EXP

ERI
ME
NTS
 EXPERIMENT: -1
AIM: - To determine resistance per unit length of a given wire by

ih
plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: -
APPARATUS REQUIRED: -A wire of unknown resistance (, battery
eliminator or an accumulator (0 to 3V) or

sd
two dry cells (1.5 V each), voltmeter (0-5
V), milliammeter (0 – 500 mA), rheostat,
plug key, connecting wires and a piece of

n
sand paper.
PRINCIPLE: - Ohm's law states that the electric current flowing

a
through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends, provided the

B
physical state of the conductor remains unchanged.
According to Ohm's law
V  I and hence V = RI

,
The resistance per unit length is given by

n
R

l

o
OBSERVATION TABLE: - OBSERVATION: - 1. Range of ammeter = 0 mA to 500mA

ti
2. Least count of ammeter = 10mA
Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading V
S.No. R (in ) 3. Zero error of ammeter= 0 mA
(in A) (in V) I

ca
4. Range of voltmeter = 0 V to 10V
0.1 5. Least count of voltmeter = 0.1V
1 0.080 0.1 R  1.3
0.080 6. Zero error of voltmeter= 0V
0.2 7. Least count of metre scale = 0.1 cm
R  1.3
u
2 0150 0.2
0.150 8. Length of the given wire, l = 40.2 cm
0.3 CALCULATIONS: -The slope of the V-I graph gives resistance,
Ed

3 0.230 0.3 R  1.3

0.230 Thus, resistance = slope of line AB
0.4 0.6  0.1
4 0.300 0.4 R  1.3 
0.300 0.450  0.080
0.5 0.5
l

5 0.380 0.5 R  1.3   1.3

0.380 0.370
u

0.6 1.3
6 0450 0.6 R  1.3 Resistance per unit length of given wire   3.23m1
k

0.450 0.402
RESULT: - 1. The potential difference across the given wire varies
ru

1.3  1.3  1.3  1.3  1.3  1.3 linearly with the current.
Mean value of resistance =  1.3
6 2. The resistance per unit length of the wire is = 3.23 Ωm -1.
u
G
GRAPH: - PRECAUTIONS: - 1. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel
and the ammeter in series with the circuit. It

ih
should be ensured that current enters at the
positive terminal and leaves at the negative

sd
terminal.
2. The key should be inserted only while taking
observations, as excessive flow of current causes

n
unnecessary heating of the wire.

a
SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. The wire used may not be of uniform area
of cross-section.

B
2. The length of the resistance wire measured
should be between one terminal of voltmeter

,
and the other. The lengths of ends wound

n
around the terminals of voltmeter, if included,
would give error in measured length.

o
ti
ca
u
Ed
l
u
k
ru
u
G
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: -
EXPERIMENT: -2
AIM: -To determine the resistance of a given wire using a metre

ih
bridge and hence determine the resistivity of the material of
the wire.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - Metre bridge, a wire about 1m long, a

sd
resistance box, a rheostat, galvanometer,
a jockey, one-way key, a cell or battery
eliminator, thick connecting wires, sand

n
paper, screw gauge.
PRINCIPLE: - The Unknown Resistance S of the wire, having uniform

a
OBSERVATION: TABLE- cross-sectional area, is then given by
1. Length of the wire of unknown resistance, L =0.38m l

B
2. Measurement of diameter of wire of unknown resistance S  R
100  l
Least count of the screw gauge (L.C.) = 0.01mm Also, the specific resistance of wire is given by,

,
Zero error of the screw gauge = 0 mm  D2
R

n
Zero correction of the screw gauge =0 mm 4L
Observed Diameter CALCULATIONS: -

o
S. Main Scale Circular Scale
(mm) Here L=0.38m, D= 0.20mm = 2x10-4 m, R= 1.2 
No. Reading Reading
D= M.S. + n x0.01.  D2

ti
1 0 23 0.23 Also,   R
4L
2 0 18 0.18
3.14  2  104 
2

ca
3 0 19 0.19   1.2  9.91  108 m
0.23  0.18  0.19 4  0.38
Mean diameter of wire=  0.20mm
3 RESULT: - 1. The unknown resistance of the given wire is found to be
u
3. Measurement of unknown resistance by meter bridge R= 1.2 
Resistance 2. The resistivity of the material of the wire is
Ed

Unknown
of Balancing length Resistance   9.91  108 m
S. No. resistance length BC=100- l PRECAUTIONS: - 1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
 100  l 
box AB= l cm cm S  R  ohm 2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre
R(ohm)  l 
bridge wire.
l

 52.5  3. Null points should be in the middle of the wire.

1   1.2
u

1 1 47.5 52.5
 47.5 
 37.5  SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. The metre bridge wire may not be of
k

2 2 62.5 37.5 2   1.2 uniform area of cross-section.

 62.5 
2. Effect of end resistances due to copper
ru

 28.6  strips, connecting screws, may affect the

3 3 71.4 28.6 3   1.2
 71.4  measurement.
u

1.2  1.2  1.2

Mean Resistance of wire=  1.2
3
G
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: - EXPERIMENT: -3
AIM: -. To verify the laws of series combination of resistances using a
metre bridge.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - A metre bridge, a sensitive
galvanometer, two different resistances,

sd
a resistance box, a jockey, a rheostat, a
plug key, a cell or battery eliminator,
thick connecting wires and a piece of

n
sand paper.
PRINCIPLE: - When two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in

a
series, the resistance of the combination RS is given by
RS  R1  R2

B
CALCULATIONS: - The theoretically expected value of the series
OBSERVATION TABLE: - combination of resistances is
RS = R1 + R2

,
Resist Mean
RS  1.4  1.6

n
Resistanc ance Length Resistance value of
S. Length RS  3.0
e from BC resistanc
N AB =l  100  l 

o
Connecte Resist =100-l R  e RESULT: - As the theoretical and experimental value of RS agree
. cm  l 
d ance cm with in limits of experimental error, the law of series

ti
box combination of resistances verified.
 58.4  R1 
1 1 41.6 58.4 1   1.4 PRECAUTIONS: - 1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.

ca
 41.6  1.4  1.4  1.4
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre
 41.2  3
bridge wire.
R1 only 2 2 58.8 41.2 2   1.4  1.4
 58.8  3. Null points should be in the middle of the wire.
u
 31.8 
3 3 68.2 31.8 3   1.4 SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. The metre bridge wire may not be of
 68.2 
Ed

R2  uniform area of cross-section.

 61.5 
1 1 38.5 61.5 1   1.6 1.6  1.6  1.6
2. Effect of end resistances due to copper
 38.5  strips, connecting screws, may affect the
 44.5  3
measurement.
R2 only 2 2 55.5 44.5 2   1.6  1.6
l

 55.5 
u

 34.8 
3 3 65.2 34.8 3   1.6
 65.2 
k

 75.0  RS 
1 1 25.0 75.0 1   3.0 3.0  3.0  3.0
ru

 25.0 
R1 and R2  60.0  3
in series
2 2 40.0 60.0 2   3.0  3.0
 40.0 
u

 50.0 
3 3 50.0 50.0 3   3.0
 50.0 
G
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: - EXPERIMENT: -4
AIM: -. To verify the laws of parallel combination of resistances using
a metre bridge.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - A metre bridge, a sensitive
galvanometer, two different resistances,

sd
a resistance box, a jockey, a rheostat, a
plug key, a cell or battery eliminator,
thick connecting wires and a piece of

n
sand paper.
PRINCIPLE: - When two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in

a
parallel, the resistance of the combination RP is given
by

B
1 1 1
 
OBSERVATION TABLE: - RP R1 R2
CALCULATIONS: - The theoretically expected value of the series

,
Resist Mean
combination of resistances is

n
Resistanc ance Lengt Resistance value of
S. Length 1 1 1 RR
e from h BC resistanc    RP  1 2
N AB =l  100  l 

o
Connecte Resist =100-l R  e RP R1 R2 R1  R2
. cm  l 
d ance cm 1.4  1.6

ti
RP 
box 1.4  1.6
 58.4  R1  RP  0.75
1   1.4

ca
1 1 41.6 58.4
 41.6  1.4  1.4  1.4 RESULT: - As the theoretical and experimental value of RP agree
 41.2  3 with in limits of experimental error, the law of parallel
R1 only 2 2 58.8 41.2 2   1.4  1.4 combination of resistances verified.
 58.8 
u
 31.8  PRECAUTIONS: - 1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
3 3 68.2 31.8 3   1.4 2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre
 68.2 
Ed

 61.5  R2  bridge wire.

1 1 38.5 61.5 1   1.6 1.6  1.6  1.6 3. Null points should be in the middle of the wire.
 38.5 
 44.5  3
R2 only 2 2 55.5 44.5 2   1.6  1.6 SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. The metre bridge wire may not be of
l

 55.5  uniform area of cross-section.

u

 34.8  2. Effect of end resistances due to copper

3 3 65.2 34.8 3   1.6 strips, connecting screws, may affect the
 65.2 
k

 48.3  RP  measurement.
1 1 51.7 48.3 1   0.75
ru

 57.1  .75  .75  .75

 27.3  3
R1 and R2
In parallel
2 2 72.7 27.3 2   0.75  0.75
 72.7 
u

 20.0 
3 3 80.0 20.0 3   0.75
 80.0 
G
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: - EXPERIMENT: -5
AIM: - To compare the emf of two given primary cells using a
potentiometer.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - Potentiometer, a Leclanche cell, a Daniel
cell, a two-way key, a resistance box
plug type (0 to 1000  ), a galvanometer,

sd
a voltmeter (0-3 V), a battery
eliminator/lead accumulator, a low
resistance rheostat (about 20  ), two

n
one-way keys, connecting wires and
sand paper.

a
PRINCIPLE: - If E1 and E2 are emfs of two cells, l1 and l2 are the
balancing lengths when E1 and E2 are connected to the

B
circuit respectively then
E1 l1


,
E2 l2

n
OBSERVATION TABLE: - RESULT: - The ratio of emf of two cells is found to be 1.1.
PRECAUTIONS: - 1. Keys plugged into the resistance box must

o
Leclanche cell (E1) in Daniel cell (E2) in the Ratio
S. ensure good electrical contact.
the circuit circuit E1 l1

ti
No. 2. Jockey should be pressed gently on the
No of Null Length No of Null Length 
E2 l2 potentiometer wire to prevent formation of any
row point l1 row point l2
kinks in it.

ca
348 SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. The area of cross section of the
1 4 52 348 4 84 316  1.1
316 potentiometer wire may not be uniform
280 throughout its length.
2 3 80 280 3 55 255  1.1
u
255 2. Avoid continuous discharge of the two
174 cells whose emf are to be compared by
3 2 26 174 2 42 158  1.1
Ed

158 keeping the keys open when E1 and E2 are

not in use.
1.1  1.1  1.1
Mean value =  1.1
3
l
u
k
ru
u
G
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: - EXPERIMENT: -6
AIM: -To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell
using a potentiometer.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - Potentiometer, Leclanche cell or dry
cell, an ammeter, one resistance box

sd
(about 0-50 Ω), 3 one way plug keys,
galvanometer, a high resistance box)
(about 0-10 kΩ), a low resistance

n
rheostat of about 20 Ω, jockey, lead
accumulator and connecting wires.

a
PRINCIPLE: - If the l1 and l2 are balancing length for E and V then
the internal resistance of cell is given by

B
l 
r   1  1 R
 l2 

,
n
RESULT: - The internal resistance of primary cell is found to be 2.4 
OBSERVATION TABLE: - PRECAUTIONS: - 1. The emf of battery E should be more than the

o
emf of the primary cell, E1.
Shun Balancing length of potentiometer wire Internal
S. t 2. Positive terminals of E and E1 both should be

ti
Without shunt With shunt resistance
No No l  connected at the same point on the potentiometer
Null Lengt Null Len r   1  1 R
. Resis No of of SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. Potentiometer wire may not be of

ca
tance row
poin h
ro
poin gth  l2 
t l1 t L2 uniform cross - section.
w
2. Brass strips at the ends may have a finite
 324 
r   1 2 resistance.
1 2 4 76 324 2 53 147
u
 147 
=2.4  4. Heating of the potentiometer wire by
current may introduce some error.
Ed

 254 
r   1 4
2 4 3 54 254 2 41 159  159 
=2.4 
 172 
r   1 5
3 5 2 18 172 2 84 116  116 
l

=2.4 
u
k

2.4  2.4  2.4

Mean value =  2.4
3
ru
u
G
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: - EXPERIMENT: -7
AIM: - To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-
deflection method and to find its figure of merit.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - A moving coil galvanometer, a battery

sd
or a battery eliminator (0 - 6 V), one
resistance box (RBOX 1) of range 0 - 10 kW,
one resistance box (RBOX 2) of range 0 - 200

n
W, two one-way keys, voltmeter,
connecting wires and a piece of sand

a
paper.

B
PRINCIPLE: - The resistance of galvanometer is given by

,
RS

n
G
RS

o
ti
The figure of merit of the galvanometer is given by

ca
1 E
k
 RG
u
Where E is emf of battery, G is resistance of galvanometer, R is shunt
Ed

resistance.
l

RESULT: - 1. Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method, G

u

= 66.5
k

2. Figure of merit of galvanometer, k = 4.9  105 A / div

ru
u
G
 Observations Table: - PRECAUTIONS: - 1. Key K1 should be inserted only after high value
1. Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method of R has been taken out from resistance box
Resis

ih
Galvanometer otherwise galvanometer coil may burn.
Deflection
S. t Half Shunt 2. Adjust R such that deflection in galvanometer is
in the resistance
No ance deflectio Resistanc of even division so that  /2 is more conveniently
galvanome RS
. n, e (S) G

sd
(R obtained.
ter (  ) RS
)
3. Emf of the battery should be constant.
1500  58
1 1500 26 13 58 G  60.3 SOURCES OF ERRORS: - 1. Plugs in the resistance boxes may be

n
1500  58
loose or they may not be clean.
2000  60
2 2000 20 10 62 G  63.6 2. The emf of the battery may not be

a
2000  60
constant.
4000  68
3 4000 10 5 68 G  69.1

B
4000  68
5000  72
4 5000 8 4 72 G  73.0
5000  72

,
n
Mean value of resistance of galvanometer
60.3  63.6  69.1  73.0
=  66.5

o
4
2. Figure of merit of the galvanometer

ti
Emf Resistance Deflection (  ) Figure of Merit
S. No. of (R  ) 1 E

ca
k
cell  RG
1  2 
k  
1 2V 1500 26 26  1500  66.5 
u
5
k  4.9  10 A / div
Ed

1  2 
k  
2 2V 2000 20 20  2000  66.5 
k  4.8  10 5 A / div
1 2 
k
l

 
3 2V 4000 10 10  4000  66.5 
u

k  4.9  10 5 A / div
k

1 2 
k  
4 2V 5000 8 8  2000  66.5 
ru

k  4.9  10 5 A / div

 4.9  4.8  4.9  4.9 

u

5
Mean value of figure of merit =    10
 4 
G

5
= 4.9  10 A / div
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: - EXPERIMENT: -8
AIM: - To convert the given galvanometer of known resistance and of
the known figure of merit into an ammeter of the desired

ih
range and to verify the same.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: - A galvanometer of type Weston type,

sd
Ammeter of the range 0-3 A, Battery
with two cells, two resistance boxes of
10,000Ω and 200Ω respectively, two one-

n
way keys, A rheostat, Connecting wires,
Piece of sandpaper

a
PRINCIPLE: - For the conversion of galvanometer into the ammeter,
shunt resistance is required, which is given by

B
I gG
S
I  Ig

,
n
CALCULATION: - Here,
OBSERVATIONS TABLE: - Resistance of galvanometer= 66.5

o
Galvanometer Reading Difference Figure of merit of galvanometer= 4.9  105 A / div
Ammeter
S. Current (in I2 - I1

ti
Deflection Reading The current across galvanometer for full deflection,
No. mA)
 I2 (in mA) Ig= n k
I1=  X L.C.

ca
1 8 8 10 2 Ig =30 x 4.9  105 A / div
2 16 16 15 -1 Ig = 1.47  103 A / div
3 20 20 20 0.0 Range of ammeter= 30mA
u
I gG
Thus, required shunt resistance is given by S 
I  Ig
Ed

1.47  103  66.5

S  3.2
30  10 3  1.47  10 3
RESULT: - The conversion is perfect as the difference between the
l

actual and measured value of currents is very small.

u

PRECAUTIONS: - 1. Calculate the resistance accurately

2. Same range conversion ammeter should be
k

used for the verification

ru

3. The length of the shunt wire must be correct

SOURCES OF ERRORS: - 1. The wire may be of non-uniform area of
cross section.
u
G
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: -
EXPERIMENT: -9
AIM: - To convert the given galvanometer of known resistance and of

ih
the known figure of merit into a voltmeter of the desired range
and to verify the same.

sd
MATERIALS REQUIRED: - A galvanometer of type Weston type, A
voltmeter of the range 0-3 V, Battery
with two cells, two resistance boxes of

n
10,000Ω and 200Ω respectively, two one-
way keys, A rheostat, Connecting wires,

a
Piece of sandpaper
PRINCIPLE: - For the conversion of galvanometer into the ammeter,

B
shunt resistance is required, which is given by
V
R  G

,
Ig

n
CALCULATION: - Here,

o
Resistance of galvanometer= 66.5
OBSERVATIONS TABLE: -
Figure of merit of galvanometer= 4.9  105 A / div

ti
Galvanometer Reading Difference
Voltmeter The current across galvanometer for full deflection,
S. Voltage (in V2 - V1
Deflection Reading Ig= n k

ca
No. V)
 V2 (in V)
V1=  X L.C. Ig =30 x 4.9  105 A / div
1 12 1.2 1.0 -0.2 Ig = 1.47  103 A / div
2 18 1.8 2.0 0.2
u
V
3 24 2.4 2.5 0.1 Thus, required shunt resistance is given by R  G
Ig
Ed

3
R  66.5  1974.3
1.47  103
RESULT: - The conversion is perfect as the difference between the
actual and measured value of currents is very small.
l
u

PRECAUTIONS: - 1. Calculate the resistance accurately

2. Same range conversion voltmeter should be
k

used for the verification

SOURCES OF ERRORS: -1. Plugs in the resistance boxes may be
ru

loose or they may not be clean.

2. The emf of the battery may not be
constant
u
G
RAY DIAGRAM: - EXPERIMENT: -10
AIM: - To find the value of ‘v’ for different values of ‘u’ in case of

ih
concave mirror and to find the focal length.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - An optical bench, two sharp-edged

sd
needles, concave mirror, three uprights,
knitting needle, metre scale
PRINCIPLE: - For an object placed at a distance u from the pole of a

n
concave mirror of focal length f, the image is formed
at a distance v from the pole. The relation between

a
these distances (for a concave mirror) is
1 1 1

B
OBSERVATIONS TABLE: -  
1. Rough focal length of the concave mirror = 20cm f v u
Mirror Object RESULT: - The focal length of the given concave mirror is found to

,
Image Object Image
S. posit- posit- uv be -20.2 cm

n
position distance distance f 
NO. ion ion uv PRECAUTIONS: - 1. The uprights supporting the optical elements
c u  ab v  ac
a b

o
should be rigid and mounted vertically.
 50.0    34.0  2. The object pin should be kept in between the

ti
1 10.0 60.0 44.0 -50.0 -34.0  50.0    34.0  centre of curvature and the focus of the mirror.
 20.2cm 3. The aperture of mirror should be small

ca
 45.0    36.6  otherwise the image formed will not be distinct
2 10.0 55.0 46.6 -45.0 -36.6  45.0    36.6  SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. An error may arise in the observations if
the top of the optical bench is not horizontal
 20.2cm
u
2. The concave mirror should be front-
 40.0    40.8  coated, otherwise multiple reflections will
Ed

3 10.0 50.0 50.8 -40.0 -40.8  40.0    40.8  come from the reflecting surface of the
 20.2cm mirror.
 35.0    47.8 
4 10.0 45.0 57.8 -35.0 -47.8  35.0    47.8 
l

 20.2cm
u

 30.0    61.8 
k

5 10.0 40.0 71.8 -30.0 -61.8  30.0    61.8 

ru

 20.2cm

 20.2    20.2    20.2    20.2    20.2 

Mean value of focal length=
u

5
G

 20.2cm
RAY DIAGRAM: - EXPERIMENT: -11
AIM: -To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs
between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - An optical bench, two sharp-edged
needles, convex lens, three uprights,

sd
index needle, metre scale
PRINCIPLE: - For an object placed at a distance u from the optical
centre of a thin convex lens of focal length f, a real and

n
inverted image is formed on the other side of the lens
OBSERVATIONS TABLE: - at a distance v from the optical centre. The relation

a
1. Rough focal length of the convex lens = 15 cm between these distances is:
1 1 1

B
Object distance

Image distance
 
Lens position

position(b)

position(c)

f v u
Object

1 1 uv
Image

u=b-a

S. NO. v=c-a f  CALCULATION: - 1. u – v Graph: Take u along X-axis and v along

(a)

,
u v uv
Y-axis. Scales of x- and y-axis should be same.

n
Draw a hyperbola curve for various values of u

o
and v. Draw two lines AZ and BZ perpendicular
 45.0    23.4 
to Y- and X-axis, respectively. The lengths AZ
1 50.0 5.0 73.4 -45.0 23.4 -0.022 0.042  45.0    23.4 

ti
and BZ are both equal to distance 2f.
 15.4cm
Distance OA (= 2f) on Y-axis = 30.8cm  f  15.4cm
 40.0    25.0 

ca
Distance OB (= 2f) on X-axis = 30.8 cm  f  15.4cm
2 50.0 10.0 75.0 -40.0 25.0 -0.025 0.040  40.0    25.0 
15.4  15.4
 15.4cm Mean focal length f of the convex lens, f   15.4cm
2
u
 35.0    27.5  2. 1/u – 1/v graph: Draw a straight-line graph by plotting 1/u along
3 50.0 15.0 77.5 -35.0 27.5 -0.028 0.036  35.0    27.5 
Ed

the X-axis and 1/v along the Y-axis. Both the

 15.4cm intercepts OA (on Y axis) and OB (on X-axis) will
 30.0    31.6  be equal to distance 1/f.
4 50.0 20.0 81.6 -30.0 31.6 -0.033 0.031  30.0    31.6  1
Intercept OA (= 1/f) on Y-axis =0.065cm–1  f   15.4cm
l

 15.4cm 0.065
u

 25.0    40.1 Intercept OB (= 1/f) on X-axis =0.065cm–1  f 

1
 15.4cm
5 50.0 25.0 90.1 -25.0 40.1 -0.040 0.025  25.0    40.1  0.065
k

 15.4cm 15.4  15.4

Mean focal length f of the convex lens, f   15.4cm
ru

2
RESULT: - The focal length of the given convex lens
 15.4    15.4    15.4    15.4    15.4 
Mean value of focal length= (i) from calculations  15.4cm
5
u

(ii) from u – v graph  15.4cm

 15.4cm (iii) from 1/u – 1/v graph  15.4cm
G
GRAPH: - PRECAUTIONS: - The uprights supporting the optical elements
should be rigid and mounted vertically.

ih
2. The aperture of the lens should be small
otherwise the image formed will not be distinct.
3. Eye should be placed at a distance more than

sd
25 cm from the image needle.
SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

n
a
B
,
n
o
ti
ca
u
Ed
l
u
k
ru
u
G
RAY DIAGRAM: - EXPERIMENT: -12
AIM: - To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - An optical bench with uprights for

ih
holding lens, mirror and two needles,
two needles, a thin convex lens, a

sd
convex mirror, index needle, a metre
scale
PRINCIPLE: - The image formed by a convex mirror is virtual and

n
erect. Therefore, its focal length cannot be determined
directly. However, it can be determined by

a
introducing a convex lens in between the object and
the convex mirror).

B
An object AB is placed at point P’ in front of a thin convex lens
such that its real, inverted and magnified image A’B’ is formed at

,
position C on the other side of the lens. Now a convex mirror is

n
introduced between the convex lens and point C and so adjusted that
the real and inverted image A’B’ coincides with the object AB at point

o
P’ This is possible if the light rays starting from the tip of the object,

ti
after passing through the lens, fall normally on the
reflecting surface of the convex mirror and retrace their path. Any

ca
normal ray (perpendicular) to a spherical surface has to be along the
radius of that sphere so that point C must be the centre of curvature
of the convex mirror. Therefore, the distance P C is the radius of
OBSERVATIONS TABLE: -
u
curvature R and half of it would be the focal length of the convex
Position of mirror. That is,
Radius of Focal length
Ed

Convex Image PC R
S.NO. curvature R f  
mirror needle f  (in cm)
PC 2 2 2
(P) (C)
RESULT: - The focal length of the given convex mirror is 18.1 cm.
36.2 PRECAUTIONS: - 1. The uprights supporting the pins, lens and
1 54.4 90.6 36.2 f   18.1
l

2 mirror must be rigid and mounted vertically.

u

37.4 2. The apertures of the given convex lens and

2 50.8 88.2 37.4 f   18.7
2 convex mirror should be small, otherwise the
k

35.0 image formed will be distorted.

3 52.5 87.5 35.0 f   17.5
ru

2 SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. The uprights may not be vertical.

18.1  18.7  17.5 2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
Mean value of focal length=
3
u

 18.1cm
G
RAY DIAGRAM: - EXPERIMENT: -13
AIM: - To find the focal length of a concave lens with the help of a
convex lens.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - An optical bench with uprights for
holding the lenses and two needles, a

sd
thin concave lens, a convex lens, index
needle, a metre scale.
PRINCIPLE: - A convex lens L1 converges the light rays starting from

n
the object AB to form a real and inverted image A’B’ at position I1. If a
concave diverging lens L2 is inserted between the lens L1 and point I1

a
as shown in Fig., for concave lens L2 image A’ B’ behaves
as virtual object. A real and inverted image A’’ B’’ is formed at point

B
I2 by the diverging lens L2. Thus, for the concave lens L2 the distances
O’ I1 and O’ I2 would be the distances u and v, respectively. the focal

,
length of convex lens L1 must be smaller than the focal length of the

n
concave lens L2. The second image A’’ B’’ is formed only when the
distance between lens L2 and first image A’B’ is less than the focal

o
OBSERVATIONS TABLE: - length of L2.

ti
The focal length of the concave lens L2 can be calculated from
and L2, point I2, g (cm)
Image formed by L1,

Image formed by L1
Object pin, a (cm)

the relation
Concave lens L2
Convex lens L1
upright, b (cm)

upright, d (cm)
point I1, c (cm)

ca
1 1 1 uv
uv   f 
v=g-d
u=c-d

S.
f  f v u uv
NO. uv
RESULT: - The focal length of the given concave lens is 23.8 cm
u
PRECAUTIONS: - 1. The uprights supporting the pins, lens and
mirror must be rigid and mounted vertically.
Ed

 13.6    31.4  2. The apertures of the given convex lens and

f convex mirror should be small, otherwise the
1 34.5 50.0 86.0 72.4 103.8 13.6 31.4  13.6    31.4 
image formed will be distorted.
f  24.0cm
SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. The uprights may not be vertical.
l

 11.4    21.6  2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

u

f
2 33.2 50.0 88.6 77.2 88.8 11.4 21.6  11.4    21.6 
k

f  24.1cm
 12.2    25.6 
ru

f
3 32.4 50.0 92.4 80.2 105.6 12.2 25.6  12.2    25.6 
f  23.3cm
u

24.0  24.1  23.3

G

Mean value of focal length=  23.8cm

3
RAY DIAGRAM: - EXPERIMENT: -14
AIM: - To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given
glass prism by plotting a graph between the angle of incidence

ih
and the angle of deviation and find out refractive index of
prism.

sd
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - Drawing board, triangular glass prism,
metre scale, alpins, drawing pins, graph
paper, protractor, white paper sheets.

n
PRINCIPLE: - At the position of the prism for minimum deviation d
 m , the light ray passes through the prism

a
symmetrically, i.e. parallel to the base so that when

B
 =  m , i = e which implies r = r’.
OBSERVATIONS TABLE: -
The refractive index of glass prism is given by
Angle of the prism, A = 600
 A  m 

,
S. No. Angle of incidence (i) Angle of deviation (  ) Sin  

n
  2 
1 30° 43°
 A
2 40° 39° Sin  

o
2
3 45° 37° (  m )
CALCULATION: - Draw tangent on the lowest point of the graph

ti
4 55° 38° parallel to x-axis, the angle of minimum deviation
5 60° 40°  m on the y-axis of the graph.

ca
 m =37°
The refractive index of glass prism is given by
u
 A  m   600  37 0 
Sin   Sin  
 2   2 
 
Ed

 A  60 
0
Sin   Sin  
2  2 
Sin48.50 0.75
   1.50
Sin300 0.50
l

RESULT: - The angle of minimum deviation of prism is 37° and

u

refractive index of prism is 1.5.

k
ru

PRECAUTIONS: - 1. Alpins should be fixed vertically to the plane of

paper.
2. Same angle of prism should be used for all
u

observations.
G
GRAPH: - SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. If the three angles of refraction between
adjacent pairs of faces are not equal.

ih
2. There may be an error in measuring the
values of the angles.

sd
n
a
B
,
n
o
ti
ca
u
Ed
l
u
k
ru
u
G
 EXPERIMENT: -15
RAY DIAGRAM: - AIM: - To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling
microscope.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - A travelling microscope, a glass slab,
lycopodium powder and a paper.

sd
PRINCIPLE: - The refractive index of glass slab is given by
real thickness of the slab ac
a
ng  
apparent thickness of the slab a  b

n
OBSERVATION: - Least Count (LC) of the travelling microscope:

a
20 Main Scale Divisions (MSD) = 1 cm

B
1
 1MSD  cm
20
50 Vernier Scale Divisions (VSD) = 49 MSD

,
49 49 1

n
 1VSD  MSD   cm
OBSERVATIONS TABLE: - 50 50 20

o
Cross mark Cross mark with Powder sprinkled Least Count of the microscope = (1 MSD – 1 VSD)
S. 1 49 1
without slab (a) glass slab (b) on top of slab (c)

ti
No.     0.001cm
M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total 20 50 20
1 4.20 14 4.214 2.95 2 2.952 2.30 22 2.322 CALCULATION: - The refractive index of glass slab is given by

ca
2 4.40 32 4.432 3.15 24 3.174 2.50 45 2.545 a  c 4.214  2.322 1.892
n1     1.49
3 4.80 28 4.828 3.55 22 3.572 2.90 40 2.940 a  b 4.214  2.952 1.262
a  c 4.432  2.545 1.887
n2     1.50
u
a  b 4.432  3.174 1.258
a  c 4.828  2.940 1.888
Ed

n3     1.50
a  b 4.828  3.572 1.256
1.49  1.50  1.50
Mean value of refractive index =  1.50
3
RESULT: - The refractive index of glass slab is 1.50.
l

PRECAUTIONS: - 1. The screws used in focusing the microscope

u

should be moved in only one direction to avoid

k

back-lash error.
2. The glass slab should be placed on a horizontal
ru

surface.
SOURCES OF ERROR: - 1. Position of the microscope may not be
normal to the surface of the glass slab.
u

2. If the layer of lycopodium powder/chalk

G

dust spread on the glass slab is thick.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: -
EXPERIMENT: -16
AIM: - To draw the I - V characteristic curves of a p-n junction in

ih
forward bias and reverse bias.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - A p-n junction diode, one variable

sd
voltage power supply (0-12V), voltmeter
(0-12V), milliammeter (0-200 mA), a plug
key, connecting wires, sand paper and a

n
microammeter (0-200 μA).

a
OBSERVATION: -
1. For forward biasing

B
Forward biasing for a p-n junction diode
(i) Range of the voltmeter =0 V to 2.5 V
(ii) Least count of the voltmeter scale = 0.05V

,
(iii) Range of the milliammeter = 0 mA to 30.0 mA

n
(iv) Least count of the milliammeter scale = 0.05mA
2. For reverse biasing

o
(i) Range of the voltmeter =0 V to 25 V

ti
(ii) Least count of the voltmeter scale = 0.5 V
(iii) Range of the microammeter = 0 μA to 30 μA

ca
(iv) Least count the microammeter = 0.05 μA

Reverse biasing for a p-n junction diode

OBSERVATIONS TABLE: -
u
Forward Biasing Reverse Biasing RESULT: - 1. The value of cut-in voltage for the given diode is 0.8 V.
Ed

Forward Forward Reverse Reverse 2. The reverse saturation current for the given diode is
S. NO.
Voltage Current Voltage Current 1μA.
(in V) (in mA) (in V) (in μA)
1 0 0 0 0
l

2 0.4 0 4.0 1
u

3 0.8 0.5 8.0 1.5

4 1.2 2.0 12.0 5
k

5 1.6 5.0 16.0 8

ru

6 2.0 10 20.0 12 PRECAUTIONS: - 1. Find out manufacturer’s specification for

7 2.4 18 24.0 25 maximum permissible current through the given
diode in forward bias. Take care not to exceed
u

this limit.
G
GRAPH: - 2. Find out manufacturers specification for
maximum reverse voltage to be applied to the

ih
diode. Take care not to exceed this limit.

sd
n
a
B
,
n
o
ti
ca
u
Ed
l
u
k
ru
u
G
 EXPERIMENT: -17
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: - AIM: - To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to
determine its reverse breakdown voltage.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - A p-n junction Zener diode (IN 758), a
variable dc power supply (0-15 V) with

sd
least count 0.1 V, a microammeter (0-100
μA), a voltmeter (0-15 V), a resistance of
125 W, a high resistance rheostat and

n
connecting wires.

a
B
PRINCIPLE: - In a Zener diode, both the p and n-sides are heavily
doped. Due to the high dopant densities, the depletion

,
layer junction width is small. Since the junction width

n
is small i.e. less than 10–7 m, even a small voltage across
it may create a very high field. This high junction field

o
may strip an electron from the valence band which can

ti
tunnel to the n-side through the thin depletion layer.
Such a mechanism of emission of electrons after

ca
OBSERVATIONS TABLE: - applying certain electric field (~ 106 V/m) or voltage
Reverse Voltage Reverse Current VZ is termed as internal field emission which gives rise
S. No.
(in V) (in mA) to a high reverse current or breakdown voltage. This
u
1 0 0 breakdown is termed as Zener breakdown and the
2 2.0 0 voltage at which it occurs is called Zener voltage. The
Ed

3 3.0 0 reverse current at Zener voltage is called Zener current.

4 4.0 0
5 5.0 0.1
6 5.1 0.1
l

7 5.2 0.1 OBSERVATION: -

u

8 5.3 0.1 1. Range of the voltmeter = 0 V to 10.0V

9 5.4 0.1 2. Least count of the voltmeter = 0.2V
k

10 5.5 0.1 3. Range of the microammeter = 0 μA to 500μA

ru

11 5.6 9.0 4. Least count of the microammeter = 5 μA

12 5.6 15.0
13 5.6 28.0 RESULT: - The breakdown voltage of the Zener diode obtained from
u

the graph is 5.6 V

G
GRAPH: - PRECAUTIONS 1. Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned
properly with sand paper.

ih
2. Zero reading of voltmeter and microammeter
should be checked properly.

sd
n
a
B
,
n
o
ti
ca
u
Ed
l
u
k
ru
u
G
A
C
T
IV
IT
Y
 ACTIVITY: -1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: - AIM: - To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - Resistor, ammeter, (0-1.5A) voltmeter
(0-5V), battery, one-way key, rheostat,

sd
sand paper, connecting wires.
RESULT: - The components of the electrical circuit were assembled.
PRECAUTIONS: -

n
1. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the
positive terminal of ammeter and positive terminal of the voltmeter.

a
2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and
the voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the resistor.

B
,
n
o
ti
ca
u
Ed
l
u
k
ru
u
G
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: -
ACTIVITY: -2
AIM: - To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least

ih
a battery, resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter.
Mark the components that are not connected in proper order

sd
and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - A given open circuit comprising atleast
a cell or a battery, plug key, resistor,

n
rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter,
connecting wires and sand paper.

a
PRINCIPLE: - An electrical circuit is functional only if all the
components of the circuit are connected in proper

B
order, assuming that all circuit components/devices
are in working condition and key is closed. An open

,
circuit means a break in some part of a circuit which

n
could be deliberate such as a key in open position or a
fault such as broken wire or burnt out component(s)

o
or loose connection.

ti
RESULT: - The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit
diagram is functional.

ca
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper
before making connections.
u
2. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the
positive terminal of the voltmeter and positive terminal of the
Ed

ammeter.
l
u
k
ru
u
G
 ACTIVITY: -3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: - AIM: - To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three
(on/off) switches, a fuse and a power source.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three
(on/off) switches, socket, a fuse of 1.0 A,

sd
plug, flexible connecting wire, main
switch.
PRINCIPLE: - If P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, ... be the power consumed by

n
different domestic electrical appliances in a circuit then the total
power consumption, P at any instant is given by

a
P = P1+ P2+ P3+ P4+ P5+ ...
If electric potential is V, then current I drawn from the mains

B
is given by P  VI where P is in watt, V in volt and I in ampere.
In order to protect the appliances from damage, when accidentally a

,
high current is drawn a fuse of rating little higher is connected in

n
series with the set of appliances.
RESULT: - Household circuit assembly is complete and installed

o
with safety.

ti
PRECAUTIONS: -
1. Care should be taken while working with mains.

ca
2. Carefully determine the rating of the fuse by calculating the
maximum current drawn by the circuit.
u
Ed
l
u
k
ru
u
G
 ACTIVITY: -4
AIM: - To identify a diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a
capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - Multimeter, a collection of diode, LED,
transistor, IC, resistor and capacitor.

sd
PRINCIPLE: -
1. A diode is a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward
biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It does not

n
emit light while conducting.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two-terminal device. It

a
conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when
DIODE LED reverse biased. It emits light while conducting.

B
3. A transistor is a three-terminal device. The terminals represent
emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).

,
4. An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in the

n
form of a chip. But some may have only three terminals,
5. A resistor is a two-terminal device. It conducts equally in both

o
directions.

ti
6. A capacitor is a two-terminal device. It does not conduct but
TRANSISTOR IC
stores some charge when dc voltage is applied.

ca
RESULT: - A diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a
capacitor are identified respectively from a mixed
collection.
u
PRECAUTION: - While obtaining resistance of any component, clean
Ed

its leads properly.

RESISTOR CAPACITOR
l
u
k
ru
u
G
 ACTIVITY: -5
RAY DIAGRAM: - AIM: -To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light
incident obliquely on a glass slab.

ih
APPARATUS REQUIRED: - Drawing board, rectangular glass slab,
white sheet of paper, adhesive tape

sd
(cello-tape), drawing pins, a metre scale,
alpins, protractor, sharp pencil and
eraser.

n
PRINCIPLE: - When a ray of light is incident on a rectangular glass
slab, it is refracted through it. It emerges out of the

a
slab parallel to the direction of the incident ray. The
emergent ray suffers only a lateral displacement. For a

B
given angle of incidence and a pair of media, the
lateral deviation is proportional to the thickness of the

,
glass slab.

n
RESULT: - 1. The ray of light emerging from a glass slab is
parallel to the incident ray direction but is laterally

o
deviated.

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2. The lateral deviation of the emergent ray with
respect to the incident ray is directly proportional to

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u the thickness of the glass slab.
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 ACTIVITY: -6
AIM: - To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.
RAY DIAGRAM: - APPARATUS REQUIRED: - Two razor blades, one adhesive

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tape/cello-tape, source of light (electric
bulb/ laser pencil), a piece of black

sd
paper, two glass plates.
PRINCIPLE: - When a beam of light passes through a fine opening
(aperture) or around a sharp obstacle, it bends around

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corners of the obstacle/aperture. The light beam
spreads and penetrates into the geometrical shadow of

a
the obstacle. This phenomenon of bending of light
around fine openings/obstacles is called diffraction and

B
is one of the evidences in favour of wave nature of light.
It arises because of the interference of light waves from

,
different points of the same wave front. Two razor

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blades with their sharp edges held parallel, quite close
to each other (separation being of the order of

o
wavelength of light λ) form a fine single slit (. The

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diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a
central bright band, surrounded on both sides by

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coloured bands (with electric bulb) and alternate dark
and bright bands (with laser pencil) of decreasing
intensity and fringe width.
u
RESULT: - Light waves incident on very fine apertures bend around
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corners and exhibit phenomenon of diffraction

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