Current, Resistance and

DC Circuits
Module 10
Current
Also known as electric current, is
any motion of charge from one
region of a conductor to another.
When a net charge Δ𝑄 passes
through a cross section of
conductor during time Δ𝑡, the
current is
Δ𝑄
𝐼=
Δ𝑡

Unit: 1 C/s = 1 A (ampere)

Current
Conventional Flow
A conventional current is treated
as a flow of positive charges,
regardless of whether the free
charges in the conductor are
positive, negative, or both.
Electron Flow
In a metallic conductor, the
moving charges are
electrons — but the current
still points in the direction
positive charges would flow.
Current
When there is a steady current in a
closed loop (a “complete circuit”), the
total charge in every segment of the
conductor is constant. From the
principle of conservation of charge, the
rate of flow of charge out at one end of
a segment at any instant equals the
rate of flow of charge in at the other
end of the segment at that instant, and
the current at any instant is the same
at all cross sections.
Sample
1𝑒
One of the circuit in a small 𝑁 = 1.60 𝑥 10−19 𝐶
1.60 𝑥 10−19 𝐶
portable CD plater operates on a
current 2.5 mA. How many
electrons enter and leave this of 𝑁 = 1.60 𝑥 1016 𝑒
the player in 1.0 s?
Δ𝑄
𝐼=
Δ𝑡
Δ𝑄 = 𝐼Δ𝑡
Δ𝑄 = 2.5 𝑚𝐴 1.0 𝑠
Δ𝑄 = 2.5 𝑚𝐶
recall that 1 𝑒 = 1.60 𝑥 10−19 𝐶
Resistance and Ohm’s Law
Resistance – the measure to the opposition of current flow.
When the potential difference 𝒱 between the ends of a conductor is
𝑉
proportional to the current 𝐼 in the conductor, the ratio is called the
𝐼
resistance of the conductor:

𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
Unit: 1 V/A = 1 Ω
Resistance in Series and Parallel Network
› For Series Network › For Parallel Network

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 +𝑅3 +𝑅4 1 1 1 1 1

= + + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4
Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

I 𝐸
𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 𝑉1 = 𝑅1
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝐸 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
E 𝑅1
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 𝑉1 = 𝐸
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1
𝐸 𝑅2
𝑉1 = 𝑅1 𝑉2 = 𝐸
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Current Divider Rule (CDR)
1 1 1
= +
I 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐸 𝑅2
𝐼1 = 𝐼
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1
𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐼2 = 𝐼
𝐸 = 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 𝐼1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1
𝑉1 𝐸 𝐼 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐼1 = = 𝐼1 =
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law
“The current the flows through a conductor between two
points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two
points”.

𝐼∝𝑉
To make this as an equations, a constant is introduced and
this constant is the factor 1/R

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
The law was in honor for Georg Simon Ohm who published
this relationship in 1827.
Resistivity
The resistance 𝑅 is proportional to the length 𝐿 and inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area 𝐴, with a proportionality
factor 𝜌 called the resistivity of the material. That is,

𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴

Where ρ is different per material

The unit for resistivity is Ω · 𝑚
Resistivity of Conductors
› Resistivity of some materials. (Ω·CM per foot)
Resistivity of Conductors
› Cross-sectional area of a conductor is usually measured in
Circular Mil (CM) and not in square meters.
› For conversion purposes,

1
1 𝑀𝑖𝑙 = 𝑖𝑛 = 1 𝑥 10−3 𝑖𝑛
1000
Resistivity of Conductors

A= d2
4

= (1 Mil)2
4

= Square Mil
4
= 1 Circular Mil

𝜋
𝑠𝑞𝑀 = 1 CM
4
Resistivity of Conductors
› Resistivity at 20 Degrees Celsius,
For Copper,
ρ = 10.37 Ω·CM per foot
= 1.724 x 10–8 Ω·m per m

For Aluminum,
ρ = 17.00 Ω·CM Mil per foot
= 2.83 x 10–8 Ω·m per m
Sample Problem
1. What is the resistance of a
100 ft length of copper wire
with a diameter of 0.020
inches at 20 degrees
Celsius?
Sample Problem
2. An electric circuit
conductor of a cross-
sectional area of 8 mm2 has
a resistance of 1.8 Ω/km.
What is the resistance of 150
meters of wire of the same
material with a cross-
sectional area of 3 mm
squared?
Sample Problem
3. If the resistance of a piece
of silver wire is 1 Ohm, what
will be the resistance of a
brass wire of one-third the
length and one-third the
diameter of silver if the
specific resistance
(resistivity) of brass is 30
times that of a silver?
Resistivity
› Resistivities at room temperature
Temperature Dependence of Resistance
› The resistivity of a metallic
conductor nearly always
increases with increasing
temperature
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 + 𝛼𝑅0 Δ𝑇
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇
𝑅0 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝛼 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖
𝛼 = temperature coefficient of
resistivity, /°C
thermistor - a small semiconductor crystal used in making
electronic thermometers due to its thermometric property.
Sample Problem
1. Suppose you’re hooking up a pair of stereo speakers. (a) You
happen to have on hand some 20-m-long pieces of 16 gauge
copper wire (diameter 1.3 mm); you use them to connect the
speakers to the amplifier. These wires are longer than needed, but
you just coil up the excess length instead of cutting them.
a. What is the resistance of one of these wires?
b. To improve the performance of the system, you purchase 3.0-m-
long speaker cables that are made with 8 gauge copper wire
(diameter 3.3 mm). What is the resistance of one of these
cables?
Sample Problem
2. A length of 18 gauge copper wire with a diamater of 1.02 mm and
a cross-sectional area of 8.20 x 10-7 m2 has a resistance of 1.02 Ω
at a temperature of 20ᵒC. The temperature coefficient of copper is
0.0039/ᵒC. Find the resistance at 0°C and at 100°C.
Superconductivity
› Some materials, including several
metallic alloys and oxides, show a
phenomenon called
superconductivity. In these materials,
as the temperature decreases, the › Superconductivity was
discovered in 1911 in
resistivity at first decreases the laboratory of
smoothly, like that of any metal. But H.Kamerlingh-Onnes.
then, at a certain critical transition › Superconductive
temperature TC, a phase transition magnets cooled by
liquid helium are used in
occurs, and the resistivity suddenly particle accelerators and
drops to zero, as shown. magnetic levitations
Non-ohmic Conductors
If a conductor obeys Ohm’s law, a graph of
current versus voltage is a straight line with a
slope of 1/R.
semiconductor diode, a device that is
decidedly non-ohmic. Notice that the
resistance of a diode depends on the
direction of the current. Diodes act like one-
way valves for current; they are used to
perform a wide variety of logic functions in
computer circuitry.
The American Wire Gauge (AWG)
› American Wire Gauge (AWG), also known as
the Brown & Sharpe Wire Gauge, is a
standardized wire gauge system used since
1857 predominantly in the United States and
Canada for the diameters of round, solid,
nonferrous, electrically conducting wire.
› The cross-sectional area of each gauge is an
important factor for determining its current-
carrying capacity.
The American Wire Gauge (AWG)
The gauge number specify the size of round wire in terms of its
diameter and cross-sectional area. From the table, note the
following:
› As the gauge number increases from No. 1 to No. 40, the
diameter and circular area decreases. Higher gauge number
indicate thinner wire sizes.
› The circular area doubles for every three gauge sizes. For
example, No. 10 wire has approximately twice the area of No. 13
wire.
› The higher the gauge number and the thinner the wire, the greater
the resistance of the wire for any given length.
The American Wire Gauge (AWG)
 In typical applications, hookup wire for electronic circuits with
current in the order of mA is generally about No. 22 gauge. For
this size, 0.5 A to 1 A is the maximum current the wire can carry
without excessive heating.
 House wiring for the circuits where the current is 5 A to 15 A is
usually No. 14 gauge. Minimum sizes for house wiring are set by
local electrical codes, which are usually guided by the National
Electrical Code published by the National Fire Protection
Association.
The American Wire Gauge (AWG)

∅ 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑠 = 289.30(0.8905)𝑁−1

𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑀 = ∅2

𝑅 = 0.1264(1.2610)𝑁−1

Where N = AWG gauge number

Sample Problems
A. What is the diameter in mils of a No. 20 AWG copper
wire?

B. What is the area in circular mil of the No. 35 AWG copper

wire?

C. How much is the resistance for 1 foot of No. 22 AWG

copper wire?
Electromotive Force and Circuits
› For a conductor to have a steady current, it must be part of a path
that forms a closed loop, or complete circuit.

› Electromotive force (emf) - the influence that moves charge from

lower to higher potential. The alternate symbol for ℰ (emf) and
carries a unit of volts (V)
Comparison of emf vs Voltage
Energy and Power in Electrical Circuits
The energy stored in an electric field per unit is called the electrical
power:

𝑈 𝑊 𝑞′ 𝑉
𝑃= = = = 𝐼𝑉
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉

The unit of electrical power is Watt (W) 1 J/s =A∙V= 1 W

Kirchhoff’s Rule
› Many practical networks cannot be reduced to simple series–
parallel combinations.
Kirchhoff’s Rule
› A junction in a circuit is a point where three or more conductors meet.
Junctions are also called nodes or branch points.

Kirchhoff’s Junction/Point Rule (Kirchhoff’s Current Law, KCL)

– based from the law conservation of charge.
“The algebraic sum of the currents into any junction is zero.”
෍𝐼 = 0

Current entering the node is positive.

Current leaving the node is negative.
Kirchhoff’s Rule
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, KVL)
- based from the law of conservation of energy
“The algebraic sum of the potential difference in any loop must
equal to zero.”
෍𝑉 = 0

Potential rise is positive.

Potential drop is negative.
 KCL and KVL
At Node a: KCL
a 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0

𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
I1
I2 I3 At Node b: KCL

−𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 0
b 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
I1

𝐸 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 0 𝐸 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉3 = 0 𝑉1 − 𝑉3 = 0
𝐸 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉3 𝑉1 = 𝑉3
𝐸 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
Sample Problem
A 12 V- power supply with unknown resistance r is connected to a rundown
rechargeable battery with unknown emf E and internal resistance of 1 Ω and
to a bulb with 3 Ω resistance. The current through the bulb is 2 A and the
current in the rundown battery is 1 A.
Find the following:
a. unknown current I
b. r internal resistance of the
power supply
a. emf of the rundown battery
b. electrical power for each emf
Sample Problem
Find the current through the:
a. 30 ohm-resistor
b. 20 ohm-resistor
c. 10 V-battery
d. Power in 30 ohm-resistor
e. Power in 20 ohm-resistor
Seatwork
1. Find the emfs and find the 2. Calculate the following:
potential difference of point b
a. current in the 3 Ω-resistor
to point a.
b. ℰ1 and ℰ2
c. resistance 𝑅