Here, A=ammeter

G=galvanometer

R=Known resistance box

S=shunt resistance

B= battery

K1, K2= keys

WORKING FORMULA:
S l1  l 2 
r ohm
l2

Page | 12
PROCEDURE:
 The connections were made according to the circuit diagram.
 The EMF of battery was more than that of the cell.
 The rheostat adjustment was made to utilize maximum current.
 A very small resistance was connected parallel to primary cell called shunt resistance.
 The plug key (K1) was inserted and the ammeter reading was noted.
 The direction of galvanometer was checked by plucking the jockey at P and Q ends.
 As the point of galvanometer was deflected in opposite directions, the connection was perfect.
 The balancing length (l1) was found by placing the jockey from P to Q end without inserting K2.
 The ammeter reading was fixed at a constant value throughout the observations.
 Inserting K2, the shunt resistance was taken in step of 1Ω, the balancing length (l2) was obtained by
placing the jockey along the potentiometer wire.
 The internal resistance (r) was calculated by substituting the balancing length l1, l2 and shunt
resistance (S).
 The plug keys K1 and K2 were removed for other observations, using different values of shunt
resistance.
OBSERVATION:
EMF of cell auxiliary battery=0-5 volts
EMF of primary cell E=1.5 volts
Table for internal resistance:
No. Correct Position of null point in cm Shunt Internal Mean
of Ammete Without shunt With shunt resistan resistance r in Ω
obs r reading Trail i Trail Mean Trail i Trail ii Mean l1 ce S in  l1  l 2 
r 
in mA ii l1 Ω  l  S
 2 
in Ω
1 40 849.4 849.4 849.4 90.3 90.3 90.4 1 8.39
2 42 786.6 786.4 786.5 132.8 132.5 132.65 2 9.86
3 44 765.6 765.8 765.7 182.4 182.6 182.5 3 9.58 8.97
4 46 723.1 723.6 723.35 222.4 222.6 222.5 4 9.0
5 48 694.8 694.6 694.7 267.1 267.3 267.2 5 8.0
RESULT:
The internal resistance of given primary cell (Lechlanche cell) was found as 8.97 ohm

PRECAUTIONS:
i. The EMF of the battery should be greater than the EMF of either of the two cells.
ii. The positive pole of the battery and the positive poles of the cells must be connected to the zero
end terminal of potentiometer wire.
iii. The rheostat should be low resistances
iv. The current should remain constant for each set of observations.

6. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection

method and to find it’s figure of merit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
(i) A Weston type galvanometer
(ii) A battery or battery eliminator
(iii) A rheostat
(iv) Two one way keys
(v) Connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
(vi) A voltmeter
(vii) Two resistance boxes(a high & a low)
(viii) Mathematical box
Page | 13
 THEORY
The current required to produce a defection of on one division in the scale of galvanometer is known
as the figure of merit of galvanometer.
Principle: When a galvanometer is connected in series with a cell by resistance box of high resistance
the current flowing through the circuit
I=
Where, E= EMF of the cell
R= Resistance from the Resistance Box
G= Galvanometer Resistance for current.
The current flowing through the galvanometer is proportional to its deflection.
I 
I  k

θ= Galvanometer deflection for current ‘I’.

k=Figure of merit of the galvanometer
When a shunt resistance ‘S’ is introduced parallel to galvanometers the current flowing through the
circuit as
E
I 
GS
R
GS


If ‘I’ be the current to reduce the deflection of the galvanometer to half its value, i.e .
2

then the resistance of the galvanometer can be calculated by the relation

RS
I 
RS

When current ‘I’ produces a deflection in the galvanometer then its figure of merit is calculated by

E
k
R  G 

(For half defection method) (For figure of merit)

Here,
G=Galvanometer S=shunt resistance
E=Battery eliminator K, K1, K2=keys
R=High resistance box
WORKING FORMULA:
R.S
i) G
RS
E
ii) K
R  G  
Page | 14
PROCEDURE:-
Resistance of Galvanometer:-
 The connections were arranged as connection in the circuit diagram,
 The positive end of the cell was connected to the high resistance box ®, negative end was connected to
one end of galvanometer via a key (K1).
 A shunt resistance (S) was connected parallel with the galvanometer viaa the key (K2).
 After the connection the key K1 was inserted and some value of high resistance ® was put in such a
manner that the deflection in galvanometer was maximum.
 The defection was noted, then the key K2 was inserted without changing the high resistance ®.
 A small resistance of suitable value from the shunt was chosen that the deflection of galvanometer was

exactly half the value obtained without shunt i.e .
2
 The shunt resistance (S) was noted.
 The experiment was repeated by changing the high resistance ® and in each case of the corresponding
shunt resistance needed for half deflection.
 The resistance of the galvanometer was calculated each time by using the relation
R.S
G
RS
Figure of merit:-
 The connections were made as in the circuit diagram.
 The emf of battery was checked by connecting a voltmeter across the battery with proper polarity.
 The key was plugged and took a high resistance from the resistance box
 The galvanometer deflection were rotated as ‘  ’ for the resistance R.
 The experiment was repeated for different value of R, the corresponding deflection in the
galvanometer.
 The figure of merit of given galvanometer was calculated each time by the relation
E
K
R  G  
Tabulation for resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method:

No. Resistance (R) Deflection of Shunt resistance Half deflection Galvanometer Mean
of in Ω galvanometer (S) in Ω  in division resistance G in
obs. (  ) in division 2 R S 
G in Ω
RS
1 6000 29 55 14.5 55.5
2 10000 30 52 15 52.27 54.55
3 14000 30 55 15 55.22
4 18000 30 55 15 55.2

Tabulation for figure of merit:

No. EMF of cells (E) Resistance R Deflection  in division Figure of Mean K in
of No in in Ω merit Ampere
obs. of volts E division
K
cells R  G 
1 One 3 6000 29 1.71×10-5
2 One 5.2 10000 30 1.72×10-5 1.72×10-5
3 One 7.3 14000 30 1.73×10-5
4 One 9.3 18000 30 1.72×10-5
PRECAUTIONS:
i) The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
ii) The emf of the cell must be constant.
iii) Initially a high resistance from box (R) need be introduced.
Page | 15
 SECTION – B

1. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: To find the value of v for different value of u in case of a
concave mirror & to find the focal length.
APPARATUS REQURIED: A set of optical bench apparatus, two pin stands, pins, concave mirror,
meter scale, Mathematical box etc.
THEORY:
Image formation in concave mirror obeys the mirror formula with sign conventions states as
1 1 1 2
   .....(1)
u v f R
Where, u= object distance
v= image distance
f= focal length of concave mirror
R= Radius of curvature mirror =2f
From equation (1) we get f
u.v
f 
uv
WORKING FORMULA:
u.v
f 
uv
RAY DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:
Direct Method:
 The leveling screws of optical bench were adjusted with a mercury level.
 A concave mirror was placed on one of upright of optical bench and object pin was kept in front of
it.
 The pin height was adjusted up to the centre of concave mirror.
 The position of pin stand was so adjusted that its real image just coincided with the object pin.
 The parallax error was avoided between the object and the image.
 The position of concave mirror and the object pin were recorded using the scale of optical bench.
 Three such readings were recorded by adjusting the mirror and the object pin then the mean focal
length was calculated.

Page | 16
U-V method:
a. The concave mirror mounted on a stand was placed on the optical bench such that silvered back side
of the mirror remained towards zero of the scale.
b. The pin with stand was placed in front of the mirror very close to it. the height of the pin was so
adjusted that its tip come up to the centre of the mirror.
c. The object pin was moved along the line towards and away from the mirror until a real, inverted and
magnified image of the pin was appeared.
d. The object pin was placed between F and C and image is formed beyond C.
e. The second pin (image pin) was taken beyond C by adjust it on the on the line so that its tip and
inverted tip of image of the object pin coincided avoiding parallax.
f. Keeping the position of mirror fixed, five observations were recorded by shifting the object pin
gradually further away from the mirror such that real, inverted and magnified image was formed.
g. Keeping the mirror unchanged, the object pin was moved away from the mirror along the line until a
real, inverted and diminished image of the pin was seen.
h. Here the image was formed between F & C when the object pin was placed beyond C, at different
positions.
i. Ten such observations were taken by interchanging the position of image & object pin.
OBSERVATION:
DIRECT METHOD:
No. of Position of mirror (a) Position of Radius of Focal length Mean f
obs. in cm object pin Curvature R in cm
in cm (b) R=a~b in cm f  in cm
2
1 70 49.6 20.4 10.2
2 65 44.5 20.5 10.25 10.21
3 60 39.6 20.4 10.2

U-V METHOD:
No. of Position of Position of Position of Object Image Focal length Mean f
obs mirror (a) object pin image pin distance distance u.v in cm
in cm (a) in cm (c) in cm V=a~b V=a~c f 
uv
in cm in cm in cm
1 60 47 14.8 13 45.2 10.1
2 60 46 22 14 38 10.23
3 60 45 27.5 15 32.5 10.26
4 60 44 32.6 16 27.4 10.1
5 60 43 35 17 25 10.11 10.12
6 60 20 46.4 40 13.6 10.14
7 60 25 46 35 14 10.0
8 60 30 44.5 30 15.5 10.21
9 60 35 42.8 25 17.2 10.18
10 60 37 42.2 23 17.8 10.03

CONCLUSION:
By direct method, focal length of concave mirror f=10.21 cm
By U-V method, focal length of concave mirror f=10.12 cm
From these two values of ‘f’ obtained nearly equal.
PRECAUTIONS:
 It should be avoid parallax while finding the position of image.
 The position of object and image distance should be determined very accurately.

Page | 17
 2. CONVEX MIRROR:-
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:-To To find the focal length of convex mirror using a convex lens.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: i) An optical bench with four uprights, ii) Convex mirror and its stands, iii)
convex lens and supported stands, iv) two pins and pin stands, v) a knitting needle, vi) a half meter scale etc.
THEORY:-
In a convex mirror, reflection takes place from outer curved surface. The distance between its principal
R
focus and pole is calledd focal length. If f is the focal length and R is the radius of curvature then f 
2
If P & C are the pole and centre of curvature of the convex mirror, O & I are the position of object and
R PI
image needles respectively, then PC=PI=R And f  
2 2
RAY DIAGRAM:-

PROCEDURE:-
 The leveling screws of optical bench were adjusted using a mercury level.
 The convex mirror and convex lens were mounted on their stands and brought them to the same
height
 The mirror was placed behind the convex lens and a pin was placed in front of the lens.
 When the pin gradually moved away from the lens, an inverted real image of the object pin was
formed
 The height was adjusted for tip to tip with the image, avoiding parallax.
 The distance
tance between the lens and the mirror was measured by the scale of optical bench.
 The convex mirror was removed and then another was placed at the other side of the lens so that its
inverted image appeared over the object pin.
 The heights of pins were adjusted
sted for tip to tip, avoiding parallax.
 The distance of the second pin from the lens was measured by the scale of optical bench.
 The other observations were taken by slightly increasing the distance between mirror and lens in the
same procedure.
 The mean value
alue was regarded the focal length of convex mirror.

Page | 18
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

No. of Position of Position of Radius Of curvature R=distance Focal length Mean f

obs. convex mirror image pin (C) between mirror and image needle. R in cm
(P) in cm in cm R=P-C in cm f  in cm
2
1 75 111.6 36.6 18.3
2 77 114.5 37.5 18.7
3 80 116.6 36.6 18.3
4 83 120.2 37.2 18.6 18.5
5 85 122.6 37.6 18.8
6 88 124.4 36.4 18.2
7 90 127.3 37.7 18.8
CONCLUSION:- The focal length of convex mirror by using convex lens is observed 18.5cm.
PRECAUTION:-
i) Parallax must be removed, while finding image.
ii) The pin should be inserted properly on the upright.

3. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs
1 1
between u and v or between &
u v
APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
Convex lens, plain mirror, vertical stands, wooden scale, pins, plumb lines, or a set of optical bench
apparatus, a Mathematical box etc.
THEORY:
Image formation by convex lens obeys the mirror formula
1 1 1
 
f v u
Where f=focal length of the convex lens
u=object distance
v=image distance
uv
 f 
uv
RAY DIAGRAM
L
Object pin
B
2f
A
f O f A1
2f
B1
Image pin

(Object at 2F, Image formed at 2F)

NATURE OF GRAPH:
1 1
I) Plotting a graph, along X-axis and is along Y-axis, the graph is a straight line passing
u v
through the X and Y-intercepts.
II) Plotting u~v graph, u along X-axis, v along Y-axis, the graph is a rectangular hyperbola,
Page | 19
 L

N
𝑣 in cm

in cm-1
45 M

1
𝑣
K
O u in cm 1
O in cm-
u
1

WORKING FORMULA:
uv
f 
uv
PROCEDURE:
(I) Direct Method:
 The optical bench was leveled with the help of mercury level.
 A plane mirror was placed at about a distance 5 cm behind the lens.
 The object pin was placed in front of the lens such that its tip reached the centre of the lens and
its image was traced in the mirror.
 The lens was adjusted in a manner that, the object pin as well as its image was found to coincide
and moved together without any parallax.
 The position of lens and object were noted.
 The distance between these positions were found to be focal length.
 Three such readings were taken and the mean focal length was calculated.
Parallax:- The relative shift between two objects at un equal distance from the eyes, when the eye is
moved. The near object moves more rapidly in opposite direction to which the eye is moved.
U-V method:-
 In this method, the lens was fixed at a suitable point.
 The object pin was placed in between F and 2F.
 The position of lens & object were fixed at suitable position, then the image placed behind the lens at
such position that image & object pins were found to touch each other without parallax.
 This position of image was noted.
 The distance of the object pin & the image pin from the lens were determined by the optical bench.
 The focal length was calculated by using the formula.
 Five such readings were taken between the F & 2F and another five, beyond the 2F.
TABLE FOR DIRECT METHOD:
No. Position of Position of lens (a) in cm Position of Focal length Mean F in cm
of mirror in cm object pin (b) in f=a~b in cm
obs. cm
1 70 75.6 85.8 10.2
2 70 78.8 90 10.2 10.23
3 70 80.5 90.8 10.3

Page | 20
TABLE FOR U~V METHOD:
No. of obs. Position of Position of Position of Object Image 1 1 Focal
lens in cm object pin image pin distance distance in cm-1 in cm-1 length f in
(a) in cm (b) in cm (c) u=a~b in v=a~c in u v cm from
cm cm graph.
1 80 92.5 18.8 12.5 51.2 .08 .019
2 80 100.5 59.5 20.5 20.5 .048 .048
3 80 93 32.6 13 47.4 .076 .021
4 80 94 42.5 14 37.5 .071 .026
5 80 95 48 15 32 .066 .031 10.25
6 80 30 93 50 13 .02 .076
7 80 35 93.5 45 13.5 .022 .074
8 80 40 94 40 14 .025 .071
9 80 42 94.2 38 14.2 .026 0.07
10 80 45 94.8 35 14.8 .28 0.067

Page | 21
Page | 22
Page | 23
 1 1
CALCULATION: from ~ graph,
u v
1 1 1  1
f      10.3  10.2  10.25cm
2  0.097 0.098  2
from u ~ v graph,
1
f  20.5  20.5  10.25cm
4
CONCLUSION:
1 1
The focal length of convex lens by u~v method from ~ graph was found 10.25 cm & 10.25 cm.
u v
PRECAUTION:
It was taken to avoid parallax while finding the position of image and also determine the object and image
distance.
4. AIM OF THE EXPERRIMENT:-To draw the i-d curve for the given glass prism and determine
the angle of minimum deviation. Hence. Determine the refractive index of the material of the
prism.
APPRATUS REQUIRED:-
A Prism, A drawing board, Four fixing pins, Four hair pins, paper sheet, mathematical box etc.
THEORY:
A

O
N Q dm
i r
e

B C
The refractive index of the material of prism w.r.t air is given by
 A  dm 
sin 
2 
 
A
sin
2
i= Angle of incidence
e=Angle of emergent
A= Angle of the prism
dm= Angle of minimum deviation
WORKING FORMULA:
 A  dm 
sin 
 2 

A
sin
2
NATURE OF GRAPH:
A graph is plotted taking angle of incidence (i) along X-axis and angle of deviation (d) along Y-axis.
 The value of minimum deviation (dm) is the value of the ordinate corresponding to the lowest point
of the curve.

Page | 24
 d in degree
dm

i in degree

PROCEDEDURE
 A sheet of paper wass spread out on a drawing board and fixed on it by fixing pins.
 With the help of protractor, angles of 30o, 35 o, …….,65 o were
re drawn at points Q1, Q2…… by lines
P1Q1, P2Q2 …etc. with 5 cm apart gap.
 These angles were
re base angles whose corresponding angle
angles of incidence we 60 ,55... respectively.
dence were
 Prism wass placed with one face coinciding with line XY in such way that P1Q1 serves as incident ray
to the prism.
 The refracted
racted image of these two pins we
were
re seen through the opposite refracting face and pins R1 and
S1 were fixed in such way that all the four pins (R1 , S1 and images of P1, Q1) lies in one line.
 The same processes were repeated for other incident rays and corresponding emergent rays are found
out.
 The incident ray P1Q1, P2Q2…. were extended forward and the emergent rays R1S1, R2S2,
x…extended backward meet to intersect each othe otherr to form the angle of deviation (d).
 The angles of deviation were recorded and the value of dm was found from i-d i graph then the value
of refractive index was
as calculated using the equation given in theory.
 All the angle of incidences (I) and angle of deviations are recorded in the table. The value of
refractive index is calculated by the formula given in the theory and by value of dm from i-d curve.

Table for angle of minimum deviation (dm)

No. of Angle of incidence (i) in Angle of deviation (d) in degree Value of dm in degree from
Obs. degree graph
1 30° 48°
2 35° 43°
3 40° 41°
4 45° 40°
5 50° 38° 38°
6 55° 39°
7 60° 40°
8 65° 42.5°

Page | 25
Page | 26
Page | 27
CALCULATION:
Given Angle of prism A =600
From the graph, angle of minimum deviation
dm= 380
 A  d m  sin  60  38 
 

sin     sin 49 0.755

 2  2
      1.51
A 60 sin 30 
0 .5
sin sin
2 2
  1.51
CONCLUSION:
The refractive index of material of the prism is found out to be 1.51
PRECAUTION:
 The hair pins should have separation of at least 6 cm.
 Prism should fit its outline accurately and need not be disturbed.
 Symmetry is of great importance in the experiment.
 Lines should be drawn with fine pencil for accurate measurement of angle.
 Ray directions should be given by around mark in each case.
 Pin must be fixed vertically.
 The pin positions must be encircled by pencil mark.
5. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:- To determine the refractive index in the material of a glass slab
using a travelling microscope.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:-Travelling microscope, glass slab, Lycopodium powder/chalk powder,
convex lens, Mathematical box etc.
THEORY:
The refractive index of glass slab,
Real thickness R ~ R1
  3
Apparent thickness R3 ~ R2
Where R1, R2, R3 are the vertical scale reading of the travelling microscope corresponding to the
indicated position.
 R1 in the first reading when microscope focused on the cross work i.e., object reading.
 R2 in the second when microscope focused on the cross mark when glass slab is placed on the cross
mark i.e., image reading.
 R3 is the third reading when the microscope focused the chalk powder is placed on the glass slab it is
seen like white cloud. i.e., surface reading.
RAY DIAGRAM:
eye

N
r
s
A B
Q
r i

D C
P
(Real & Apparent thickness of glass slab)
Page | 28
PROCEDURE:
 The Travelling microscope was placed on the table near a window for sufficient light on it.
 The leveling screw was so adjusted that the base of the microscope became horizontal.
 The position of the eye piece was fixed and the vertical scale was adjusted so that the cross wire was
clearly visible.
 The vernier constant of the microscope was determined.
 The graph paper was fixed on the base of the microscope. A point ‘P’ was consider on the graph
paper. After focusing the reading of the given point was noted as R1.
 The glass slab of small thickness was placed on the cross mark ‘P’.
 The microscope was raised upward and focused it on the image P of the cross mark. This reading
was noted as R2.
 A few particles of chalk powder were sprinkled on the surface of the slab.
 The microscope was further raised upward and focused it on the particles. The chalk powder was
seen like white could in sky.
 The reading (Say R3) was noted on the vertical scale again.
 Further for the second observation, the position of microscope was changed to another position by
slide either upward or downward.
 The above steps were reaped and the observations were recorded.
Tabulation and calculation for microscope reading:
No. L.C R1 in cm R2 in cm R3 in cm R3~R1 R3~R2 Mean
of in M.S.R V.C V.S.R Total M.S.R V.C V.S.R Total M.S.R V.C VSR Total in cm in cm R3 ~ R1 
obs cm in cm VC×LC in in cm VC×LC in in cm VC×LC in

in cm cm in cm cm in cm cm R3 ~ R2
1 .001 3.2 35 .035 3.235 3.85 40 .04 3.89 5.15 10 .01 5.16 1.925 1.27 1.516
2 .001 3.1 0 0 3.1 3.75 30 .03 3.78 5.0 10 .01 5.01 1.91 1.23 1.552
3 .001 2.9 20 .02 2.92 3.60 40 .04 3.64 4.95 5 .005 4.955 2.035 1.315 1.547
4 .001 2.65 40 .04 2.69 3.30 35 .035 3.335 4.55 20 .02 4.57 1.88 1.235 1.522 1.532

5 .001 2.6 25 .025 2.625 3.20 5 .005 3.205 4.35 30 .03 4.38 1.755 1.175 1.494
6 .001 2 0 0 2 2.70 0 0 2.7 3.9 35 .035 3.935 1.935 1.235 1.567
7 .001 1.8 45 .045 1.845 2.50 5 .005 2.505 3.75 45 .045 3.795 1.95 1.29 1.512
8 .001 1.5 40 .04 1.54 2.20 5 .005 2.205 3.4 30 .03 3.43 1.89 1.225 1.543

RESULT:
R3 ~ R1
The ratio is a constant it gives refractive index of glass slab.
R3 ~ R2
From the observation, the mean refractive index
  1.532
PRECAUTION:
 Parallax must be avoided.
 The direction of movement should be taken careful to avoid parallax.
 Adjust the leveling screws so that the base of the microscope horizontal.
6. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: To draw I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias
and reverse bias.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :- A semiconductor (junction) diode in a chasis board, a dc voltmeter (0 to 3
V or 0 to 15 V), a milli ammeter ( 0 to 100 mA range), a micro ammeter (0 to 100 µA), a 2 Volt battery,
rheostat etc.
THEORY:
1. In forward biased condition when forward voltage exceeds threshold value, forward current increases
with increase in forward voltage.
2. In reverse biased condition, initially a small leakage current flows due to minority charge carrier. As
the reverse voltage increases from zero, the reverse current quickly reaches the saturation value,
called reverse saturation current.

Page | 29
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Here JD=PN Junction Diode

Rh=rheostat
V=Voltmeter
mA= milli Ammeter
μA =micro Ammeter
B=Battery
NATURE OF GRAPH:
I~V Characteristics: of a pn-junction in forward & reverse condition can be shown as

PROCEDURE:
(A) FORWARD BIASING:
 All the connections were made according to circuit diagram.
 P-type of diode was connected to positive terminal and n-type to negative terminal of the battery.
 The contact point C was kept near and A so that the voltmeter and the ammeter show at their
zero-reading.
 The applied forward voltage was increased to 2V in steps of 0.2 V by varying the contact point C
from A to B. In each step the forward voltage (Vf) and corresponding forward current (If) were
noted.
 A curve was plotted between If and Vf drawn 1st quadrant of graph paper.
REVERSE BIASING:-
 All the connections were made properly according to the circuit diagram.
 Only the milliammeter was replaced by microammeter & the p-type was connected to the
negative terminal n-type to the position terminal of the battery.
 The reverse bias voltage was increased up to 30 volt in steps of 2.5 V.
 On each step the reverse voltage (Vr) and reverse current (Ir) were noted. Reverse current
sharply increased at a given negative potential called breakdown voltage.

Page | 30
  A curve was plotted between Vr and Ir.
 The curve was shown in the 3rd quadrant of the graph.

OBSERVATION:
In forward Biasing In Reverse Biasing
Least count of voltmeter =0.05V Least count of voltmeter=0.5V
Least count of ammeter=0.2mA Least count of ammeter=2µA
TABLE FOR FORWARD BIASING:
No. of obs. Forward voltage (Vf) in volt Forward current (If) in mA
1 0 0
2 0.25 0
3 0.5 0
4 0.75 0.8
5 1.0 1.6
6 1.25 2.4
7 1.5 3.2
8 1.75 4
9 2.0 4.8
10 2.25 5.6
11 2.5 6.4
12 2.75 7.2
13 3.0 8

TABLE FOR REVERSE BIASING:

No. of obs. Reverse voltage (Vr) in volt Reverse current (Ir) in  A
1 0 0
2 2.5 0
3 5 0
4 7.5 0
5 10 12
6 12.5 28
7 15 40
8 17.5 56
9 20 68
10 22.5 80
11 25 92
12 27.5 Out of scale
13 -

Page | 31
Page | 32
CALCULATION:
From the forward characteristics curve, the forward resistance Rf is given by,
V f
Rf   217 
I f
CONCLUSION:
From the experiment the I~V characteristics of the PN-Junction diode was studied for both forward and
reverse conditions.
The forward resistance of a given junction is found to be 217Ω.

PRECAUTION:
 All the connection should be made tight.
 In reverse biasing the applied voltage should not exceed the peak reverse voltage (PIV)
7. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:
To draw the characteristic curve of zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown
voltage.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
A zener diode of different ratings(say 4.5V,6V,9Vetc.) a 10V battery, a high resistance rheostat , voltmeter,
ammeter, a 20 ohm resistance, one way key, connecting wires or A set of zener diode characteristic
apparatus.
THEORY:
A zener diode is heavily doped special diode, operated in the reverse biased region.
In reverse biased condition initially a very small leakage current flows due to minority charge carriers
When the reverse current exceeds the breakdown value, the barrier breaks and the reverse current increases
sharply
The potential across the diode remain constant.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Here, B=Battery
V=Voltmeter
μ A=Micro Ammeter
Rh=Rheostat
(K)=Key

NATURE OF GRAPH:
Plotting a graph between voltage along X-axis and current along Y-axis. The graph as.

Page | 33
PROCEDURE:
 Initial zero connections were checked both the voltmeter and ammeter in the circuit.
 In each step 0.5 V was increased, the supply and the corresponding current were recorded in each
time.
 At a particular voltage the current was raised suddenly and became maximum and by further
increase of diode voltage, no effect on that current was marked.
 The other rating of Zener diodes were used to repeat the procedure.

OBSERVATION:
15V
Least count of voltmeter=  0.25V
60
1.5 mA
Least count of Ammeter=  0.025 mA
60
Table for Reverse Biased:
No. of Reverse voltage Vr in volt Reverse current Ir in  A/mA
obs.
1 0 0
2 1.25 0
3 2.5 0
4 3.75 0
5 5.0 0
6 6.25 0
7 7.5 0
8 8.75 0
9 10 0.3
10 12.5 1.05
11 15 1.5

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Result: The zener break down voltage in found to be 5 volt.
PRECAUTION:
 All the connection should be made rigid.
 Voltmeter and ammeter should not have zero error.

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