Lectures 1 and 2 Summary

▪ Electric Charge – properties, processes of charging

𝑞1 𝑞2
▪ Electric Force – Coulomb’s Law 𝐹𝐸 = 𝑘 2
𝑟
𝐹𝐸 𝑞
▪ Electric Field 𝐸=
𝑞0 𝐸 = 𝑘
𝑟2
▪ Electric Flux
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸 · 𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
▪ Gauss’s Law 𝜙𝐸 = න 𝐸𝑑𝐴 =
𝜖𝑜
 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
Special Cases for Gauss’s Law 𝜙𝐸 = න 𝐸𝑑𝐴 =
𝜖𝑜

▪ Solid Conducting Sphere of Charge

Outside the sphere: On the sphere: Inside the sphere:
1 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 1 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
𝐸= 𝐸= 𝐸=0
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜖𝑜 4𝜋𝑅2 𝜖𝑜
▪ Uniformly charged (insulating) solid sphere
Outside the sphere: Inside the sphere:
1 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 1 𝑄𝑟
𝐸= 𝐸=
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜖𝑜 4𝜋 𝜖𝑜𝑅3
1 𝜆
▪ An Infinite Line of Charge 𝐸=
2𝜋𝑅 𝜖𝑜
Lecture 3 Summary
▪ Electric Potential Energy 𝑊 = 𝐸𝑞0 𝑑 = −∆𝑈
𝑈
▪ Electric Potential 𝑉 =
𝑞0
𝑊𝐴→𝐵
▪ Potential Difference (Voltage) 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
𝑞0
𝑘𝑞
▪ Electric Potential at a Point Charge 𝑉= 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑟
Note: Electric potential is scalar!
For multiple charges, perform scalar addition. 𝑉𝑇 = ෍ 𝑉
Lecture 3 Summary
𝑄 𝐴
▪ Capacitance 𝐶= =𝜖
𝑉 𝑑
𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = ⋯
𝑄𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + ⋯
𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯
−1
𝑉𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = ⋯
1 1
𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = + +⋯ 𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ⋯
𝐶1 𝐶2
1 1 2 1𝑄 2
▪ Energy Stored in Capacitor 𝑈 = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 =
2 2 2 𝐶
 Electric Current
General Physics 2 Lecture 4a
Prepared by: Engr. Marcus Karl J. Evangelista
 Objectives
▪ To understand how resistors and current
work, and apply it in solving problems
related to electrical installations

References
• University Physics with Modern Physics 15th Edition
• Exploring Life through Science Series General Physics 2
Electrons in a Metallic Conductor
• Within a conductor, Electric field is ZERO.
• Within the conductor, charges are moving
randomly in all direction so there is no net flow
of charge in any direction.

Source: https://gifer.com/en/6Cbp
 Uniform Electric Field
++++++++++++++++++++++++ Consider a negative test charge
–q in a metallic conductor with
an electric Field
APPLICATION

What is the direction of E on –q?

In what direction will –q move?

-
 Uniform Electric Field
++++++++++++++++++++++++ Consider a negative test charge
–q in a metallic conductor with
an electric Field
APPLICATION

What is the direction of E on –q?

vD In what direction will –q move?

-
Electrons move in a direction
E opposite to the E.

Drift Velocity (vD)

Electric Current
• Current – amount of charge passing through any
point in a conductor per unit time
• SI Unit Ampere (A): 1 A = 1 C/s
𝑑𝑄
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
• Conventional Current vs Electron Current
• Direct Current vs Alternating Current
Electric Current
• Conventional Current
Flow of positive charges from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal

• Electron Current
Flow of negative charges from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal
Drift Velocity
• Volume of cylinder wire: Conventional Current

𝐴 ∗ 𝑣𝐷 𝑑𝑡
Drift Velocity
• Volume of cylinder wire: Conventional Current

𝐴 ∗ 𝑣𝐷 𝑑𝑡
• Volume with number of
particles inside (n)
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑄 = (𝑞 ∗ 𝑛) ∗ (𝐴 ∗ 𝑣𝐷 𝑑𝑡) 𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
Drift Velocity
• Volume of cylinder wire: Conventional Current

𝐴 ∗ 𝑣𝐷 𝑑𝑡
• Volume with number of
particles inside (n)
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑄 = (𝑞 ∗ 𝑛) ∗ (𝐴 ∗ 𝑣𝐷 𝑑𝑡) 𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
𝐼= = 𝑞𝑛𝐴𝑣𝐷
𝑑𝑡
n = no. of electrons per unit volume
A = wire cross-sectional area
Current Density
• Amount of the current per Conventional Current

unit area of the conductor

𝐼
𝐽=
𝐴
Current Density
• Amount of the current per Conventional Current

unit area of the conductor

𝐼 𝑑𝑄
𝐽= 𝐼= = 𝑞𝑛𝐴𝑣𝐷
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
𝐼
𝐽 = = 𝑞𝑛𝑣𝐷
𝐴
Two Classifications of Current
DC: Direct Current AC: Alternating Current
Direction of current is Direction of current
always the same continuously changes
 Electric Current
General Physics 2 Lecture 4a
Prepared by: Engr. Marcus Karl J. Evangelista
 An electrician experienced a mild shock when he accidentally
touched a wire carrying 5.0 mA for approximately 1.0 s. How many
electrons constitute the given current?
PROBLEM SOLVING

𝑑𝑄
𝐼= = 𝑞𝑛𝐴𝑣𝐷
𝑑𝑡
 A current of 350 mA flows through a gold wire which has a diameter of
1.0 mm. There are 5.90 x 1028 free electrons/m3 in gold. (a) What is the
current density in the wire? (b) What is the magnitude of the drift
velocity of the free electrons in the wire?
PROBLEM SOLVING

𝑑𝑄 𝐼
𝐼= = 𝑞𝑛𝐴𝑣𝐷 𝐽 = = 𝑞𝑛𝑣𝐷
𝑑𝑡 𝐴
 Electric Current
General Physics 2 Lecture 4a
Prepared by: Engr. Marcus Karl J. Evangelista
Electrical Resistance
General Physics 2 Lecture 4b
Prepared by: Engr. Marcus Karl J. Evangelista
 Objectives
▪ To understand how resistors and current
work, and apply it in solving problems
related to electrical installations

References
• University Physics with Modern Physics 15th Edition
• Exploring Life through Science Series General Physics 2
Electrical Resistance
• Resistance (R) – opposition of a material to the flow
of electric current
• SI Unit Ohm (Ω): 1 Ω = 1 V/A
• Regulates the amount of current passing through a
conductor

Source:
https://www.eeweb.com/resistanc
e-resistors-and-ohms-law/
Resistors

Sources:
https://engineeringlearn.com/what-are-resistors-types-of-resistors-and-their-uses-complete-details-with-pictures/
https://eepower.com/resistor-guide/resistor-standards-and-codes/resistor-color-code/
Resistivity (ρ) and Conductivity (σ)
• Resistivity (ρ) is a physical property of a material
that determines the resistance to current when
subjected to an electric field
𝐸
𝜌= SI Unit: Ohm-meter (Ωm)
𝐽
• Conductivity (σ) is the reciprocal of conductivity
1 𝐽 SI Unit: Siemens per meter
σ= =
𝜌 𝐸 (S/m) where S = Ω-1
Resistivity (ρ)
• Resistivity depends on type of material
Resistivity (ρ)
• Resistivity depends on type of material
Conductors = low resistivity (ρ)
Insulators = high resistivity (ρ)
Resistivity (ρ)
• Resistivity depends on type of material
Conductors = low resistivity (ρ)
Insulators = high resistivity (ρ)

• Resistivity depends on temperature of material

𝜌 = 𝜌0 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 ]
𝛼 = temperature coefficient of resistivity
𝜌0 = resistivity at reference temperature T0
Resistance (R)
• Materials with high resistivity have high resistance
• Resistance depends on resistivity, size, and shape of the
material.

𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
Resistance (R)
• Materials with high resistivity have high resistance
• Resistance depends on resistivity, size, and shape of the
material.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:
(a) Longer wire = higher/lower resistance?
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌 (b) Bigger wire = higher/lower resistance?
𝐴
(c) Different wire with higher resistivity =
higher/lower resistance?
Resistance (R)
• Materials with high resistivity have high resistance
• Resistance depends on resistivity, size, and shape of the
material.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:
(a) Longer wire = higher/lower resistance?
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌 (b) Bigger wire = higher/lower resistance?
𝐴
(c) Different wire with higher resistivity =
higher/lower resistance?
Resistance (R)
• Materials with high resistivity have high resistance
• Resistance depends on resistivity, size, and shape of the
material.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:
(a) Longer wire = higher/lower resistance?
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌 (b) Bigger wire = higher/lower resistance?
𝐴
(c) Different wire with higher resistivity =
higher/lower resistance?
Resistance (R)
• Materials with high resistivity have high resistance
• Resistance depends on resistivity, size, and shape of the
material.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:
(a) Longer wire = higher/lower resistance?
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌 (b) Bigger wire = higher/lower resistance?
𝐴
(c) Different wire with higher resistivity =
higher/lower resistance?
Resistance (R)
• Materials with high resistivity have high resistance
• Resistance depends on resistivity, size, and shape of the
material.
Recall that resistivity depends on type and
temperature of the material.
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌 If the temperature increase, the resistivity
𝐴 will: increase/decrease?

If the temperature increase, the resistance

will: increase/decrease?
Resistance (R)
• Materials with high resistivity have high resistance
• Resistance depends on resistivity, size, and shape of the
material.
Recall that resistivity depends on type and
temperature of the material.
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌 If the temperature increase, the resistivity
𝐴 will: increase/decrease?

If the temperature increase, the resistance

will: increase/decrease?
Resistance (R)
• Materials with high resistivity have high resistance
• Resistance depends on resistivity, size, and shape of the
material.
Recall that resistivity depends on type and
𝜌 = 𝜌 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 −
temperature of the material.
0 𝑇0 ]
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌 If the temperature increase, the resistivity
𝐴 𝑅 = 𝑅 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇
will: increase/decrease?
0 − 𝑇 0 ]

If the temperature increase, the resistance

will: increase/decrease?
Resistivity (ρ) vs Resistance (R)

Type of Material
𝐿 Resistivity (ρ)
𝑅=𝜌 depends on:
𝐴 Temperature
Resistance (R)
Length
depends on:
𝜌 = 𝜌0 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 ]
Cross-Sectional 𝑅 = 𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 ]
Area
Electrical Resistance
General Physics 2 Lecture 4b
Prepared by: Engr. Marcus Karl J. Evangelista
Resistivity (ρ) vs Resistance (R)
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:

A copper wire is cut into half. What happens to its resistivity?

a. Halved
b. Doubled
c. Remains the same
d. Cannot say
Resistivity (ρ) vs Resistance (R)
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:

A copper wire is cut into half. What happens to its resistivity?

a. Halved
b. Doubled
c. Remains the same Recall that resistivity depends on type
and temperature of the material.
d. Cannot say
Resistivity (ρ) vs Resistance (R)
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:

A copper wire is cut into half. What happens to its resistance?

a. Halved
b. Doubled
c. Remains the same
d. Cannot say
Resistivity (ρ) vs Resistance (R)
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:

A copper wire is cut into half. What happens to its resistance?

a. Halved Shorter wire means lower resistance

b. Doubled 𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
c. Remains the same 𝐴
d. Cannot say
Resistivity (ρ) vs Resistance (R)
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:

A copper wire at room temperature is heated at 50 0C. What

happens to its resistivity?
a. Increases
b. Decreases
c. Remains the same
d. Cannot say
Resistivity (ρ) vs Resistance (R)
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:

A copper wire at room temperature is heated at 50 0C. What

happens to its resistivity?
a. Increases Wires at higher temperatures
have higher resistivity
b. Decreases
𝜌 = 𝜌0 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 ]
c. Remains the same
d. Cannot say
Resistivity (ρ) vs Resistance (R)
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:

A copper wire at room temperature is heated at 50 0C. What

happens to its resistance?
a. Increases
b. Decreases
c. Remains the same
d. Cannot say
Resistivity (ρ) vs Resistance (R)
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:

A copper wire at room temperature is heated at 50 0C. What

happens to its resistance?
a. Increases Wires at higher temperatures
have higher resistance
b. Decreases
𝑅 = 𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 ]
c. Remains the same
d. Cannot say
Resistivity (ρ) vs Resistance (R)

Type of Material
𝐿 Resistivity (ρ)
𝑅=𝜌 depends on:
𝐴 Temperature
Resistance (R)
Length
depends on:
𝜌 = 𝜌0 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 ]
Cross-Sectional 𝑅 = 𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 ]
Area
Ohmic Resistance
• At a given temperature, the given current is nearly directly
proportional to the potential
• Only true for OHMIC MATERIALS (resistors and common
conductors) 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
• Ohm’s law does not hold for NON-OHMIC MATERIALS (ex.
semi-conductors)
Electrical Resistance
General Physics 2 Lecture 4b
Prepared by: Engr. Marcus Karl J. Evangelista
 An insulated extension cord is made of a 1.5 m long copper rod with a
diameter of 2.3 mm. What is the resistance of the extension cord?
PROBLEM SOLVING

𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
 An electric flat iron draws a current of 15 A when connected to a 110 V
line. (a) Assuming that the heating material is OHMIC, what is its
resistance? (b) What is the resistivity of the heating material if it is a
wire that is 2.5 cm long with a cross-sectional area of 2 x 10-4 m2?
PROBLEM SOLVING

𝐿
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
Equivalent Resistance
𝑅 = 𝑉/𝐼 Ohm’s Law

• Resistors in Series
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯
• Resistors in Parallel
−1
1 1
𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = + +⋯
𝑅1 𝑅2
Comparison: Capacitance & Resistance
−1
1 1
𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = + +⋯ 𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ⋯
𝐶1 𝐶2
−1
1 1
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ 𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = + +⋯
𝑅1 𝑅2
Series and Parallel Circuits
−1
1 1
𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = + +⋯ 𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ⋯
𝐶1 𝐶2
−1
1 1
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ 𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = + +⋯
𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = ⋯ 𝑄𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + ⋯

𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ 𝑉𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = ⋯
 What is the equivalent resistance of Deadline: February 6, 2023 (class
the circuit? time). Write your answer in ½ sheet of
yellow pad paper. Include diagrams
and solutions. Write your class
R1 R2 number and surname on the upper
left corner of your paper. LATE
SUBMISSIONS WILL HAVE DEDUCTION.
QUIZ

R3 R4

Hint: R1-R2 and R3-R4 are in series, respectively. Calculate first R12 and
R34 using the formula for equivalent resistance (series). Then, get the
equivalent resistance of R12 and R34 using the formula for equivalent
resistance (parallel).
Electrical Resistance
General Physics 2 Lecture 4b
Prepared by: Engr. Marcus Karl J. Evangelista
Energy and Power in Electric Circuits
General Physics 2 Lecture 4c
Prepared by: Engr. Marcus Karl J. Evangelista
 Objectives
▪ To understand how resistors and current
work, and apply it in solving problems
related to electrical installations

References
• University Physics with Modern Physics 15th Edition
• Exploring Life through Science Series General Physics 2
Electric Circuit
• Any path for current to flow
• Incomplete (open) circuit – no
steady current will flow
• Complete (closed) circuit – stead
current will flow through it
• “What makes the current ‘flow’?”
Electromotive Force (EMF, 𝜀)
• Makes the current flow from lower to
higher potential energy
• Not a force, but a POTENTIAL (Volts)
• Terminal Voltage (source of EMF)

𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
I = current
r = internal resistance
Power in a Circuit Element
• Rate at which energy is delivered to or extracted from a
circuit element 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
• SI Unit Watt (W)
• Power dissipated by a resistor

2
2
𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑅 =
𝑅
 A battery cell is rated 1.5 V (EMF). It was connected to a 3.0 Ω resistor. A
voltmeter was used and the voltage reading is 1.35 V. Find the (a)
current and (b) internal resistance of the cell.
PROBLEM SOLVING

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
 A bread toaster and coffee maker is rated 1500 W and 500 W,
respectively. The appliances were connected to 220 V power line. Find
the (a) resistance of each appliance and (b) current drawn by each
appliance.
PROBLEM SOLVING

𝑉 2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑅 =2
𝑅
Energy and Power in Electric Circuits
General Physics 2 Lecture 4c
Prepared by: Engr. Marcus Karl J. Evangelista
Lecture 4 Summary
𝑑𝑄
▪ Current (Conventional/Electron; AC/DC) 𝐼 = = 𝑞𝑛𝐴𝑣𝐷
𝑑𝑡
𝐼
▪ Current Density 𝐽 = = 𝑞𝑛𝑣𝐷
𝐴
𝐸 1 𝐽
▪ Resistivity and Conductivity 𝜌 = 𝐽 σ= =
𝜌 𝐸
𝐿
▪ Resistance 𝑅=𝜌 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐴

▪ Electromotive Force 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟

2
𝑉
▪ Power 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 =
𝑅
Resistivity (ρ) vs Resistance (R)

Type of Material
𝐿 Resistivity (ρ)
𝑅=𝜌 depends on:
𝐴 Temperature
Resistance (R)
Length
depends on:
𝜌 = 𝜌0 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 ]
Cross-Sectional 𝑅 = 𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0 ]
Area
Series and Parallel Circuits
−1
1 1
𝐶𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = + +⋯ 𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ⋯
𝐶1 𝐶2
−1
1 1
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ 𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = + +⋯
𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = ⋯ 𝑄𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + ⋯

𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ 𝑉𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = ⋯