Chapter 3 Electricity

3.2 Resistance
3.2.1 Ohmic and Non-ohmic Conductor
1. Ohm’s law states that the current, I passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference,
V between its ends, provided that the temperature and the other physical factors of the conductor are kept constant.

Then, V α I.

Experiment 3.1:To compare the graph of potential difference, V against current, I for ohmic conductor and non-
ohmic conductor

Inference: The potential difference across a conductor depends on the current flowing through it.

Hypothesis: The larger the current, the larger the potential difference across the conductor

Aim: To study the relationship between the current and the potential difference of an ohmic conductor and a non-ohmic
conductor

(A) Ohmic Conductor (a constantan wire)

Variables:
Manipulated variable: Current, I
Responding variable: Potential difference, V
Constant variable: Temperature, diameter, and length of constantan wire

Apparatus/Materials:
1.5 V dry cells, cell holder, switch, connecting wires, ammeter, voltmeter, metre rule, constantan wire s.w.g. 24 (20 cm
length), rheostat

Procedure:

1. A circuit was set up as shown in the figure.

2. The circuit was switched on and the rheostat is adjusted until the ammeter gives a reading, I = 0.2 A.
3. The corresponding reading on the voltmeter, V was recorded.
4. The procedure was repeated for the current, I of 0.3 A, 0.4 A, 0.5 A and 0.6 A.
5. The value of I and V were tabulated and a graph of V against I was plotted.
6. The experiment was repeated by replacing the constantan wire with a (b) light bulb.

Result& Analysis:
Potential Difference, V/V V/V V/V
Current, I/A Constantan wire Filament bulb
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6 I/A I/A
Constantan wire Light bulb

Conclusion:
1. Constantan wire obeys Ohm’s Law. It is an _____________ conductor.
2. Light bulb does not obey ohm’s Law. It is an ______________________ conductor.
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 Chapter 3 Electricity
Comparison of graphs of V against I for an ohmic and non- ohmic conductor

Type of conductor Ohmic conductor Non-ohmic conductor

Graph of V against I
V/V V/V

I/A I/A

Relationship between
V and I
Gradient of graph V
against I
Resistance

Example

Conclusion Obeys Ohm’s Law Does not obey Ohm’s Law

Resistance
1. Resistance is the opposition of a conductor to the flow of electric charges.
2. Resistance, R of a conductor is defined as the ratio of potential difference, V across the conductors to the current,
I flowing through it.

Resistance, R =

SI unit of resistance, R : ohm (Ω)/ V A-1

3. The resistance of a conductor is 1 Ω if potential difference 1 V is applied across its ends causing a current of 1 A to flow
through it.
4. The resistance of an ohmic conductor is a constant. It can be obtained by finding the gradient of the graph of V against
I.

Example 10:
When a potential difference of 9 V is applied across a conductor, it is found that the current that passes through the
conductor is 0.5 A. What is the resistance of the conductor?

Example 11:
What is the potential difference across a light bulb of resistance 10 Ω when the current that passes through it is 0.2 A.

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3.2.2 Problem solving of Series and Parallel Circuit
Series Circuit
V
R1 R2 R3
In a series circuit, all the electrical components are connected
one after the other in one single path for current flow.
Current flowing through each resistor is the same.
I = I1 = I2 = I3
Total potential difference across the resistors is the sum of
the potential difference across each resistor.
V = V1 + V2 + V 3
Potential difference, V across each resistor is directly
proportional to its resistance, R.
Effective resistance of resistor:
Characteristics of series circuit:
➢ When one of the electrical components or one of the wires
is left open or broken, the entire circuit does not function.
➢ Light bulbs become dimmer as more bulbs are added in
series.
Chapter 3 Electricity
Parallel Circuit
V
R1
R2
R3
In a parallel circuit, electrical components are connected
side by side with their corresponding ends joined together
to the power supply to form parallel branches.
Current from the power supply is the sum of the currents in
each resistor.
I = I1 + I2 + I3
Potential difference across each resistor is the same.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Current, I in each resistor is inversely proportional to the
resistance, R of the branch.
Effective resistance of resistor:
Characteristics of parallel circuit:
➢ The flow of electricity to other branches will not be
affected if one branch is left open or broken.
➢ Brightness of the light bulbs remains the same when
more light bulbs are added to the circuit in parallel.
➢ Switches can be used in each branch so that each
electric component can be turned on and off without
affecting the others.
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 Chapter 3 Electricity
Example 12:
Determine the effective resistance across PQ for each of the following circuits:

(a) (c)

(b) (d)

Example 13:
Three resistors R1=1 Ω, R2=3 Ω, and R3= 6 Ω are connected in series to a 20 V battery
20 V as shown in figure below. Calculate
(a) the effective resistance of the circuit I
(b) the reading of the ammeter
(c) the reading of voltmeter, V1, V2 and V3.
A
R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3

Example 14:
Now the three resistors R1 = 1 Ω, R2= 3 Ω and R3 = 6 Ω are connected parallel to a 20 V battery as shown in diagram below.
Calculate 20 V
I
(a) the potential difference across each resistor
(b) the total resistance of the circuit
(c) the current, I in the circuit
R1
(d) the current passes through each resistor I1, I2, and I3. A
R2

R3

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 Chapter 3 Electricity
Example 15:
Diagram shows three resistors are arranged in series and in parallel. The resistance for R 1, R2, R3 are 2 Ω, 4 Ω and 12 Ω
respectively.

When the switch is closed, calculate:

(a) the effective resistance
(b) the current flowing through the 2 Ω resistor and the
potential difference across it
(c) The current flowing through the 4 Ω and the 12 Ω
resistors and the potential difference across them
respectively

Example 16:
Diagram shows five resistors connected in a combination circuit. Calculate
(a) The effective resistance, R
(b) The current flowing through the ammeter, I
(c) The potential difference across points A and B

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 Chapter 3 Electricity
3.2.4 Factors that Affect the Resistance of a Wire

Experiment 3.2
Inference: The resistance depends on the length of the wire

Hypothesis: The larger the length of the wire, the larger the resistance of the wire

Aim: To investigate the relationship between the length of a conductor and the resistance.

Variables:
Manipulated variable: Length of wire, l
Responding variable: Resistance, R
Constant variable: Diameter/ resistivity/ temperature of the wire

Apparatus/Materials: Two 1.5 V dry cells, cell holder, switch, connecting wires, ammeter, voltmeter, crocodile clips,
rheostat and metre rule, 100.0 cm of s.w.g. 24 constantan wire

Arrangement of apparatus:

Procedure:
1. The electrical circuit is set up as shown in the figure.
2. The crocodile clip is adjusted so that the length of the wire, l = 20.0 cm
3. The switched is closed and the rheostat is adjusted until the current, I flowing in the circuit is 0.5 A.
4. The potential difference, V across the wire is measured by voltmeter and is recorded.
V
5. The resistance, R= is calculated.
I
6. The procedure is repeated for different length of constantan wire,bl = 40.0 cm, 60.0 cm, 80.0 cm, and 100.0 cm
7. The values of l, I, V and R were tabulated.
8. Graph of R against l is plotted.

Result and Analysis:

R/Ω
l/cm I/A V/V R/Ω
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0 l/cm

Conclusion:
The resistance is ________________________ to the length of the wire.

Precaution steps: 6
Switch off the circuit whenever it is not in use to ensure that the temperature is constant throughout the experiment.
 Chapter 3 Electricity

Experiment 3.3
Inference: The resistance depends on the cross-sectional area of the wire

Hypothesis: The larger the cross-sectional area of the wire, the smaller the resistance of the wire

Aim: To investigate the relationship between the cross-sectional area of a conductor and the resistance.

Variables:
Manipulated variable: Cross-sectional area of wire, A
Responding variable: Resistance, R
Constant variable: Length/ resistivity/ temperature of the wire

Apparatus/Materials: Two 1.5 V dry cells, cell holder, switch, connecting wires, ammeter, voltmeter, crocodile clips,
rheostat and metre rule, 30.0 cm of constantan wire s.w.g. 22, s.w.g. 24, s.w.g. 26, s.w.g. 28, s.w.g. 30

Arrangement of apparatus:

Procedure:
1. A 25 cm length of swg 22 constantan wire is connected between P and Q.
2. The switched is closed and the rheostat is adjusted until the current, I flowing in the circuit is 0.5 A.
3. The potential difference, V across the wire is measured by voltmeter and is recorded.
V
4. The resistance, R= is calculated.
I
5. The procedure is repeated for different cross-sectional area of wire, s.w.g. 24, s.w.g. 26, s.w.g. 28, s.w.g. 30
6. The values of A, I, V and R were tabulated.
7. Graph of R against A is plotted.

Result and Analysis:

s.w.g. I/A V/V R/Ω R R
R/Ω
22
24
26
28
1
30 A 𝐴
l/cm

Conclusion:
The resistance is ________________________ to the cross-sectional area of the wire.

Precaution steps:
Switch off the circuit whenever it is not in use to ensure that the temperature is constant throughout the experiment.
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 Chapter 3 Electricity
3.2.3 Resistivity of wire, ρ
1. The resistivity of a conductor, ρ is the ability of a conductor to oppose the flow of electric current.
2. The resistivity, ρ of a conductor is defined as the resistance per unit length of the material when its cross-sectional area
is 1 m2.
3. SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meter (Ω m).
4. The resistivity of a wire depends on the temperature and the nature of the conductor material.
5. Resistivity is directly proportional to the resistance of wire, but inversely proportional to conductivity.
6. Materials with low resistivity is a good electric conductor while materials with high resistivity is a good insulator.

Conductor Material Resistivity (Ω m-1)

Constantan 49 x 10-8
Nichrome 100 x 10-8
Tungsten 5.60 x 10-8

Experiment 3.4
Inference: The resistance depends on the resistivity of the wire

Hypothesis: The larger the resistivity of the wire, the larger the resistance of the wire

Aim: To investigate the relationship between the resistivity of a conductor and the resistance.

Variables:
Manipulated variable: Resistivity of wire, ρ
Responding variable: Resistance, R
Constant variable: Length/ diameter/ temperature of the wire

Apparatus/Materials: Two 1.5 V dry cells, cell holder, switch, connecting wires, ammeter, voltmeter, crocodile clips,
rheostat and metre rule, 35.0 cm of s.w.g. 24 constantan wire, 35.0 cm of s.w.g. 24 constantan wire, 35.0 cm of s.w.g. 24
tungsten wire

Arrangement of apparatus:

Procedure:
1. The length of constantan wire is adjusted to be 30.0 cm and is connected across terminals P and Q.
2. The switched is closed and the rheostat is adjusted until the current, I flowing in the circuit is 0.5 A.
3. The potential difference, V across the wire is measured by voltmeter and is recorded.
V
4. The resistance, R= is calculated.
I
5. The procedure is repeated for nichrome wire and tungsten wire.
6. Graph of R against A is plotted.

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 Chapter 3 Electricity

R
Result and Analysis:
Type of wire Resistivity, ρ I/A V/V R/Ω
Constantan
Nichrome
tungsten
ρ

Conclusion:
The resistance is ________________________ to the resistivity of the wire.

Precaution steps:
Switch off the circuit whenever it is not in use to ensure that the temperature is constant throughout the experiment.

Summary of Factors affecting the Resistance of Wire

Factors Diagram Relationship Graph
1. Length of conductor, l • Rl R
• Longer wire causes the electrons
harder to flow. Hence, the
resistance increase.

l
2. Cross sectional area, A 1 R
• R
A
• The ticker the wire, the higher
the rate of flow of electrons.
Hence the smaller the resistance.
A
3. Resistivity of • Resistance is dependent on the R
material,  type of material of the
conductor.
• The higher the resistivity of a
material, the higher the
resistance of a wire.
l

4. Temperature, θ • The resistance of pure metal

increases with temperature.
R
• The resistance of alloys such as
constantan and nichrome changes
slightly when the temperature
changes.
• Resistance of semiconductor such
Ɵ
as silicon and germanium
decreases as temperature
increases.

❖ Resistance of a wire is directly proportional to its length, but inversely proportional to the area of cross-sectional area.
1
R α l and R ∝
𝐴
By combining the above relationships,

R=

9
Where ρ = proportional constant/ resistivity of the conductor
 Chapter 3 Electricity
3.2.6 Problem Solving Involving Wire Resistance Formula
Example 17:
What is the resistance of a copper wire with a diameter of 0.5 mm and length of 2 m?
Assume that the wire has the shape of a cylinder. Resistivity of copper = 1.60 x 10 -8 Ω m.

Example 18:
PQ is piece of uniform wire of length 1 m with its resistance of 10 Ω. Q is connected to an ammeter, a 2 Ω resistor and a 3 V
battery. What is the reading on the ammeter when the sliding contact (jockey) is at X?

Jockey A

Q
P
X
20 cm Metre rule

Joki V
Pembaris meter

Example 19:
A constantan wire has a resistance of R Ω. What is the resistance, in terms of R, of an equal length of constantan wire with
the twice the diameter?

Example 20:
P and Q are wires made of the same material. P has a length of 10 cm, cross-sectional area of 0.004 cm2 and resistance of 6
Ω. Q has a cross-sectional area of 0.0032 cm2. What is the length of Q such that it has the same resistance as P?

Example 21:
A heating filament is made of a wire of diameter 0.5 mm and 15 m in length. If the resistance of the heating filament is 75
Ω , what is the resistivity of the wire?

Example 22:
A nichrome wire of length 60 cm allows a steady current of 2A to flow through it when connected to a 6 V battery.
(a) What is the resistance of the wire?
(b) What length of the nichrome wire would be needed to make a 10 Ω resistance wire?
(c) Calculate the resistance of another nichrome wire which has the same length but twice the cross-sectional area compared
to the wire in (a)

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 Chapter 3 Electricity
3.2.5 Applications of Resistivity of Wire in Daily Life
(A) Heating Element
1. Heating element is used in water heater, electric kettle to heat up water.
2. Characteristics of heating element:
(a) High resistivity material to increase the resistance.
(b) Thin coiled wire. More heat is produced.
Heating element
(c) High melting point so that does not melt easily.
(d) High oxidation so that does not oxidised easily.
(e) High durability
3. Other electrical appliances that use heating element:
- Oven, Toaster, Hair dryer

(B) Light Bulb

1. Filament of light bulb must be heated to extreme temperature before it emits a useful visible light.
2. Characteristics of filament of light bulb:
(f) High resistivity to increase the resistance. More heat is produced.
(g) Thin coiled wire to produce high resistance. More heat is produced.
3. In modern light bulb, we insert gases (argon/neon) at low pressure to reduce the loss of tungsten.

THINK:
Why tungsten is used for filaments in light bulbs although nichrome has higher resistivity than tungsten?

(C) Electrical wiring in homes

1. Copper wires are usually used in the electrical wiring in homes
2. Characteristics of electrical wiring:
(a) Low resistivity to prevent wire heat up too fast
(b) Low resistance to reduce energy loss to the surrounding
(c) High conductivity
(d) High melting point to withstand high temperature
3. But, in National Grid Network, aluminium cables which has higher resistivity than copper is used because aluminium has a
lower density if compared to copper cables.
4. If copper cables are used, more pylons need to be built to support the heavy power cables.

Comparisons on Resistivity between Insulators, Semiconductors, Conductors and Superconductors

Insulator Semiconductors Conductors Superconductors
Conductivity A material that does A material that A material that A material that
not conduct conducts electricity conducts electricity conducts electricity
electricity better than an insulator without any resistance
but not as good as a
conductor

Resistivity Has highest Resistivity between Low resistivity Zero resistivity at

resistivity insulator and conductor critical temperature

Example Plastic or wood Silicone and germanium Iron and carbon Caesium at a
temperature of 1.5 K or
lower
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 Chapter 3 Electricity
Superconductor
1. All materials have electrical resistance which causes power loss.
2. The resistance of a conductor decreases when the temperature of the conductor decreases.
3. For certain materials, the resistance suddenly drops to zero when they are cooled down to a very low temperature, called
critical temperature, Tc. These materials are known as superconductor.

R/Ω
Material Tc/K
Zinc, Zn 0.88
Aluminium, Al 1.18
Tin, Sn 3.69
Lead, Pb 7.26
T/K Mercury 4.14
0 TC

➢ When aluminium is cooled to a temperature of 1.18 K, its resistance suddenly drops to zero. Aluminium shows
superconductor properties.

4. Advantages of superconductor:
(a) A superconductor conducts electricity without loss of energy.
(b) A very large amount of current flow through the conductor at the critical temperature (perfect conductors).
5. Applications:
(a) Construction of superconducting electromagnets which can produce a very strong magnetic field for magnetic
levitated trains (MAGLEV).
(b) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) also uses superconducting magnets.
(c) Cable or wires made of superconductors will increase the efficiency of electrical power transmission as the loss of
energy in the form of heat is greatly reduced.

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