PHS 122

2021
 Cells in Series and in Parallel
Cells
Alessandro Volta invented electric battery and it was first named
as Voltaic Pile. The unit of electric potential is named as Volt.

John Frederic Daniell developed Daniell cell.

George Leclanche invented Wet cell

Dr. Carl Gassner introduced the Dry cell

Gaston Plante introduced the first rechargeable battery. It is the

lead-acid battery and is again most common application found in
cars.
 Cells
Electrical current is the flow of
charged particles, specifically, the
flow of electrons through a circuit.
A collection of two or more cells
which are connected in series is
called A Battery. A battery converts
chemical energy to electrical
energy. That is why it is otherwise
known as Electrochemical Cell. A
battery consists of two terminals –
A Positive and Negative Terminal.
During discharge, the positive
terminal is the Cathode and the
negative terminal is the Anode.
 Electromotive Force (EMF)

EMF is the potential difference (Pd) between the two terminals of a

battery in an open circuit.

The EMF measures the energy which is transferred to the charge

carries in the cell or a battery.

It is the energy in joules divided by the charge in coulombs. The EMF

acts as the initiating force for the current to flow. EMF = E/Q, E is the
energy and Q is the charge, and measured in volts.
 Internal Resistance
Internal Resistance, r is the resistance which is present within the
battery that resists the flow of current when connected to a circuit.
Thus, it causes a voltage drop when current flows through it. It is the
resistance provided by the electrolyte and electrodes which is
present in a cell. So, the source of r is the electrodes and electrolyte
of a battery.
For an EMF, ε and r in series, with an external resistor of resistance R
connected across a circuit. The terminal p.d., V between the positive
and negative terminals of the cell when current flows through the
circuit.
ε = I (R + r); ε = IR + Ir.
= V + Ir
V = ε – Ir.
where V is the potential difference across the circuit, ε is the EMF, I is
the current flowing through the circuit, r is internal resistance.
 Series and Parallel Circuits
There are mainly two types of circuits, series and parallel. Cells can be
connected both in series, parallel or a combination of both.

Series circuit electrons travel only in one path. Here the current will
be the same which passes through each resistor. The voltage across
resistors in a series connection will be different.

Parallel circuit electrons travel through many branches. In this case,

the voltage remains the same across each resistor in the circuit. Here
the current in the circuit is divided among each branch and finally
recombines when the branches meet at a common point. Parallel
circuits can be used as a current divider. It is easy to connect or
disconnect a new cell or other component without affecting the other
elements in the parallel circuit. But it uses a lot of wires and may be
complex.
 Combination of Cells in Series
Connection
The equivalent EMF of n number
of cells in series combination is
the sum of their individual EMFs.
The equivalent internal
resistance of n cells in series
combination is the sum of their
individual internal resistance
Advantages and Disadvantages
of cells connected in series:
The cells connected in series
produces a greater resultant
voltage. The cells which are
damaged can be easily identified
and hence can be replaced easily
as they break the circuit.
If any one of the cell is damaged
in the circuit, it may affect the
whole connection. The cells
which are connected in series
gets easily exhausted and so they
do not last longer.
 Combination of Cells in Parallel
Connection
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cells
Connected in Parallel
For the cells connected in parallel if any one
of the cell is damaged in the circuit, it will
not affect the whole connection. The cells
which are connected in parallel do not
exhaust easily and thus they last longer.
In parallel connection the
connection provides power The voltage developed by the cells in
based on only one cell. parallel connection cannot be increased by
increasing the number of cells present in
the circuit. It is because they do not have
same circular path. In parallel connection
the connection provides power based on
one cell. So the brightness of the bulb will
not be high.
 Wheatstone Bridge
The wheatstone bridge is one of the most accurate methods of
measuring resistance. It consists of four resistors of resistance R1, R2,
R3 and R4 connected as shown below.
When no current flows through the
galvanometer (null), the bridge is said to be
balanced.
Therefore, p.d across R1 = p.d across R3
And p.d across R2 = p.d across R4
Hence, I1R1=I2R3 ——–(1) and
I1R2=I2R4 ——–(2)
Dividing (1) by (2), we have,
R1/R2=R3/R4
Where R1 is the unknown resistance, R2 is a
fixed resistance of known value; R3 & R4 are
variable resistances of known values.
 Metre Bridge
It consists of a straight uniform resistance wire AB of length 1m
stretched along a metre rule. The unknown resistor X is placed at the
left side, while the known R is placed at the right side.
Precautions
The battery key should be
depressed before the G contact
is made on the bridge wire

A very small current should be

allowed to pass through the
galvanometer to avoid damage
When the circuit is closed, a point is located
along the resistance wire with the jockey
when G reads zero. At this point, X α l1; R α l2 , In order not to damage the
X = kl1; R = kl2 uniformity of the wire, the
Since k is the same, jockey key should be carefully
X l1 = Rl2 and gently dragged over the
X = Rl2/l1
wire.
 Potentiometer
Merits of the Potentiometer
over the Voltmeter
The potentiometer is more
accurate in measuring
voltage
A potentiometer consists of uniform There is no zero scale error
wire AB of length 100cm, connected as associated with pointer
to an EMF source to provide a steady instruments like a voltmeter
current. It passes no current as the
V α R α IV = kl time current is being taken.
When a potentiometer is used to
compare the EMFs of two cells, at
balance point when G reads zero,
E1/E2 = l1/l2
 Resistance and Temperature
Over a limited temperature range, the resistivity of a
conductor varies approximately linearly with the
temperature.
ρ  ρo [1  α (T  To )]
ρo is the resistivity at some reference temperature To
To is usually taken to be 20°C, α is the temperature
coefficient of resistivity, SI units of α are oC-1
1 

o T
The temperature coefficient of resistivity can be
expressed as
 Temperature Variation of Resistance
Since the resistance of a conductor with uniform
cross sectional area is proportional to the
resistivity, then we can find the effect of
temperature on resistance.
R = Ro[1 + α(T - To)]

Use of this property enables precise temperature

measurements through careful monitoring of the
resistance of a probe made from a particular
material.
 Example 1
A platinum resistance thermometer uses the change in R to
measure temperature. Suppose Ro= 50Ω at To=20oC. α for Pt
is 3.92×10-3(oC)-1 in this temperature range. What is R when
T = 50.0oC?

R = Ro[1 + α(T- To)]

R = 50Ω [1 + 3.92 ×10-3(oC)-1 (30.0oC)] = 55.9 Ω

 Example 2
A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance Ro =
50.0Ω at To=20oC. α for Pt is 3.92×10-3(oC)-1. The
thermometer is immersed in a vessel containing melting
tin, at which point R increases to 91.6Ω. What is the
melting point of tin?
R = Ro[1 + α(T- To)]
91.6Ω = 50Ω [1 + 3.92 ×10-3(oC)-1(T–20oC)]
1.83 = [1 + 3.92 ×10-3(oC)-1(T–20oC)]
0.83 = 3.92 ×10-3(oC)-1(T–20oC)
212oC = T–20oC
T = 232oC
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
There are ways in which resistors can be
connected so that the circuits formed cannot be
reduced to a single equivalent resistor.

Two rules, called Kirchhoff’s rules, can be used

instead.
 Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule
The sum of the currents at any junction must equal
zero.
Currents directed into the junction are entered into the equation as +I and those
leaving as -I.

A statement of Conservation of Charge

– Mathematically,


junction
I 0
 Junction Rule
I1 - I2 - I3 = 0

Required by Conservation
of Charge

Diagram (b) shows a

mechanical analog
 Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
The sum of the potential differences across all
elements around any closed circuit loop must be zero.
A statement of Conservation of Energy

Mathematically,

 V  0
closed
loop
 Loop Rule
Traveling around the loop from
a to b

In (a), the resistor is traversed

in the direction of the current,
the potential across the
resistor is – IR.

In (b), the resistor is traversed

in the direction opposite of the
current, the potential across
the resistor is is + IR.
 Loop Rule
In (c), the source of emf is
traversed in the direction of the
emf (from – to +), and the
change in the potential
difference is +ε.

In (d), the source of emf is

traversed in the direction
opposite of the emf (from + to -),
and the change in the potential
difference is -ε.
 Equations from Kirchhoff’s Rules
Use the junction rule as often as needed, so long as each time you write an
equation, you include in it a current that has not been used in a previous junction
rule equation. In general, the number of times the junction rule can be used is one
fewer than the number of junction points in the circuit.

The loop rule can be used as often as needed so long as a new circuit element
(resistor or battery) or a new current appears in each new equation.

In order to solve a particular circuit problem, the number of independent

equations you need to obtain from the two rules equals the number of unknown
currents.

Any capacitor acts as an open branch in a circuit.

– The current in the branch containing the capacitor is zero under steady-
state conditions.
 Problem-Solving Strategy –
Kirchhoff’s Rules
Conceptualize
– Study the circuit diagram and identify all the
elements.
– Identify the polarity of each battery.
– Imagine the directions of the currents in each battery.
Categorize
– Determine if the circuit can be reduced by combining
series and parallel resistors.
• If so, proceed with those techniques
• If not, apply Kirchhoff’s Rules
 Problem-Solving Strategy
Analyze
– Assign labels and symbols to all known and unknown
quantities.
– Assign directions to the currents.
• The direction is arbitrary, but you must adhere to the assigned
directions when applying Kirchhoff’s rules.
– Apply the junction rule to any junction in the circuit that
provides new relationships among the various currents.
– Apply the loop rule to as many loops as are needed to
solve for the unknowns.
• To apply the loop rule, you must choose a direction in which to travel around the loop.
• You must also correctly identify the potential difference as you cross various elements.
– Solve the equations simultaneously for the unknown
quantities.
 Problem-Solving Strategy
Finalize
– Check your numerical answers for consistency.
– If any current value is negative, it means you
guessed the direction of that current incorrectly.
The magnitude will still be correct.
Analyze this circuit and find the currents I1, I2, and I3.

h
30 
I1
40  I3 1 2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 
I2
1 = 85 V 1

g f e
Guide
1. Draw the circuit.
2. Label + and – for each battery.
3. Label the current in each branch of the circuit with a symbol
and an arrow
4. Apply Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule at each junction. Current in is +.
5. Apply Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule for as many loops as necessary.
Follow each loop in one direction only.
+
5a. Resistor:
I 5b. Battery: V is +
-
V is -
loop
loop
6. Solve.
 30  h
I1
40  I3 1 2 = 45 V
a dd
b c

20 
I2
1 = 85 V 1

g f e

Back to our circuit: we have 3 unknowns (I1, I2, and I3), so we will need 3 equations. We
begin with the junctions.

Junction a: I3 – I 1 – I2 = 0 --eq. 1

Junction d: -I3 + I1 + I2 = 0

Junction d gave no new information, so we still need two more equations.

 30  h
I1
40  I3 1 2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 
I2
1 = 85 V 1

g f e

There are three loops. Loop 1. Loop 2. Loop 3.

Any two loops will produce independent equations. Using the third
loop will provide no new information.
 30  h
I1
40  I3 1 2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 
I2
1 = 85 V 1

g f e

The “green” loop (a-h-d-c-b-a):

(- 30 I1) + (+45) + (-1 I3) + (- 40 I3) = 0

I + -
V is - V is +
loop loop
 30  h
I1
40  I3 1 2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 
I2
1 = 85 V 1

g f e

The “blue” loop (a-b-c-d-e-f-g):

(+ 40 I3) + ( +1 I3) + (-45) + (+20 I2) + (+1 I2) + (-85) = 0

I + -
V is - V is +
loop loop
After combining terms and simplifying, we now have three
equations, three unknowns; the rest is “just algebra.”

Junction a: I3 – I 1 – I2 = 0 --eq. 1

The “green” loop - 30 I1 + 45 - 41 I3 = 0 --eq. 2

The “blue” loop 41 I3 -130 + 21 I2 = 0 --eq. 3

Make sure to use voltages in V and resistances in . Then currents

will be in A.