CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

ASST. PROF. DR. GÜLNİHAL MURATOĞLU

 ELECTRIC CURRENT
• Although an electric current is a stream of moving charges, not all moving charges
constitute an electric current.
• If there is to be an electric current through a given surface, there must be a net flow
of charge through that surface.

• Definition of current
𝑑𝑞
𝑖=
𝑑𝑡

𝑡
𝑞 = න 𝑑𝑞 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
0

1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 1 𝐴 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 1 𝐶 Τ𝑠

𝑖0 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
DIRECTION OF CURRENTS
• A current arrow is drawn in the direction in which positive charge carriers would
move, even if the actual charge carriers are negative and move in the opposite
direction.
CURRENT DENSITY (𝐽)
• For each element of the cross section, the magnitude J is equal to the current per
unit area through that element.
𝑖 = න 𝐽Ԧ ∙ 𝑑𝐴Ԧ

• If the current is uniform across the surface and parallel to the area vector of the
element

𝑖 = න 𝐽 ∙ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐽 න 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐽𝐴

𝑖
𝐽=
𝐴
DRIFT SPEED
• When a conductor does not have a current
through it, its conduction electrons move 𝑞 = 𝑛𝐴𝐿 𝑒
randomly, with no net motion in any direction.
𝐿
• When the conductor does have a current through 𝑡=
it, these electrons actually still move randomly, 𝑣𝑑
but now they tend to drift with a drift speed in the
direction opposite that of the applied electric field 𝑞 𝑛𝐴𝐿𝑒
𝑖= = = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣𝑑
that causes the current. 𝑡 𝐿Τ𝑣𝑑

𝑖 𝐽
𝑣𝑑 = =
𝑛𝐴𝑒 𝑛𝑒
𝐽 = 𝑖 Τ𝐴
𝐽Ԧ = 𝑛𝑒 𝑣Ԧ𝑑
OHM’S LAW, RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY
• If we apply the same potential difference between the ends of geometrically similar
rods of copper and of glass, very different currents result.
• A metal conductor obeys Ohm’s law (𝑅 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡).
• Definition of 𝑅

𝑉
𝑅=
𝑖
1 𝑜ℎ𝑚 = 1 Ω = 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 1 𝑉 Τ𝐴
• In a circuit diagram, we represent a resistor and a resistance with the symbol
• Definition of resistivity
𝐸
𝜌=
𝐽
RESISTANCE COLOR CODE
• If we combine the SI units of 𝐸 and 𝐽, to find the unit of 𝜌

𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐸 𝑉 Τ𝑚 𝑉
= 2
= 𝑚 =Ω∙𝑚
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐽 𝐴 Τ𝑚 𝐴
• Do not confuse the 𝑜ℎ𝑚 − 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, the unit of resistivity, with the 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟,
which is an instrument that measures resistance.
𝐸 = 𝜌𝐽Ԧ

• We often speak of the conductivity of a material (the reciprocal of its resistivity)

1 −1
𝜎= Ω∙𝑚
𝜌

𝐽Ԧ = 𝜎𝐸
 CALCULATING RESISTANCE FROM RESISTIVITY
• Resistance is a property of an object.
• Resistivity is a property of a material.
• If we know the resistivity of a substance such as copper, we can calculate the
resistance of a length of wire made of that substance.
• If the streamlines representing the current density are uniform throughout the wire,
the electric field and the current density will be constant for all points within the wire.
𝐸 = 𝑉 Τ𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽 = 𝑖 Τ𝐴

𝐸 𝑉 Τ𝐿 𝐴
𝜌= = =𝑅
𝐽 𝑖 Τ𝐴 𝐿

𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
VARIATION WITH TEMPERATURE
• The relation between temperature and resistivity for metals in general is fairly
linear over a rather broad temperature range. (𝜶 is called the temperature
coefficient of resistivity)
𝜌 − 𝜌0 = 𝜌0 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇0
• Here 𝑇0 is a selected reference temperature and 𝜌0 is the resistivity at that
temperature.

• Usually 𝑇0 = 293 𝐾 (room temperature), 𝜌0 = 1.69 × 10−8 Ω ∙ 𝑚 for copper.

OHM’S LAW
• Ohm’s law is an assertion that the current through a device is always directly
proportional to the potential difference applied to the device.

(a) A potential difference 𝑉 is applied to the terminals of a device, establishing a

current 𝑖.
(b) (b) A plot of current 𝑖 versus applied potential difference 𝑉 when the device is a
1000 Ω resistor.
 POWER IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
• Battery 𝐵 sets up a current 𝑖 in a circuit containing an unspecified conducting device
and maintains a potential difference of 𝑉 (with a greater potential at terminal 𝑎 of the
device than at terminal 𝑏).
• Charge 𝑑𝑞 moves through a decrease in potential of magnitude 𝑉, and thus its
electric potential energy decreases in magnitude by

𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑞 𝑉 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝑉

• Rate of electrical energy transfer

𝑃 = 𝑖𝑉

• Resistive dissipation

𝑉2
𝑃= 𝑖2𝑅 =
𝑅
Sample Problem
You are given a length of uniform heating wire made of a nickel–chromium–iron
alloy called Nichrome; it has a resistance 𝑅 of 72 Ω. At what rate is energy dissipated
in each of the following situations?
(1) A potential difference of 120 𝑉 is applied across the full length of the wire.

𝑉2 120 2
𝑃= = = 200 𝑊
𝑅 72
(2) The wire is cut in half, and a potential difference of 120 𝑉 is applied across the
length of each half.
2 2
𝑉 120
𝑃′ = ′ = = 400 𝑊
𝑅 36
𝑃 = 2𝑃′ = 2 400 = 800 𝑊
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
• DC voltage and current are constant in time.
• AC voltage and current are sinusoidal.
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡
and the peak current is
𝐼0 = 𝑉0 Τ𝑅

• The average current is zero but power is needed.

• This power is always positive
𝑃 = 𝐼0 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝜋𝑓𝑡
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
• Rms current and rms voltage (average values)

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖2 𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.707𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.707∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

• The average power

2 𝑅
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
Example
The voltage output of an AC source is given by the expression ∆𝑣 = 200 sin 𝜔𝑡 ,
where ∆𝑣 is in volts. Find the rms current in the circuit when this source is connected
to a 100 − Ω resistor.
∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅
∆𝑣 = ∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡
∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200 𝑉

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = =
2 2𝑅

200
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 1.41 𝐴
2 100
SEMICONDUCTORS
In a metallic conductor such as copper wire, most of the electrons are firmly locked
in place within the atoms; much energy would be required to free them so they
could move and participate in an electric current.
However, there are also some electrons that, roughly speaking, are only loosely held
in place and that require only little energy to become free. Thermal energy can
supply that energy, as can an electric field applied across the conductor.
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
• Resistivity of mercury absolutely disappears at temperatures below about 4 𝐾.
• This phenomenon of superconductivity is of vast potential importance in
technology.
• This means that charge can flow through a superconductor without losing its
energy to thermal energy.
• New ceramic superconductors are actually good insulators when they are not at
low enough temperatures to be in a superconducting state.
SUMMARY
Problem-1:
• The magnitude 𝐽 of the current density in a certain lab wire with a circular cross
section of radius 𝑅 = 2.00 𝑚𝑚 is given by 𝐽 = 3.00 × 108 𝑟 2 , with 𝐽 in amperes
per square meter and radial distance 𝑟 in meters. What is the current through the
outer section bounded by 𝑟 = 0.900𝑅 and 𝑟 = 𝑅? (𝑘 = 3.0 × 108 )

𝑅
𝑖 = න 𝐽Ԧ 𝑑𝐴 = න 𝑘𝑟 2 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
9𝑅/10

1
𝑖 = 𝑘𝜋 𝑅4 − 0.656𝑅4 = 2.59 × 10−3 𝐴
2
Problem-2:
• A wire of Nichrome is 1.0 𝑚 long and 1.0 𝑚𝑚2 in cross-sectional area. It carries a
current of 4.0 𝐴 when a 2.0 𝑉 potential difference is applied between its ends.
Calculate the conductivity 𝜎 of Nichrome.

1 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝑖
𝜎= = = =
𝜌 𝑅𝐴 𝑉Τ𝑖 𝐴 𝑉𝐴

1.0 4.0 6 −1
𝜎= −6
= 2.0 × 10 Ω∙𝑚
2.0 1.0 × 10
Problem-3:
• A block in the shape of a rectangular solid has a cross-sectional area of 3.50 𝑐𝑚2
across its width, a front-to-rear length of 15.8 𝑐𝑚, and a resistance of 935 Ω. The
block’s material contains 5.33 × 1022 conduction electrons/𝑚3 . A potential
difference of 35.8 𝑉 is maintained between its front and rear faces. (a) What is the
current in the block? (b) If the current density is uniform, what is its magnitude?
(c) What is the drift velocity of the conduction electrons? (d) What is the
magnitude of the electric field in the block?
𝑖 = 𝑉 Τ𝑅 = 35.8Τ935 = 3.83 × 10−2 𝐴
𝐽 = 𝑖 Τ𝐴 = 3.83 × 10−2 Τ3.50 × 10−4 = 109 𝐴Τ𝑚2
𝑣𝑑 = 𝐽Τ 𝑛𝑒 = 109 Τ 5.33 × 1022 1.60 × 10−19 = 1.28 × 10−2 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝐸 = 𝑉 Τ𝐿 = 35.8Τ0.158 = 227 𝑉 Τ𝑚