Academic Year

2012 / 2013

FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for

ENGINEERING DEGREE FROM THE LEBANESE UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Engineering- BRANCH III
Electrical & Electronics Department
Section : Industrial Digital Control

By :

Mohamad Jamil Hammoud

________________________________________________

Drive and Control of a Brushless DC Motor (BLDC)

Advisor:
Dr. Zouhair Al-Hajj

Defended on 15th of July 2013 at the jury:

Dr. Mohamad Ekkawi President

Dr. Zouhair Al-Hajj Member
Dr. Mazen Ghandour Member
 LEBANESE UNIVERSITY

Faculty Of Engineering

Engineer

Abstract
Drive and Control of a Brushless DC Motor (BLDC)

by Mohamad Hammoud

This project deals with the drive and control method of a brushless DC motor
(BLDC).

This type of motors represents the most recent end of a long evolution of motors
technology.

It is known for its increased efficiency, increased reliability, reduced noise, and
longer lifetime over brushed DC motors.

In this work, we discuss in the first part the theory of brushless DC motors and
its advantages over other types of motors especially brushed DC motors. Then we
realize the construction and operating principle of this motor.

In the second part we develop the hardware implementation of the control and
drive board of a sensored BLDC motor.
 Acknowledgements
The following report, while an individual work, benefited from the insight and
direction of several people.

First, I wish to thank the principle PhD Mohammad Hamdan, for his determined
work for the continuation of the Engineering Faculty-LU and maintaining the
required success.

Next, I wish to thank the Head of the Electrical Engineering department, PhD
Zouhair Al-Hajj, and my supervisor for his direct follow-up and generous advising
for me throughout the various stages of this work.

I wish also thank the members of the jury: doctor Mohamad Ekkawi and doctor
Mazen Ghandour for the time and effort they provide in judging this work.

Also, I express my sincere gratitude to all the doctors of the faculty of engineering
that we had the opportunity to be their students.

My gratitude goes to my parents for their continuous encouragement to pursue

my education further. Last but not least to my brother Ali who has always been
and continues to be my best interlocutor.

ii
iii
Contents

Abstract i

Acknowledgements ii

List of Figures vi

List of Tables viii

1 General Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Project Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 4

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.1 Modern Brushless DC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Brushed DC motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Construction of BLDC motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.1 Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.1.1 Slotless Versus Slotted (conventional Brushless DC
motors): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.2 Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.3 Hall sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.3.1 Hall Effect Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Theory of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Torque and efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7 Comparing BLDC motors to other motor types . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 Hardware and Project Implementation 21

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Principle of control of BLDC motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 DSPIC30F2010 module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

iv
Contents v

3.3.1 Motor control pulse width modulation (MCPWM) . . . . . . 26

3.4 Hardware description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Open Loop Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.6 MOSFET drivers and half bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.7 MAX232 module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.8 Implementation setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Conclusions and Recommendations 37

4.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

A WHAT IS BACK EMF? 40

List of Figures

2.1 Examples of brushed motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.2 Electromagnetic windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Brushed dc motor over view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 The stator of a BLDC motor showing slotted steel ring with axial
windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Laminated steel stampings - Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Trapezoidal Back EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Sinusoidal Back EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.8 Slotted and slotless motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.9 4 pole and 8 pole - Permanent magnet motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.10 Cross sections of different arrangements of magnets in a rotor . . . 14
2.11 Hall sensors are embedded in the stator of a BLDC motor to deter-
mine the winding energizing sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.12 Commutation sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.13 Speed-Torque-Power curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3.1 Control block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.2 Hall sensor signal, back EMF, output torque and phase current . . 23
3.3 Winding energizing sequence with respect to the Hall sensor . . . . 24
3.4 Sequence for rotating the rotor in clockwise direction when viewed
from non-driving end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.5 Sequence for rotating the rotor in counter-clockwise direction when
viewed from non-driving end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6 Edge - aligned PWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.7 PWM output override example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.8 PWM output override example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.9 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.10 Block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.11 DSPIC30F2010 Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.12 Open Loop flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.13 Open Loop speed control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.14 IR2110 package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.15 Typical connection of IR2110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.16 Lead definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.17 IRFP064N HEXFET POWER MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.18 Typical operating circuit of max 232 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

vi
List of Figures vii

3.19 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.20 Motor connector details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.21 Phases and hall sensors connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
List of Tables

2.1 Comparing a BLDC motor to a brushed DC motor . . . . . . . . . 20

2.2 Comparing a BLDC motor to an induction motor . . . . . . . . . . 20

viii
Chapter 1

General Introduction

1.1 Background

Electric motors are one of the most essential components and the driving force

of industry today. In general, there are two types of motors namely AC and

DC. AC motors are usually less expensive, rugged and have low maintenance but

hard to control. On the other hand the DC motors are more expensive, but

highly controllable. The conventional DC motors are highly efficient and their

characteristics make them suitable for use in different applications.[1] However,

one of their drawbacks is the need of a commutator and brushes, which are subject

to ware and require maintenance. When the task of commutator and brushes are

replaced by solid-state switches, maintenance free motors were realized and the

new motor called: Brushless DC motors emerged.[1]

Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor types rapidly gain-

ing popularity. BLDC motors are used in different industries such as home appli-

ances, Automotive, Aerospace, and many industrial equipment and instrumenta-

tion for various applications. [2]

1
Chapter 1. General Introduction 2

As the name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for commutation; instead,

they are electronically commuted. [3] BLDC motors have many advantages over

brushed DC motors and induction motors. A few of these are:

• Better speed versus torque characteristics

• High dynamic response

• High efficiency

• Long operating life

• Noiseless operation

• Higher speed ranges[3]

In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher, making

it useful in applications where space and weight are critical factors.[3]

BLDC systems are attractive for use in many high performance industrial applica-

tions with PWM used as an efficient means of power transfer, where high torque

and precision control are required. [4]

1.2 Problem Statement

In this project, we will discuss in detail the construction, theory of operation, drive

and control of a sensored Brushless DC motor using the PWM technique.

1.3 Project Outline

The project is divided into two huge chapters:

Chapter 1. General Introduction 3

• Chapter 1: General introduction.

• Chapter 2: theory of operation of sensored Brushless DC (BLDC) motor,

which covers the history of this type of DC motors,its construction and op-

erating principle, its torque/speed characteristics, a comparison between this

type of motors and other motor types, and also the commutation sequence

required drive this motor.

• Chapter 3: Implementation of hardware-programming the DSPIC. This part

describes briefly the steps to realize the board leading to drive and control

the brushless DC motor (3 phases). It also describes the program parts used

to deliver the PWM technique driving this motor. finally, this part talks

about some problems facing my work and the solutions I made to solve. At

the end of the report, there is a conclusion that summarizes the results of

the project and suggests further enhancements to the system.

• Conclusion and perspective.

Chapter 2

Construction and Theory of

Operation of BLDC Motor

2.1 Introduction

This chapter will discuss the theory of operation of brushless DC motors, its

construction, its torque speed characteristics and a comparison between this type

and other types of motors.

2.2 History

Brushless DC motor actually represents the most recent result of a long evolution

of motor technology. Before there were brushless DC motors there were brush DC

motors, which were brought on in part to replace the less efficient AC induction

motors that came before. [5]

4
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 5

The brush DC motor was invented all the way back in 1856 by famed German

inventor and industrialist Ernst Werner von Siemens. Von Siemens studied elec-

trical engineering after leaving the army and produced many contributions to the

world of electrical engineering, including the first electric elevator in 1880. [5]

Brush DC motors have been the most prominent speed technology since the DC

motor was invented by Siemens. [6] Von Siemens’s brush DC motor was fairly rudi-

mentary and was improved upon by Harry Ward Leonard, who nearly perfected

the first effective motor control system near the end of the 19th century. This

system used a rheostat to control the current in the field windings, which resulted

in adjusting the output voltage of the DC generator, which in turn adjusted the

motor speed. [5]

The Ward Leonard system remained in place all the way until 1960, when the

Electronic Regulator Company’s thyristor devices produced solid state controllers

that could convert AC power to rectified DC power more directly. It supplanted

the Ward Leonard system due to its simplicity and efficiency. [5]

In 1962 two engineers, T.G. Wilson and P.H. Trickey published a paper 2 in which

they described a ”brushless DC” motor. Magnet and power switching device

technology prevented this invention from becoming a practical general purpose

drive technology until the late 1980s when Powertec Industrial Corporation started

manufacturing general purpose brushless systems at prices competitive with brush

DC systems. [7] Remember that the key element of brushless DC motor is that it

requires no physical commutator.

As the device was refined and developed, it became a popular choice for special

applications such as computer disk drives, robotics and in aircraft. In fact, brush-

less DC motors are used in these devices today, fifty years later, so great is their

effectiveness. [5]
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 6

Brushless DC motors had no brushes that could wear out, they represented a great

leap forward in technology for these types of devices. The problem was that as

reliable as they were, these early brushless DC motors were not able to generate

a great deal of power. [5]

2.2.1 Modern Brushless DC Motors

That all changed in the 1980s, when permanent magnet materials became readily

available. The use of permanent magnets, combined with high voltage transistors,

enabled brushless DC motors to generate as much power as the old brush DC mo-

tors, if not more. Near the end of the 1980s, Robert E. Lordo of the POWERTEC

Industrial Corporation unveiled the first large brushless DC motors, which had at

least ten times the power of the earlier brushless DC motors. [5] Why brushless?

This question will be answered later in this chapter.

2.3 Brushed DC motors

Figure 2.1: Examples of brushed motors

Brushed dc motors have been in commercial use since 1886. A brushed DC motor

is made up of 4 basic components; the stator, the rotor (or armature), brushes,

and commutator.
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 7

• The stator generates a stationary magnetic field that surrounds the rotor

and this magnetic field is generated by either permanent magnets or electro-

magnetic windings.[8]

• The rotor is made up of one or more windings. When these windings are

energized they produce a magnetic field. The magnetic poles of this rotor

field will be attracted to the opposite poles generated by the stator, causing

the rotor to turn. As the motor turns, the windings are constantly being

energized in a different sequence so that the magnetic poles generated by the

rotor do not overrun the poles generated in the stator. This switching of the

field in the rotor windings is called Commutation. [8]

Figure 2.2: Electromagnetic windings

Brushed DC motors do not require a controller to switch current in the motor

windings. Instead, it uses a mechanical commutation of the windings. A copper

sleeve (commutator), resides on the axle of the rotor. As the motor turns, carbon

brushes slide over the commutator, coming in contact with different segments of

the commutator. The segments are attached to different rotor windings, therefore,

a dynamic magnetic field is generated inside the motor when a voltage is applied

across the brushes of the motor. The brushes and commutator are the parts of a

brushed DC motor that are most prone to wear.[8]

Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 8

Thus, switching the electrical polarity of the rotor windings. This will create an

attraction of the different polarities and keep the rotor rotating within the stator

field.

Figure 2.3: Brushed dc motor over view

Brushed dc motors presents some disadvantages : less reliability, larger size than

other types of motors, high maintenance requirements. [1]

2.4 Construction of BLDC motor

Brushless permanent magnet motor operation relies on the conversion of energy

from electrical to magnetic to mechanical. BLDC motors are a type of synchronous

motors. This means that the magnetic field generated by the stator and the

magnetic field generated by the rotor rotate at the same frequency. [9] BLDC

motors come in single-phase, 2-phase and 3-phase configurations. Corresponding

to its type, the stator has the same number of windings. [3]

It is a rotating electric motor consisting of stator armature windings and rotor

permanent magnets whereas in a conventional brushed DC motor the stator is

made up of permanent magnets and rotor consists of armature windings. The

Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 9

conventional DC motor commutes itself with the use of a mechanical commutator

whereas brushless DC motor needs electronic commutation for the direction con-

trol of current through the windings. Typically BLDC motors have three phase

windings that are wound in star or delta fashion and need a three phase inverter

bridge for the electronic commutation. [9]

This report and project will focus on 3-phase motors.

2.4.1 Stator

The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with windings

placed in the slots that are axially cut along the inner periphery. [9]

Figure 2.4: The stator of a BLDC motor showing slotted steel ring with axial
windings

Traditionally, the stator resembles that of an induction motor; however, the wind-

ings are distributed in a different manner. Most BLDC motors have three stator

windings connected in star fashion. Each of these windings are constructed with

numerous coils interconnected to form a winding. One or more coils are placed in

the slots and they are interconnected to make a winding. Each of these windings

are distributed over the stator periphery to form an even numbers of poles. [9]
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 10

Figure 2.5: Laminated steel stampings - Stator

In BLDC motors the phase windings are distributed in trapezoidal fashion in

order to generate the trapezoidal back electromotive force (EMF) waveform (The

term EMF will be discussed later in 1.). The commutation technique generally

used is trapezoidal (or called block commutation) where only two phases will be

conducting at any given point of time. An alternative way of commuting the motor

is called sinusoidal commutation in which all the three phases will be conducting

at any given point of time. [3]

Therefore, the trapezoidal motor gives a back EMF in trapezoidal fashion and the

sinusoidal motors back EMF is sinusoidal, as shown in figure 2.6 and figure 2.7.

Figure 2.6: Trapezoidal Back EMF

However, this comes with an extra cost, as the sinusoidal motors take extra winding

interconnections because of the coils distribution on the stator periphery, thereby

increasing the copper intake by the stator windings. Depending upon the control

power supply capability, the motor with the correct voltage rating of the stator can
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 11

Figure 2.7: Sinusoidal Back EMF

be chosen. Forty-eight volts, or less voltage rated motors are used in automotive,

robotics, small arm movements and so on. Motors with 100 volts, or higher ratings,

are used in appliances, automation and in industrial applications. [3]

2.4.1.1 Slotless Versus Slotted (conventional Brushless DC motors):

Steel laminations in the stator can be slotted or slotless as shown in 2.5. The term

slotted refers to slotted shape of the steel laminations which make up the stator

stack in the stator of a brushless DC motor. There are slots in the laminations

to keep the winding wire in place while still proving a very tight air gap for the

magnetic flux between the rotor and the stator. The winding wire incased in the

stack of steel laminations is then referred to as the ”iron core” and slotted motors

are also called iron core motors. This is the traditional method of making brushless

DC motors and it was actually also used in the very first patent by Tesla for an

AC induction motor. Most brushless DC motors used today are of the ”slotted”

stator type. In a slotless (also referred to a coreless) motor, there are no slots

or teeth at all in the stator. The stator laminations are simply which steel rings

stacked together to form the stator stack. The winding wires are held together
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 12

by glue or polymer molding to give the windings shape, form and rigidity. The

windings are in between the stator steel ring and the rotor. Since space must be

allowed in the air gap in slotless motors is generally larger than in slotted motors.

The manufacturing of the winding structure is a non-trivial exercise and a lot of

thought and efforts has to go into the reliability of the winding structure, especially

with the inevitable heat generated under load. [10]

A slotless core has lower inductance, thus it can run at very high speeds. Because

of the absence of teeth in the lamination stack, requirements for the cogging torque

also go down, thus making them an ideal fit for low speeds too (when permanent

magnets on rotor and tooth on the stator align with each other then, because

of the interaction between the two, an undesirable cogging torque develops and

causes ripples in speed). The main disadvantage of a slotless core is higher cost

because it requires more winding to compensate for the larger air gap. [11]

Figure 2.8: Slotted and slotless motors

Proper selection of the laminated steel and windings for the construction of stator

are crucial to motor performance. An improper selection may lead to multiple

problems during production, resulting in market delays and increased design costs.

[11]
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 13

2.4.2 Rotor

The rotor of a typical BLDC motor is made out of permanent magnets. Depending

upon the application requirements, the number of poles in the rotor may vary.

Increasing the number of poles does give better torque but at the cost of reducing

the maximum possible speed.[11]

Figure 2.9: 4 pole and 8 pole - Permanent magnet motor

Another rotor parameter that impacts the maximum torque is the material used for

the construction of permanent magnet; the higher the flux density of the material,

the higher the torque. Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to make permanent

magnets. As the technology advances, rare earth alloy magnets are gaining pop-

ularity. The ferrite magnets are less expensive but they have the disadvantage

of low flux density for a given volume. In contrast, the alloy material has high

magnetic density per volume and enables the rotor to compress further for the

same torque. Also, these alloy magnets improve the size-to-weight ratio and give

higher torque for the same size motor using ferrite magnets.[3]

Neodymium (Nd), Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and the alloy of Neodymium, Ferrite

and Boron (NdFeB) are some examples of rare earth alloy magnets. Continuous

research is going on to improve the flux density to compress the rotor further. [3]
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 14

Figure 2.10: Cross sections of different arrangements of magnets in a rotor

2.4.3 Hall sensors

2.4.3.1 Hall Effect Theory

If an electric current carrying conductor is kept in a magnetic field, the magnetic

field exerts a transverse force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push

them to one side of the conductor. This is most evident in a thin flat conductor.

A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic

influence, producing a measurable voltage between the two sides of the conductor.

The presence of this measurable transverse voltage is called the Hall effect after

E. H. Hall who discovered it in 1879. [3]

The underlying principles for the working of a BLDC motor are the same as for

a brushed DC motor; i.e., internal shaft position feedback. In case of a brushed

DC motor, feedback is implemented using a mechanical commutator and brushes.

With a in BLDC motor, it is achieved using multiple feedback sensors. The most

commonly used sensors are hall sensors and optical encoders. [11] Most BLDC

motors have three Hall sensors embedded into the stator on the non-driving end

of the motor. Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they

give a high or low signal, indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors.

Based on the combination of these three Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of

commutation can be determined. [3]

Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 15

Figure 2.11: Hall sensors are embedded in the stator of a BLDC motor to
determine the winding energizing sequence

Figure 2.11 shows a transverse section of a BLDC motor with a rotor that has

alternate N and S permanent magnets. Hall sensors are embedded into the sta-

tionary part of the motor. Embedding the Hall sensors into the stator is a complex

process because any misalignment in these Hall sensors, with respect to the rotor

magnets, will generate an error in determination of the rotor position.

To simplify the process of mounting the Hall sensors onto the stator, some motors

may have the Hall sensor magnets on the rotor, in addition to the main rotor

magnets. These are a scaled down replica version of the rotor. Therefore, whenever

the rotor rotates, the Hall sensor magnets give the same effect as the main magnets.

The Hall sensors are normally mounted on a PC board and fixed to the enclosure

cap on the non-driving end. This enables users to adjust the complete assembly

of Hall sensors, to align with the rotor magnets, in order to achieve the best

performance. Based on the physical position of the Hall sensors, there are two

versions of output. The Hall sensors may be at 60 or 120 phase shift to each

other. Based on this, the motor manufacturer defines the commutation sequence,

which should be followed when controlling the motor. [3]

Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 16

2.5 Theory of operation

Each commutation sequence has one of the windings energized to positive power

(current enters into the winding), the second winding is negative (current exits

the winding) and the third is in a non-energized condition.

Torque is produced because of the interaction between the magnetic field generated

by the stator coils and the permanent magnets. Ideally, the peak torque occurs

when these two fields are at 90 to each other and falls off as the fields move

together. In order to keep the motor running, the magnetic field produced by the

windings should shift position, as the rotor moves to catch up with the stator field.

What is known as ”Six-Step Commutation” defines the sequence of energizing the

windings. [3]

To understand these steps consider figure 2.12. In figure 2.12 (A), the GREEN

winding labeled ”001” is energized as the NORTH pole and the BLUE winding

labeled as ”010” is energized as the SOUTH pole. Because of this excitation, the

SOUTH pole of the rotor aligns with the GREEN winding and the NORTH pole

aligns with the RED winding labeled ”100”. In order to move the rotor, the ”RED”

and ”BLUE” windings are energized in the direction shown in figure 2.12 (B). This

causes the RED winding to become the NORTH pole and the BLUE winding to

become the SOUTH pole. This shifting of the magnetic field in the stator produces

torque because of the development of repulsion (Red winding NORTH-NORTH

alignment) and attraction forces (BLUE winding NORTH-SOUTH alignment),

which moves the rotor in the clockwise direction. [3]

This torque is at its maximum when the rotor starts to move, but it reduces as

the two fields align to each other. Thus, to preserve the torque or to build up

the rotation, the magnetic field generated by stator should keep switching. To

catch up with the field generated by the stator, the rotor will keep rotating. Since
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 17

Figure 2.12: Commutation sequence

the magnetic field of the stator and rotor both rotate at the same frequency, they

come under the category of synchronous motor. This switching of the stator to

build up the rotation is known ascommutation. For 3-phase windings, there are

6 steps in the commutation; i.e., 6 unique combinations in which motor windings

will be energized. [11]

2.6 Torque and efficiency

By definition, torque is the tendency of force to rotate an object about its axis.

[11]
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 18

T orque(N ewton − meters) = F orce(N ewton) × Distance(meters) (2.1)

Thus, to increase the torque, either force has to be increased which requires

stronger magnets or more current or distance must be increased for which bigger

magnets will be required. Efficiency is critical for motor design because it deter-

mines the amount of power consumed. A higher efficiency motor will also require

less material to generate the required torque. [11]

OutputP ower
Ef f iciency = %, (2.2)
InputP ower

where, OutputP ower = T orque × Angular velocity,

and InputP ower = V oltage × Current.

Having understood the above provided equations, it becomes important to under-

stand the speed vs. torque curve.

Figure 2.13: Speed-Torque-Power curve

As a conclusion:

• With an increase in speed, the torque reduces (considering the input power

is constant).
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor 19

• Maximum power can be delivered when the speed is half of the ”no load”

speed and torque is half of the stall torque.

2.7 Comparing BLDC motors to other motor

types

Compared to brushed DC motors and induction motors, BLDC motors have many

advantages and few disadvantages. Brushless motors require less maintenance, so

they have a longer life compared with brushed DC motors. BLDC motors pro-

duce more out- put power per frame size than brushed DC motors and induction

motors. Because the rotor is made of permanent magnets, the rotor inertia is less,

compared with other types of motors. This improves acceleration and decelera-

tion characteristics, shortening operating cycles. Their linear speed/torque char-

acteristics produce predictable speed regulation. With brushless motors, brush

inspection is eliminated, making them ideal for limited access areas and applica-

tions where servicing is difficult. BLDC motors operate much more quietly than

brushed DC motors, reducing Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). Low-voltage

models are ideal for battery operation, portable equipment or medical applica-

tions. [11]
Chapter 2. Construction and Theory of Operation of BLDC Motor
Feature BLDC Motor
Commutation Electronic commutation based
on Hall position sensors
Maintenance Less required due to absence of brushes
Life Longer
Speed/Torque Flat Enables operation at
Characteristics all speeds with rated load
Efficiency High No voltage drop across brushes
High Reduced size due to superior
Output Power/ thermal characteristics. Because BLDC
Frame Size has the windings on the stator,
which is connected to the case,
the heat dissipation is better.
Rotor Inertia Low, because it has permanent magnets on the rotor.
This improves the dynamic response.
Speed Range Higher No mechanical limitation imposed
by brushes/commutator.
Electric Noise Low
Generation
Cost of Building Higher Since it has permanent magnets,
building costs are higher.
Control Complex and expensive.
A controller is always required to keep
Control Requirements the motor running. The same controller
can be used for variable speed control.
Table 2.1: Comparing a BLDC motor to a brushed DC motor
Feature BLDC Motor
Speed/Torque Flat Enables operation at
Characteristics all speeds with rated load
Output Power/ High Since it has permanent magnets
Frame Size on the rotor, smaller size can be achieved
for a given output power.
Rotor Inertia Low - Better dynamic characteristics.
Approximately up to seven times of rated - Starter
Starting Current Rated No special starter circuit required.
A controller is always required to keep the motor
Control Requirements running. The same controller can be used
for variable speed control.
No slip is experienced between
Slip stator and rotor frequencies.
Table 2.2: Comparing a BLDC motor to an induction motor
20
Brushed DC Motor
Brushed commutation
Periodic maintenance is required
Shorter
Moderately flat At higher speeds,
brush friction increases,
thus reducing useful torque
Moderate
Moderate/Low The heat produced by the
armature is dissipated in the air gap,
thus increasing the temperature
in the air gap and limiting specs
on the output power/frame size.
Higher rotor inertia which limits the
dynamic characteristics.
Lower Mechanical limitations by the brushes.
Arcs in the brushes will generate noise causing
EMI in the equipment nearby.
Low
Simple and inexpensive.
No controller is required for fixed speed;
a controller is required only if
variable speed is desired.
AC Induction Motors
Nonlinear Lower torque at
lower speeds.
Moderate Since both stator and rotor
have windings, the output power to size
is lower than BLDC.
High Poor dynamic characteristics.
circuit rating should be carefully selected.
Normally uses a Star-Delta starter.
No controller is required for fixed speed;
a controller is required only if
variable speed is desired.
The rotor runs at a lower frequency than stator
by slip frequency and slip increases
with load on the motor.
Chapter 3

Hardware and Project

Implementation

3.1 Introduction

Having understood the basic construction and operating principle of BLDC motor,

in this chapter we will discuss the method of speed control of this type of motors,

to use it as an application in a wheel chair.

This project will discuss the using of DSPIC30F2010 to control a sensored BLDC

motor. This goal requires a long period of work to understand and read the family

reference of this DSPIC and its registers.

The registers used are not defined in details in this chapter, and I will provide you

in the annex with the complete program used in my project and some comments

beside its instructions.

In few words, this part will focus on the different parts of the board implemented

and method of operation.

21
Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 22

3.2 Principle of control of BLDC motor

Figure 3.1: Control block diagram

While BLDC motors are mechanically relatively simple, they do require sophis-

ticated control electronics and regulated power supplies. The designer is faced

with the challenge of dealing with a three-phase high-power system that demands

precise control to run efficiently.[12]

Figure 3.1 shows a typical arrangement for driving a BLDC motor with Hall-

effect sensors. This system shows the three coils of the motor arranged in a ”Y”

formation, a Microchip DSPIC30F2010 microcontroller, an insulated-gate bipolar

transistor (IGBT) driver, and a three-phase inverter comprising six IGBTs (metal

oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) can also be used for the

high-power switching). The output from the microcontroller (mirrored by the

IGBT driver) comprises pulse width modulated (PWM) signals that determine

the average voltage and average current to the coils (and hence motor speed and

torque). The motor uses three Hall-effect sensors (A, B, and C) to indicate rotor

position. The rotor itself uses two pairs of permanent magnets to generate the

magnetic flux.[12]
Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 23

The system employs a six-step commutation sequence for each electrical revolution.

Because the motor has two pairs of magnets, two electrical revolutions are required

to spin the motor once.[12]

Figure 3.2: Hall sensor signal, back EMF, output torque and phase current

Figure 3.2 shows an example of Hall sensor signals with respect to back EMF

and the phase current. Figure 3.3 shows the switching sequence that should be

followed with respect to the Hall sensors. The sequence numbers on Figure 3.2

correspond to the numbers given in Figure 3.3.

Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 show the sequence in which these power switches should

be switched based on the Hall sensor inputs, A, B and C. Table 3.4 is for clockwise
Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 24

Figure 3.3: Winding energizing sequence with respect to the Hall sensor

rotation of the motor and Table 3.5 is for counter clockwise motor rotation. This

is an example of Hall sensor signals having a 60 degree phase shift with respect to

each other. As we have previously discussed in the ”Hall Sensors” section, the Hall

sensors may be at 60 or 120 phase shift to each other. When deriving a controller

for a particular motor, the sequence defined by the motor manufacturer should be

followed.[3]

Referring to Figure 3.1, if the signals marked by PWMx are switched ON or OFF

according to the sequence, the motor will run at the rated speed. This is assuming
Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 25

Figure 3.4: Sequence for rotating the rotor in clockwise direction when viewed
from non-driving end

Figure 3.5: Sequence for rotating the rotor in counter-clockwise direction

when viewed from non-driving end

that the DC bus voltage is equal to the motor rated voltage, plus any losses across

the switches. To vary the speed, these signals should be Pulse Width Modulated

(PWM) at a much higher frequency than the motor frequency.[3]

When the duty cycle of PWM is varied within the sequences, the average voltage

supplied to the stator reduces, thus reducing the speed. Another advantage of

having PWM is that, if the DC bus voltage is much higher than the motor rated

voltage, the motor can be controlled by limiting the percentage of PWM duty

cycle corresponding to that of the motor rated voltage. This adds flexibility to the

controller to hook up motors with different rated voltages and match the average

voltage output by the controller, to the motor rated voltage, by controlling the

PWM duty cycle.[3]

3.3 DSPIC30F2010 module

The dsPIC30F2010 is a 28-pin 16-bit MCU specifically designed for embedded

motor control applications. AC Induction Motors (ACIM), Brushless DC (BLDC)

Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 26

and DC are some typical motor types for which the dsPIC30F2010 has been specif-

ically designed. Some of the key features on the dsPIC30F2010 are:

• independent or 3 complementary pairs of dedicated Motor Control PWM

outputs.

• 6 input ADC.

• Multiple serial communications.

• Small package.

• DSP engine for fast response in control loops.[12]

We will use this DSPIC to offer PWMs needed in a certain order to control the

BLDC motor.

3.3.1 Motor control pulse width modulation (MCPWM)

PWM is provided by the dsPIC30F2010s dedicated Motor Control (MC) PWM.

The MCPWM module has been designed specifically for motor control applica-

tions. The MCPWM has a dedicated 16-bit PTMR time base register. This timer

is incremented by a user defined clock tick, which can be as low as TCY. The user

also decides the period required for the PWM by selecting a value and loading it

in the PTPER registers. The PTMR is compared to the PTPER value at every

TCY. When there is a match, a new period is started.[12]

There are several modes in which the MCPWM module can be configured. Edge

aligned output is probably the most common mode. Figure 3.6 depicts the opera-

tion of an edge aligned PWM. At the start of the period, the outputs are all driven

high. As the PTMR increments, a match with the duty cycle registers causes the
Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 27

Figure 3.6: Edge - aligned PWM

corresponding duty cycle output to go low thereby marking the end of the duty

cycle. The PTMR match with PTPER register caused a new period to start and

all outputs go high to start a whole new cycle.[12]

The important feature of the MCPWM used in this application is the Override

Control. The Override Control is the last stage of the MCPWM module. It

allows the user to directly write to the OVDCON register and control the output

pins. The OVDCON register has two 6 bit fields in it. Each of the six bit fields

corresponds to an output pin. The high byte portion of the OVDCON register,

determines if the corresponding output pin is driven by a PWM signal (when set

to 1) or (when set to 0) driven Active/Inactive by the corresponding bit field in

the low byte portion of the OVDCON register. This feature allows the user to

have PWM signals available, but not driving, at all output stages of the pins. For

BLDC motors, the same value is written to all PDCx registers.[12]

Figure 3.7: PWM output override example

Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 28

Figure 3.8: PWM output override example

Depending on the value in the OVDCON register, the user can select which pin

gets the PWM signal and which pin is driven active or inactive. When controlling

the BLDC sensored motor it is necessary to excite two winding pairs depending

on where the rotor is located and dictated by the value of the hall sensors. In

the CN Interrupt Service routine the hall sensors are read and then the value of

the sensors is used as an offset in a lookup table which corresponds to the value

which will be loaded in the OVDCON register. Table 3.7 and Figure 3.8 show how

different values are loaded in the OVDCON register depending on which sector

the rotor is located in and thereby which windings need to be excited.[12]

3.4 Hardware description

The block diagram in Figure 3.11 depicts how the BLDC motor is driven using a

dsPIC30F2010.

The six MCPWM outputs are connected to three MOSFET driver pairs (IR2110S),

which in turn are connected to six MOSFETs (IRFP360). These MOSFETs are

connected in a three-phase bridge format to the three BLDC motor windings.

MOSFET drivers also require a higher voltage (15V) to operate, so this voltage
Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 29

Figure 3.9: Hardware

Figure 3.10: Block diagram

level needs to be provided. The motor is a 24V BLDC motor so the DC+ to

DC- bus voltage is 24V. A regulated 5V is provided to drive the dsPIC30F2010.

The three Hall effect sensor inputs are connected to input pins that have Change

Notification circuits associated with them. These inputs are enabled along with

their interrupt. If a change occurs on any of these three pins, an interrupt is

generated. To start and stop the motor, a push button switch is provided at

RC14.[12]
Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 30

Figure 3.11: DSPIC30F2010 Module

3.5 Open Loop Control

In open-loop control, the MCPWM directly controls motor speed based on the

voltage input from the Speed Pot or that given serially from the PC . After initial-

izing the MCPWM, ADC, Ports and the Change Notification inputs, the program

waits for an activation signal (e.g., a key press) to indicate a start (see Figure

3.12). When the key is pressed, the Hall sensors are read. Based on their value, a

corresponding value is retrieved from the table and written to the OVDCON. At

this point the motor starts spinning.[12]

Figure 3.12: Open Loop flow

Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 31

Figure 3.13: Open Loop speed control

As a summary, In open loop speed control, the duty cycle is directly calculated

from the set reference speed and there is no actual speed feedback for control

purpose.

3.6 MOSFET drivers and half bridges

Many of times we need to use MOSFETs configured as high-side and low-side

switches, such as in bridge circuits. In half-bridge circuits, we have 1 high-side

MOSFET and 1 low-side MOSFET. In full-bridge circuits we have 2 high-side

MOSFETs and 2 low-side MOSFETs.In our application, there is a need to use

high-side drive circuitry alongside low-side drive circuitry. The most common

way of driving MOSFETs in such cases is to use high-low side MOSFET drivers.

Undoubtedly, the most popular such driver chip is the IR2110.

IR2110 is high voltage, high speed power MOSFET and IGBT drivers with in-

dependent high and low side referenced output channels.[13] Lets take a look on

the pin assignment and pin definitions of this driver. First notice that the IR2110

comes in two packages 14 pin through-hole PDIP package and the 16-pin surface

mount SOIC package.

Now let’s talk about the different pins. VCC is the low-side supply and should be

between 10V and 20V. VDD is the logic supply to the IR2110. It can be between

+3V to +20V (with reference to VSS). VSS is the logic supply ground. COM is
Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 32

Figure 3.14: IR2110 package

Figure 3.15: Typical connection of IR2110

”low side return” basically, low side drive ground connection. It seems that they

are independent and you might think you could perhaps isolate the drive outputs

and drive signals. IR2110 is a non-isolated driver, meaning that VSS and COM

should both be connected to ground.

HIN and LIN are the logic inputs. A high signal to HIN means that you want to

drive the high-side MOSFET, meaning a high output is provided on HO. A low

signal to HIN means that you want to turn off the high-side MOSFET, meaning

a low output is provided on HO.

The output to HO high or low is not with respect to ground, but with respect

to VS. VS is the high side floating supply return. When high, the level on HO is

equal to the level on VB, with respect to VS. When low, the level on HO is equal

to VS, with respect to VS, effectively zero.

A high signal to LIN means that you want to drive the low-side MOSFET, meaning

a high output is provided on LO. A low signal to LIN means that you want to turn
Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 33

Figure 3.16: Lead definitions

off the low-side MOSFET, meaning a low output is provided on LO. The output

on LO is with respect to ground. When high, the level on LO is equal to the level

of VCC, with respect to VSS, effectively ground. When low, the level on LO is

equal to the level on VSS, with respect to VSS, effectively zero. SD is used as

shutdown control. When this pin is low, IR2110 is enabled shutdown function is

disabled. When this pin is high, the outputs are turned off, disabling the IR2110

drive.

Why using N channel instead of P channels half-bridges MOSFETs? P channel

is not efficient because of its higher on resistance. N channel uses mobility of

electrons so it has lower on resistance RDS and since P = RI 2 ,then the loss of

heat power decreases.

Figure 3.17: IRFP064N HEXFET POWER MOSFET

Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 34

3.7 MAX232 module

The MAX232 is an IC, first created by Maxim Integrated Products, that converts

signals from an RS232serial port to signals suitable for use in TTL compatible

digital logic circuits. The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver and typically converts

the RX, TX, CTS and RTS signals.[14] This chip converts RS232 signal voltage

levels to TTL voltage levels and visaversa, hence if you need to communicate to

your PC through it’s serial port (COM1 or COM2) then this is the chip that can

perform that function. If you have a microcontroller circuit, or a phone, or a

calculator that requires a PC connection then this is the chip that is needed to

make that communication happen.[14]

Figure 3.18: Typical operating circuit of max 232

The RS232 serial port protocol (v.24) states 15v to represent binary 1 and +15v to

represent binary 0. For TTL communication this is incompatible since TTL uses

0v to represent binary 0 and +5v to represent binary 1. MAX232 chip converts

Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 35

serial signal voltage levels to TTL standards, and also visa versa. It therefore has

a driver and a receiver to perform this function.[14]

3.8 Implementation setup

Figure 3.19: Implementation

After focusing with details on the different parts of the hardware, I will talk about

steps to implement and connect it to the motor.

1. Place the Board on a sturdy insulated platform.

2. Make sure that the dsPIC30F2010 device is mounted in the respective correct

position in the socket.

3. Connect the 24V power supply to the external DC bus power supply con-

nector J1.

4. Connect the three-phase, 24V motor to J2 (motor connector).

5. Download the code for the DSPIC30F2010 by opening the project using

MPLAB IDE. Build the project and download the program using the ICD2

In-Circuit Debugger.
Chapter 3. Hardware and Project Implementation 36

6. Press S2 to run the motor.

7. Press S2 again to stop the motor.

Figure 3.20: Motor connector details

The motor connector J2 has 10 terminals. Table 3.20 shows the functionality of

each terminal.

The motor phases and hall sensors connected to J2 in a manner described in the

table 3.21 below.

Figure 3.21: Phases and hall sensors connections

Chapter 4

Conclusions and

Recommendations

4.1 Conclusions

Finally , my project deals with the sensored open loop control of a brushless DC

motor that is configured in a small board discussed in all its details in the previous

chapters of this report.

The application that I proposed for this project is a wheel chair ”speed controlled”

either by its user or by another person.

The open-loop method is generally not practical for actual applications. It is

included here primarily to illustrate the BLDC motor drive methodology as my

first project on this type of motors.

Also open loop control is not a very worse choice. It has some advantages like:

1. Simplicity and stability: they are simpler in their layout and hence are eco-

nomical and stable too due to their simplicity.

37
Chapter 4. Conclusions and Recommendations 38

2. Construction: Since these are having a simple layout so are easier to con-

struct.

The disadvantages of this type of control are:

1. Accuracy and Reliability: since these systems do not have a feedback mech-

anism, so they are very inaccurate in terms of result output and hence they

are unreliable too.

2. Due to the absence of a feedback mechanism, they are unable to remove the

disturbances occurring from external sources.[15]

4.2 Recommendations

The first recommendation that I propose for those who want to continue working

in this field is to use the methodology of closed loop control.

Closed-loop controls are used in applications that require more accurate and adap-

tive control of the system. These controls use feedback to direct the output states

of a dynamic system. Closed-loop controls overcome the drawbacks of open-loop

control to provide compensation for disturbances in the system, stability in un-

stable processes, and reduced sensitivity to parameter variations (dynamic load

variation).[16]

Also , this project deals with the sensoresd method of control using the principle

of hall sensors.

My second recommendation is to experience the sensorless control . Sensorless

control of a BLDC motor calls for commutation based on the Back Electromotive

Force (BEMF) produced in the stator windings. Sensorless control has two distinct

advantages: lower system cost and increased reliability.[17]

Chapter 4. Conclusions and Recommendations 39

With a sensorless method of commutation, the Hall sensors, the sensor magnets,

the sensor wires and the PC board can be eliminated. This simplifies the motor

construction and reduces cost.[17]

There are two disadvantages to sensorless control:

• The motor must be moving at a minimum rate to generate sufficient BEMF

to be sensed.

• Abrupt changes to the motor load can cause the BEMF drive loop to go out

of lock.[17]
Appendix A

WHAT IS BACK EMF?

When a BLDC motor rotates, each winding generates a voltage known as back

Electromotive Force or back EMF, which opposes the main voltage supplied to the

windings according to Lenzs Law. The polarity of this back EMF is in opposite

direction of the energized voltage. Back EMF depends mainly on three factors:

• Angular velocity of the rotor

• Magnetic field generated by rotor magnets

• The number of turns in the stator windings[3]

BackEM F = (E)αN lrBω (A.1)

where: N is the number of winding turns per phase, l is the length of the rotor, r

is the internal radius of the rotor, B is the rotor magnetic field density and ω is

the motors angular velocity.[3]

As the equation implies: as the speed increases, back EMF also increases.

40
Bibliography 41

The potential difference across a winding can be calculated by subtracting the

back EMF value from the supply voltage. The motors are designed with a back

EMF constant in such a way that when the motor is running at the rated speed,

the potential difference between the back EMF and the supply voltage will be

sufficient for the motor to draw the rated current and deliver the rated torque.If

the motor is driven beyond the rated speed, back EMF may increase substantially,

thus decreasing the potential difference across the winding, reducing the current

drawn which results in a drooping torque curve. The last point on the speed curve

would be when the supply voltage is equal to the sum of the back EMF and the

losses in the motor, where the current and torque are equal to zero.[3]
Bibliography

[1] A Kusko and S.M. Peeran. Definition of the brushless dc motor. In Industry

Applications Society Annual Meeting, 1988., Conference Record of the 1988

IEEE, Oct 1988.

[2] Brushless Permanent Magnet Motor Design. Mc Graw-Hill, New York, 1994.

[3] Padmaraja Yedamale. Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor Fundamentals. Mi-

crochip Technology application note AN885, 2003.

[4] T. Gopalarathnam and H.A. Toliyat. A new topology for unipolar brushless

dc motor drive with high power factor. Power Electronics, IEEE Transactions

on, 18:1397 – 1404, 2003.

[5] Minebea Co. History of brushless dc motors. Technical report, NMB Tech-

nologies Corporation.

[6] Terry Elford. Siemens corporate brochure. Technical report, Siemens.

[7] T. G. Wilson and P. H. Trickey. D-c machine with solid-state commutation.

Electrical Engineering, 81, Nov. 1962.

[8] Brushed DC Motor Basics.

[9] MICROSEMI - Brushless DC Motor Control Theory.

[10] Muhammad Mubeen. Brushless dc motor primer, Jul. 2008.

42
Bibliography 43

[11] Pushek Madaan. Cypress semiconductor, Feb. 2013.

[12] Sensored BLDC Motor Control Using dsPIC30F2010.

[13] Data Sheet No. PD60147 rev.U, IR2110(-1-2)(S)PbF/IR2113(-1-2)(S)PbF,

HIGH AND LOW SIDE DRIVER. www.ior.com.

[14] Wikipedia.

[15] Speaking technology, electrical and electronics engineering, Jan. 2012.

[16] Bhargavi N. and Daniel T. Sensored 3-phase bldc motor control using msp430.

Technical report, Texas instruments.

[17] Padmaraja Yedamale. Using the pic18f2431 for sensorless bldc motor control.

Technical report, Microchip Technology Inc.