Activity No.

1
Generated Voltage in a Coil
Objectives

1. To find out the generated voltage in a coil when the lines of force of a magnet cut
across its windows.
2. To discover the polarity of generated voltage.
3. To determine the relationship between the speed and the number of conductor turns to
generated voltage.

Instruments and Materials

Galvanometer
Horseshoe Magnet
Miniature Generator
Conductor Turns
Discussion

If a galvanometer is connected to the ends of the conductor turns and said conductor
turns is placed between the southpole and north pole of a horseshoe magnet, there will be no
movement on the galvanometer since the conductor turns is at rest. But when the conductor
turns is moved upward and cutting the magnetic fields, the galvanometer pointer deflects; and
if moved downward, the galvanometer pointer deflects in the opposite direction. In these, the
conductor turns was perpendicular to the lines of force and there was relative motion between
the conductor and the lines of force of the magnet thereby producing a generated voltage.

If the armature of the miniature generator rotates clockwise, the galvanometer will
deflect showing that there is current flow; and if the armature rotates counterclockwise the
galvanometer reading will deflect in the opposite direction.

Procedures

I. A. Place the north pole of the horseshoe magnet between the conductor turns
connected to the galvanometer as shown in Figure 1.1.
B. Observe and record in Table 1.1 the movement of the galvanometer if the
conductor turns is at rest.
C. Move the conductor turns upward and downward. Observe and record the
movement.
 Figure 1.1

II. A. Connect the galvanometer to the terminals of the miniaturegenerator.

B. Rotate the armature of the miniature generator clockwise at speed S1.
C. Observe and record in Table 1.2 the polarity and amplitude indicated by the
galvanometer.
D. Rotate the armature of the miniature generator counterclockwise at speed S 2.
E. Repeat II-C.

Table 1.1

Condition Voltage Polarity Current Amplitude

Table 1.2

Direction Voltage Polarity Current Amplitude

Observations

Conclusion

Test Your Knowledge

1. What is the relationship between: (a) the armature speed to generated voltage and
(b) the number of conductor turns to generated voltage?
2. State in two ways, how you can determine the polarity of generated voltage.
3. What are the conditions that must be met so that voltage maybe generated by
electromagnetic induction?
4. Given: length of conductor= 12cm
Flux density= 2 x 108 maxwell/cm2
Velocity= 22 cm/sec

Find: (a) the generated voltage and (b) the direction of motion.
 Activity No. 2
RMS Value of an AC Waveform

Objectives

1. To investigate AC waveforms.
2. To determine, graphically, the relationship between the maximum, average and
effective values of voltage and current in an AC circuit.

Instruments and Materials

Compass
French Curve
Drawing Paper
Protractor
Ruler
T-square
AC Multimeter
Power Supply
Oscilloscope
Bread board
10-kΩ Potentiometer

Discussion
A direct current or voltage is generally thought of as unidirectional and not varying with
time. A voltage that is always of the same polarity (one that does not pass through the zero
volatage axis) but varies with time maybe called a varying direct voltage.
It is possible for a voltage to vary so that a reversal of polarity occurs. In such cases the
term alternating voltage is used. The number of complete variations, known as a cycle made
each second is called the frequency of the waveform. Frequency is measured in cycles per
second or Hertz.
The waveform produced by an alternating current is of the shape called sinusoidal. This
is because the amplitude or value of the waveform at any time is related to the sine of that
time.
The effective value of a direct current is that value which produces the same power as
the average power produced by an alternating current. It is found from the root of the mean of
the squares of the currents in the AC waveform and thus termed the root-mean-square (rms)
value of the AC waveform.
It can be shown that if a current varies sinusoidally, its rms value is
 Im
Ieff= =0.707 Im
√2

Where Im = maximum or peak value of the current. The same is true with voltage,

Em
Eeff= =0.707 Em
√2

The reason for selecting this function of instantaneous value of an alternating current or
potential difference is that the deflection of all instruments used in alternating current
measurements is a function of this rms value. The average power dissipated as heat in a
resistance R when an alternating current of rms value flows through it is i2R.

Procedures

1. Draw a circle of radius 4 inches. Mark off radii in the circle every 20o. To the right of
the circle mark off a vertical axis anda horizontal scale in degrees.
2. From the points where the radii meet the circle, project horizontal lines to meet the
vertical lines drawn from corresponding points on the horizontal scale. The resultant
waveform when these points are joined is a sine wave.
3. Fill-up Table 2.1 and calculate

∑ i2
9

4. Take the square root of the result of No. 3 above. This will give the rms value of a
sine wave whose peak value is 4 amperes. The rms value of the currentis _______A.
5. What is the peak factor of the current waveform? ____________ How does this
compare with the peak factor that you calculated earllier?
 Table 2.1

Angle i i2
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180

Observations

Conclusion

Test Your Knowledge

1. Why do we describe the instantaneous voltage waveform found in Part II Procedure

2 as a sine wave?
2. What is the relationship between Ieff and Iave?
3. Show that Iave= 0.637 Imax by integration.
4. Show thatIeff=0.707 Imax by integration.
5. The equation for instantaneous current in AC system is written as i = (2)1/2 Ieff
Sin ωt. Suggest a reason for using this form.
 Activity No. 3
Resistive Circuit

Objectives

1. To investigate an AC resistive circuit.

2. To investigate the valueof current, voltage and resistance with change of frequency.

Instruments and Materials

Audio Generator
Digital Multimeter
Connecting Wires
Breadboard
1-kΩ Resistor

Discussion
When a sinusoidal emf e = Em Sin wt is impressed across a fixed resistor of R ohms, the
current at any instant of time will be i = (Em/R) Sin wt. Since Em/R = Im , the maximum value of
the resulting sinusoidal current, the current equation is i = Im Sin wt. Comparing the voltage and
the current relationships, it should be clear that the waves are in-phasewith each other; i.e., e
and i are increasing in the same direction and corresponding positive and negative maximum
values occur simultaneously. Moreover, the fact that the waves are in-phase with each other
means that the rms values of the voltage and current are likewise in-phase.
Figure 3.1 below shows the circuit diaghram of a resistive circuit with corresponding
wave and phasor diaghrams showing the in-phase relationship.

i = Im Sin wt

e = Em Sin wt R

Circuit Diagram Wave Diagram

Figure 3.1 Phasor Diagram

Procedures

1. Set the audio-generator tothedesired output voltage of 2 V using the finetuning

knob. Measure the outputby a voltmeter then set the frequency at 50Hz as its initial
value.
2. Set the digital multimeter to AC milliammeter. This will be used as the ammeter in
the circuit.
3. Assemble the circuit by following the wiring diagram of Figure 3.2.
4. With a constant voltage of 2 V and a varying frequency ranging from 50-1000HZ,
measure the corresponding currents and record in Table 3.1.
5. To get the resistance value, useOhm’s Law R= Erms/ Irms

V 1KΩ
Audio
Gen
2V

Figure 3.2

Table 3.1
Frequency (Hz) RMS Voltage(V) Resistance (kΩ) RMS Current (A)
50 2 1
100 2 1
200 2 1
300 2 1
400 2 1
500 2 1
600 2 1
700 2 1
800 2 1
900 2 1
1000 2 1
Observations

Conclusion

Test Your Knowledge

1.How do current, voltage and resistance change with frequency?
2. Why is the additional term impedance required in dealing with the opposition of a
circuit to AC?
3. What is the reason why there is no reaction to change in frequency in a resistance
circuit?
4. What does the statement mean ‘the current through a resistor is in-phase with the
voltage across it’?
5. Whymust the instantaneousvoltage across a resistor have the same waveform as the
instantaneous current?
 Activity No. 4
Inductive Circuit

Objectives

1. To investigate an AC inductive circuit.

2. To investigate the impedance of an inductor and see how this varies with frequency.

Instruments and Materials

Audio Generator
Digital Multimeter
Connecting Wires
Breadboard
100-mH Inductor

Discussion
Inductor is a fundamental electrical element that opposes any change in electric current. Also
known as a coil or choke, it is composed of a coil of wire wound around a supporting core that maybe
magnetic or nonmagnetic. A measure of an inductor’s ability to oppose the original current is
inductance.Inductance is measured in Henry (H).
A pure inductor in an AC circuit takes a current that lags behind the impressed emf by 90
electrical degrees. Storing and releasing equal amounts of electromagnetic anergy during successive
quarter cycles, the average energy per cycle involved in such a circuit is zero; this means that the
average power delivered to an inductor is zero.
Inductive reactance is the opposition to the flow of current, which results in the continual
interchange of energy between the source and the electric field of the inductor. The inductor’s
reactance is also called impedance and is measured in ohms.
Figure 4.1 below shows the circuit diagram of an inductive circuit with corresponding wave
diagram and phasor diagram showing the phase relationship.

i = ImSin(ωt-𝜋/2) L E e i

e = Em Sinωt I

Circuit Diagram Wave Diagram

Phasor Diagram Figure 4.1
Procedures

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the wiring diagram of Figure 4.2

2. Adjust the generator to 4KHz to give an output of 1V rms as shown on the meter.
3. Record the reading of the ammeter in Table 4.1
4. Readjust the output voltage to 2V rms and record the resulting current.
5. Repeat this for 3, 4, 5, and 6 V rms.
6. Record the currents and calculate the corresponding impedance for each voltage.
7. Repeat procedures 2-6 for 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 KHz frequencies.
8. Calculate the average impedance for each frequency and record in Table 4.2. Plot a
graph of impedance against frequency with the frequency as abscissa and the
impedance as ordinate.

100mH
V

Audio Gen

Figure 4.2

Table 4.1

Frequency Voltage Current Impedance

(KHz) (V rms) (mA rms) (KΩ)
1
2
4 3
4
5
6
 1
2
8 3
4
5
6
1
2
3
12 4
5
6
1
2
3
16 4
5
6
1
2
3
20 4
5
6
1
2
3
24 4
5
6

Table 4.2

Frequency (kHz) Average Impedance (kΩ)

4
8
12
16
20
24
Observations

Conclusion

Test Your Knowledge

1. Explain why a coil of wire placed in series circuit allows low frequency current but
not high frequency current to pass.
2. What happens when an inductive circuit is intermittently closed and opened?
3. What is meant by self-induction?
4. Why must the instantaneous current wave be exactly 90° out of phasewith the
applied voltage waveform across an ideal inductor?
5. The term resistance is used in both DC and AC circuits. Why does the term inductive
reactance not apply to DC circuits?
 Activity No. 5
Capacitive Circuit

Objectives

1. To investigate an AC capacitive circuit.

2. To investigate the impedance of a capacitor and see how this varies with frequency.

Instruments and Materials

Function Generator
Digital Multimeter
Breadboard
100-uF capacitor
Connecting wires

Discussion
Capacitor is another fundamental electrical element having two conducting surfaces
separated by an insulating material and having a capacity to store a charge on its plates. A
measure of capacitor’s ability to store charge is capacitance. Capacitance is measured in Farad
(F).
A perfect capacitor in an AC circuit takes a current that leads the impressed emf by
exactly 90 electrical degrees. Storing and releasing equal amount of electrostatic energy during
successive quarter cycles, the average energy per cycle involved in such a circuit is zero; this
means that the average power delivered to a capacitor is zero.
Capacitive Reactance is the opposition to the flow of charge, which results in the
continuous interchange of energy between the source and the electric field of the capacitor.
The capacitor’s reactance is also called impedance and is measured in ohms.
Figure 5.1 below shows the circuit diagram of a capacitive circuit with corresponding
wave and phasor diagrams showing the phase relationship.

i = ImSin(ωt+𝜋/2) A i e

e = Em Sinωt V

Circuit Diagram I Wave Diagram

Phasor Diagram E Figure 5.1

Procedures

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the wiring diagram of Figure 5.2.

2. Set the frequency of the function generator to 20 Hz.
3. Adjust the output of the generator to give 1 V rms as read on meter.
4. Record the reading of the ammeter in the Table 5.1.
5. Adjust the output of the generator to 2 and 3 V rms then record the respective
reading of the ammeter.
6. Repeat procedures 3 and 4 with frequency of 40, 60, 80 and 100 Hz.
7. Calculate the average impedance for each frequency and record in Table 5.2. Plot a
graph of impedance against frequency with frequency as abcissa and the impedance
as ordinate.

100uF
V

Function Gen 1-3V

Figure 5.2

Table 5.1

Frequency Voltage Current Impedance

Hz V mA
20 1
2
3
40 1
2
3
60 1
2
3
80 1
2
 3
100 1
2
3

Table 5.2

Frequency(Hz) Average Impedance (Ω)

Observations

Conclusion

Test Your Knowledge

1. What allows current to pass in an AC circuit in spite the presence of dielectric in the
capacitor?
2. Why does the current lead the voltage across a capacitor by 90° rather than lag it?
3. Why does the reactance of the capacitor decrease with frequency?
4. A single electrical component is sealed into a “black box” with a pair of terminals
marked “100Ω”. Suggest a laboratory procedure to determine whether the sealed box
contains a resistor, a capacitor or an inductor.
5. At what frequency will a 100 nanofarad capacitor have a reactance of 100 ohms?
 Activity No. 6
Series Resistance-Inductance Circuit

Objectives

1. To demonstratehow to get the impedance of a series resistance-inductance circuit.

2. To investigate the impedance of series resistance-inductance circuit to an AC
sinusoidal waveform, and see how this varies with frequency.

Instruments and Materials

Audio generator
2-Kohm Resistor
100 mH Inductor
Breadboard
Connecting wires
AC Voltmeter
AC Milliammeter

Discussion
The impedance of an RL circuit is the total opposition to AC current flow caused by the
resistance of the resistor R and the inductive reactance of the inductor XL. The equation for the
impedance of an RL circuit is Xl

Z= √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑙 2
Where Z= the total impedance in ohm, R= the resistance in ohm and Xl= the inductive reactance
in ohm.
It is no accident that the equation for impedance looks like the equation for calculating
the hypotenuse of a right triangle. Impedance in series circuit is, in fact, often portrayed as a
vector diagram where the horizontal side is the resistance, the vertical side is the reactance and
the hypotenuse is the resulting impedance.
The total voltage in a series RL circuit is givenby the equation.
E= √𝐸𝐿 2 + 𝐸𝑅 2
It is very important to notice that the total voltage E is NOT equal to the sum of the voltage
across the resistor and the voltage across the inductor.
The phasor currentI in a series RL circuit is in-phase with the resistance voltage drop IR
and is the same throughout the circuit. The inductor voltage IXL must be 90° counterclockwise
from I. The position of the totalvoltage is ϴ degrees from the total current since it is the phasor
sum of the two voltage drops (as shown in Figure 6.1)
 EL E

ϴ Figure 6.1
I ER
A complete analysis of a series RL circuit usually proseeds from knowing the values of R, L, f and
E. The analysis then ampunts to determining the remaining the remaining secondary properties
of the circuit. Some of these properties are determined from the nature of the components
themselves, and do not have to be calculated . For example, the phase angle for R is always 0°
and the phase angle for L in a series circuit is always 90°. Current in series RL circuit is constant,
that is I= IR= IL. Other values must be calculated by means of various equations.

Procedures

1. Connect the circuit asshown in Figure 6.2

2. Set the frequency of the audio generator to 800 Hz, andadjust the output of the
generator to give 1V rms as shown on the meter.
3. Record the current for this voltagein Table 6.1.
4. Reset the output voltage to 2V rms and record the resulting current.
5. Repeat this for voltages of 3, 4, and 5 V rms. Record the resulting currents and
calculate the impedance for each voltage and current.
6. Repeat procedures 2-5 for frequencies of 1000, 1600, 3200 and 6400 Hz.
7. Calculate the average impedancefor each frequency.Record the values in Table 6.2.
Plot a graph of impedance against frequency with frequency as the abscissa and
impedance as the ordinate.
8. Compare theaverage value of your measured impedance at each frequency with the
theoretically calculated impedance, Use Table 6.2.

R=2KΩ

V
L= 100 mH

Audio Gen Figure 6.2

Table 6.1

Frequency (Hz) Voltage (V rms) Current (mA rms) Impedance (KΩ)

800

1000

16000

3200

6400

Table 6.2

Frequency (Hz) Zave Measured XL R Z Theory

800
1000
1600
3200
6400
Observations

Conclusion

Test Your Knowledge

1. Why is the term impedancerequired in dealing with the opposition of a circuit to AC?
2. In an RL circuit, what do we call theemf developed when the current is building from
zero to maximum and the inductance is opposing the change?
3. Demonstrate an RL series circuit, by illustration, producing a high voltage by opening
the inductive circuit.
4. Under what circumstances is it possible for the rms current drawn from a certain
source to have the same magnitude when an inductance is connected in series with
a given impedance?
5. An inductor connected to a 220 volts, 60 Hertz source has a voltage drop of 132 volts
across the resistance of its winding. What is the magnitude and the angle of the
voltage across its inductance with respect to the applied voltage?
 Activity No. 7
Series Resistance-Capacitance Circuit

Objectives

3. To demonstratehow to get the impedance of a series resistance-capacitance circuit.

4. To investigate the impedance of series resistance-capacitance circuit to an AC
sinusoidal waveform, and see how this varies with frequency.

Instruments and Materials

Audio generator
2-Kohm Resistor
100 nF Inductor
Breadboard
Connecting wires
Voltmeter
Milliammeter

Discussion
Unless stated otherwise, we always assume that the components we use are ideal devices. That
is, resistors contain only resistance and capacitors contain only capacitance although actual capacitors
have small amounts of resistance and inductance.
The phasor current I in a series RC circuit is in-phase with the resistance voltage drop IR and is
the same throughtout the circuit. The capacitor voltage IXC must be 90° clockwise from I. The position of
the total voltage is ϴ degrees from the total current since it is the phasor sum of the two voltage drops
(Figure 7.1)

E2 = ER2 + EC2= (IR)2+(IXC)2= I2(R2+XC2)

E= I √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2

The quantity √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 is known as the impedance (Z) of the circui. Its unit ohm. Also E R= IR= E

Cosϴ is the voltage drop across the capacitance.

 I ER

EC

Figure 7.1

Procedures

9. Connect the circuit asshown in Figure 7.2

10. Set the frequency of the audio generator to 100 Hz, and adjust the output of the
generator to give 1V rms as read on the meter.
11. Record the current for this voltagein Table 7.1.
12. Reset the output voltage to 2V rms and record the resulting current.
13. Repeat this for voltages of 3, 4, and 5 V rms. Record the resulting currents and
calculate the impedance for each voltage and curren in Table 7.2t.
14. Repeat procedures 2-5 for frequencies of 150, 200, 400, 800 and 1200 Hz.
15. Calculate the average impedancefor each frequency.Record the values in Table 7.3.
Plot a graph of impedance against frequency with frequency as the abscissa and
impedance as the ordinate.
16. Compare theaverage value of your measured impedance at each frequency with the
theoretically calculated impedance, Use Table 7.4.

R=2KΩ

V
C= 100 nF

Audio Gen Figure 7.2

Table 7.1 For Frequency of 100Hz
RMS Voltage (V) RMS Current (mA) Impedance (kΩ)
1
2
3
4
5

Table 7.2

Frequency (Hz) Voltage (V rms) Current (mA rms) Impedance (KΩ)

150

200

400

800

1200

Table 7.3
Frequency (Hz) Average Impedance (kΩ)
100
150
200
 400
800
1200

Table 7.4
Frequency(Hz) ZaveMeasured Xc R Z Theory
100
150
200
400
800
1200

Observations

Conclusion

Test your Knowledge

1. Explain in your own words the relationship between resistance, capacitive reactance
and impedance in a series RC circuit.
2. Explain how changes in frequency affect impedanceand current in a series RC.
3. Under whatcircumstances is it possible for the total impedance to decrease when a
capacitor is added in series with a given impedance?
4. A series RC circuit has 10-V, 200-Hz source and 0.68-𝜇𝐹capacitor. How much
resistance is required to cause the current to lead the voltage?
5. At what frequency will a 1 microfarad capacitor and a 100 kiloohm resistor in series
have an impdance of 120 kiloohm?
 Activity No. 8
Impedance of Inductance, Resistance and Capacitance Circuit

Objectives

1. To investigate the impedance of a series inductance of a series inductance,

resistance and capacitance circuit and compare it with the impedanceof its
constituent components.
2. To investigate the impedance of series inductance, resistance and capacitance circuit
to an AC sinusoidal waveform, and see how this varies with frequency.

Instruments and Materials

Audio Generator
2.2-𝜇F capacitor
1-kΩ resistor
Connecting wires
100-mH inductor
Bread board
Voltmeter
AC milliammeter (0-5mA)

Discussion
In a series AC circuit containing inductance, capacitance and resistance (Figure 8.1), the
current is given by;

E E
I = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = Z

Note that the imoedance can be considered as the geometric sujm of the resistance, the
inductive reactance, and the capacitive reactance with due regard to the fact that the inductive
reactance and the capacitive reactance shift the phase in opposite direction. The impedance
can be computed b drawing a vector diagram like that in Figure 8.2. The angle by which the
current lags behind the emf is ϴ. ClearlyTanϴ= (XL-XC)/R, Sinϴ= (XL-XC)/Z, Cosϴ= R/Z. When XC is
larger than XL, ϴ is negative and the current leads the applied voltage.
 R

Audio Gen L ϴ

Figure8.1 Figure 8.2

Procedures
1. Connect up the circuit as shown in the wiring diagram of Figure 8.3. Adjust the
generator output to give 4 V rms at 500 Hz.
2. Record the current for this voltage.
3. Measure and record the voltages across R, L and C.
a. Draw to scale showing Vin , VR , VL and Vc.
b. Reconnect the voltmeter across the input of the circuit and adjust the generator
output to give 4Vrms at 20Hz and record in Table 8.1 the input voltage V in and
the resultant current I .
c. Repeat the above procedures for frequencies listed in Table 8.2.
d. Calculate the impedance Z for each frequenc and plot a graph Z against f . Then
get the frequency at which impedance Z is minimum and measure the voltage
drop across R, L and Cat this frequency and draw the phasor diagram of the
circuit showing VL, VC , VR, and Vin.

1KΩ

V
100 mH

2.2𝝁F

Audio Gen Figure 8.3

Table 8.1

Frequency Vin VR VL I
(Hz) (Vrms) (vrms) (Vrms) (mArms)
500

Table 8.2
Frequency Vin I Z
(Hz) (Vrms) (mA) (Ω)
20
40
60
80
100
160
200
240
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

Observations

Conclusion
Test Your Knowledge
1. What happen to the resistance, the inductive reactance, and the capacitive
reactance when the frequency applied to a series AC circuit is doubled?
2. An AC circuit contains a resistor and a variable capacitor. If the frequency is
constant, will it increase the capacitance or decrease the current. Explain.
3. A large inductor is placed in series with an electric light bulb in an AC circuit results
in a very dim lamp to almost normal brightness. How does this come about>
4. Explain the statement that “an AC circuit containing both inductance and
capacitance appears to the source onl as either an inductive circuit or capacitive
circuit”.
5. At a frequenc of 60Hz what value of capacitance must be connected in series with an
impedance of 60Ω / 60° to form: (a) an inductive impedance of 45 Ω? (b) a
capacitive impedance of 45Ω?