CURRENT ELECTRICITY

CURRENT ELECTRICITY(i)
Current is the rate of flow of charge.

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐝𝐪

𝐢= =
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 𝐝𝐭

⟹A current of 1 A means that 1

coulomb of charge flow in a circuit
every second.

⟹ Direction in which the positive

charge flow gives the direction of
conventional current

⟹ Direction of electronic current

opposite to conventional current.
⟹SI unit ampere(A)

CURRENT DENSITY(J)
Electric current per unit area of cross section
⟹The current density is vector
⟹Direction of current density is same as that of electric field
𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭
𝐣=
𝐂𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐨 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭

𝐢 𝐢
𝐣= 𝐣=
𝐀 𝐀′𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉

DRIFT VELOCITY(Vd)
Average velocity of free electron in a conductor
under the influence of an external electric field

𝐅 = 𝐄𝐪 = 𝐄𝐞
𝐄𝐞
𝐚=
𝐦𝐞
𝐯 = 𝐮 + 𝐚𝐭 𝐢𝐟 𝐮 = 𝟎
𝐄𝐞𝛇
𝐕𝐝 = 𝐚𝛇 =
𝐦𝐞
ζ = relaxation time
me = mass of electron
relaxation time
RELAXATION TIME(ζ)
The shortest time for which a free electron accelerates before it Undergoes a collision with
the Positive ion in the conductor is called relaxation time.

RELATION BETWEEN DRIFT VELOCITY(Vd) AND ELECTRIC CURRENT(i)

𝐢 = 𝐧𝐀𝐕𝐝 𝐞 n = Free electron per unit volume
A= Area of cross section of wire
e= Charge of electron

MOBILITY (μ)
Mobility μ defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric Field
𝐕
𝛍= 𝐝
𝐄

OHM’S LAW
The voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through the
resistance
𝐕∝𝐈
𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑

⟹ The device or substance which does not

obey Ohm’s law is called non-ohmic or
nonlinear conductors
Eg semiconductor , diode , thyristor

Limitations of Ohm’s law

Characteristic curve of a diode. Note the Variation of current versus voltage for GaAs.
different scales for negative and positive
values of the voltage and current

RESISTANCE R -
The property of a substance due to which it opposes the flow of current through it
𝐕
𝐑 = = 𝐓𝐚𝐧𝛉
𝐈
⟹SI unit is Ohm

RESISTORS -
The resistor is an electrical component to create resistance in the flow of electric current.
⟹ The resistivities of resistors should not change temperature.
(i)Wire bound resistors
(ii)Carbon resistors
CARBON RESISTORS
⟹Resistors in the higher range are made mostly from carbon. Carbon resistors are
compact & inexpensive
⟹ Carbon resistors are small in size and hence their value is given using colour code

B B R O Y Great Britain Very Good Wife.

COLOUR NUMBER MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE (%)
Black 0 1
Brown 1 10
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10-1 5
Silver 10-2 10
No colour 20

(22 × 102 Ω) ± 10%, (47 × 10 Ω) ± 5%.

RESISTIVITY OR SPECIFIC RESISTANCE (ρ)

l = length of conductor
A = area of cross – section
ρ = electric resistivity
𝐑𝛂𝐥
𝟏
𝐑𝛂
𝐀
𝐥
𝐑𝛂
𝐀
𝛒𝐥
𝐑 =
𝐀
Resistivity is equal to the resistance of a substance having unit area of cross – section &
unit length.
𝐑𝐀
𝛒 =
𝐥
⟹ SI unit is ohm. metre
CONDUCTANCE(G) -:
⟹Reciprocal of resistance
𝟏
𝐆=
𝐑
⟹ SI unit ohm-1

CONDUCTIVITY (σ)
⟹ Reciprocal of resistivity
𝟏
𝛔=
𝛒
⟹ SI unit ohm-1. metre -1

RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT DENSITY, CONDUCTIVITY AND ELECTRIC

FIELD:
𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
𝛒𝐥
𝐄𝐥=𝐈
𝐀
𝐄 = 𝐉𝛒
𝐉 = 𝛔𝐄

HOW RESISTIVITY CHANGE WITH TEMPERATURE?

CONDUCTORS
Relation between Resistivity(ρ) and Relaxation time(ζ) for conductors
𝐄𝐞𝛇
𝐕𝐝 =
𝐦𝐞
𝐄𝐞𝛇 𝐧𝐀𝐄𝐞𝟐 𝛇
𝐢 = 𝐧𝐀𝐕𝐝 𝐞 ⟹ 𝐢 = 𝐧𝐀 𝐞 ⟹ 𝐢=
𝐦𝐞 𝐦𝐞
𝛒𝐥 𝐢𝛒
𝐕 = 𝐢𝐑 ⟹ 𝐄𝐥 = 𝐢 ⟹ 𝐄=
𝐀 𝐀
𝐧𝐀𝐄𝐞𝟐 𝛇 𝛒 𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛇𝛒
𝐄= ⟹ 𝟏=
𝐦𝐞 𝐀 𝐦𝐞
𝟏
𝛒 𝛂
𝛇
Temperature ⟹ vibrations ⟹ electron ⟹ Relaxation ⟹ Resistivity
increases increases collide more time(ζ) increases(ρ)
frequently decreases

⟹ Resistivity increases linearly with

temperature
𝛒𝟐 = 𝛒𝟏 𝟏 + 𝛂 ∆𝐓
α = Temperature coefficient of resistivity.
∆T= Change in temperature

⟹ Resistance increases linearly with

temperature
𝐑 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟏 𝟏 + 𝛂 ∆𝐓
α = Temperature coefficient of Resistance.
∆T= Change in temperatur
ALLOY
In alloy resistivity is very large and very
weakly depend on temperature

SEMICONDUCTOR & INSULATOR

⟹ the resistivity of a semiconductor & insulator
decreases exponentially with temperature
𝛒 = 𝛒𝐨 𝐞𝐄𝐠 /𝐊𝐓
⟹ k is Boltzmann constant
⟹ Eg energy gap between valence &
conducting band
⟹ T temp in K

RESISTIVITY OF VARIOUS MATERIAL

silver = 1.6 X 10-8
Copper = 1.7 X 10-8 Conductors(10-8 to 10-6)
Aluminium = 2.7 X 10 -8

Manganin = 48 X 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 Alloy

Carbon = 3.5 X 10-5
Germanium = 0.46 Semiconductor
Silicon = 2300
Insulators = (105 TO 1016)

SUPER CONDUCTOR
Superconductors are materials that
conduct electricity with no resistance.

⟹In a superconductor, the resistance

drops to zero when the material is cooled
below its critical temperature.

⟹In a superconductor, the current can

keep flowing "forever" since there is no
resistance
Eg Hg=below 4.2K , Pb=below 7.2K

MEISSNER EFFECT
⟹the expulsion of magnetic flux
ELECTRIC ENERGY
Total work done by the source of emf in maintaining the electric Current in the circuit for
given time is called electric energy.

𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞 (𝐖) = 𝐕𝐪

𝟐
𝐕𝟐𝐭
𝐖 = 𝐕𝐢𝐭 = 𝐢 𝐑𝐭 =
𝐑

ELECTRIC POWER
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐕𝟐 1 Watt = 1 Volt X 1 Ampere
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 = = 𝐕𝐢 = 𝐢𝟐 𝐑 = 1 KW = 103W
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐑
1 MW = 106W

PRACTICAL UNIT OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY -:

Kilowatt hour (KWN) or BOR board of trade unit -:
⟹ Energy consumed if a device of electric power of one kilo watt is used for one hour.

1 KW = 103j/s X (60 X 60)s

= 3.6 X 106j

RESISTER IN SERIES
current through all the resistors is same
𝐕 = 𝐕𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐 + 𝐕𝟑
potential difference across any resistor is
Proportional to its resistance.
𝐢𝐑 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑
𝐑 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
⟹ Potential difference across all the
resistor is same
⟹Current through all the resistors is
inversely Proportional to its resistance.
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐
𝐕 𝐕 𝐕
= +
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE E.M.F (E)
The potential difference between the two
poles of the cell in an open circuit is called
the electromotive Force (e.m.f) of the cell.
𝐕=𝐄

TERMINAL POTENTIAL (V)

The potential difference between the two
poles of the cell in a closed circuit is called
the terminal Potential
𝐕 = 𝐢𝐑 𝐕
𝐢=
𝐑
𝐕 = 𝐄 − 𝐢𝐫
𝐄
𝐢=
𝐑+𝐫
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF CELL (r)
The resistance offered by the electrolyte of
the cell when the electric current flows
through it is called Internal resistance of
cell.
𝐕 = 𝐄 − 𝐢𝐫
𝐕 𝐄
𝐕=𝐄− 𝐫 ⟹ 𝐫= −𝟏 𝐑
𝐑 𝐕
GRAPH BETWEEN V AND I
𝐕 = 𝐄 − 𝐢𝐫
𝐕 = −𝐫𝐢 + 𝐄
𝐲 = 𝐦𝐱 + 𝐂
i=0 i=E/r
V=E V=0
Slope=-r

GRAPH BETWEEN V AND R

𝐕 = 𝐄 − 𝐢𝐫
𝐕
𝐕=𝐄− 𝐫
𝐑
𝐕 𝐫
𝐕+ 𝐫=𝐄 ⟹𝐕 𝟏+ =𝐄
𝐑 𝐑
𝐄
𝐕= 𝐫
𝟏+𝐑
GRAPH BETWEEN i AND R
𝐕 = 𝐄 − 𝐢𝐫
𝐢𝐑 = 𝐄 − 𝐢𝐫
𝐄
𝐢=
𝐑+𝐫

GROUPING OF CELLS

(a)CELLS IN SERIES
(i) cells are of the same e.m.f &
internal resistance.

e.m.f =E
internal resistance = r
Total e.m.f = nE
⟹if R<< nr ⟹if R>> nr
Total internal resistance = nr
𝐧𝐄 𝐄 𝐧𝐄
𝐢 = = 𝐢 =
V = nE – i nr 𝐧𝐫 𝐫 𝐫
𝐧𝐄
𝐢 =
𝐧𝐫 + 𝐑

(ii) When cells are of different e.m.f

and internal resistance

𝐄 = 𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 𝐄 = 𝐄𝟏 − 𝐄𝟐
𝐫 = 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝐫 = 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
V = E - ir V = E – ir
𝐄 𝐄
𝐢= 𝐢=
𝐫+𝐑 𝐫+𝐑
𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 𝐄𝟏 − 𝐄𝟐
𝐢= 𝐢=
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 + 𝐑 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 + 𝐑
(b)CELL IN PARALLEL
(a) When cells are of same e.m.f and
internal resistance.
Total e.m.f = E
Total internal resistance
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐦 𝐫
′
= + ⟹ ′
= ⟹ 𝐫′ =
𝐫 𝐫 𝐫 𝐫 𝐫 𝐦

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞. 𝐦. 𝐟 𝐄
𝐢= = ′
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐫 +𝐑

𝐄
𝐢= 𝐫
𝐦+𝐑
𝐫 𝐫
𝐢𝐟 𝐑 ≪ 𝐢𝐟 𝐑 ≪
𝐦 𝐦
𝐄 𝐄 𝐦𝐄
𝐢 = 𝐢 =𝐫 =
𝐫 𝐦 𝐫
(b) When cells are of different e.m.f
and internal resistance.
𝐢 = 𝐢𝟏 + 𝐢𝟐

𝐕 = 𝐄𝟏 − 𝐢𝟏 𝐫𝟏 𝐕 = 𝐄𝟐 − 𝐢𝟐 𝐫𝟐
𝐄𝟏 − 𝐕 𝐄𝟐 − 𝐕
𝐢𝟏 = 𝐢𝟐 =
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐

𝐄𝟏 − 𝐕 𝐄𝟐 − 𝐕
𝐢= +
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐

𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝐢= + − 𝐕 +
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐 𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐 𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐
𝐕 + = + −𝐢
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
𝐄= 𝐄=
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐫𝐞𝐪
𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝐢
𝐕= − 𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 𝐄= +
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
𝐗 𝐫𝐞𝐪

𝐕 = 𝐄 − 𝐢𝐫 𝐄 𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐
= +
𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS -:
KIRCHHOFF’S FIRST LAWS -:
It states that the algebraic sum of the
current meeting at a point in an electric
circuit is always zero
𝐈𝟏 − 𝐈𝟐 − 𝐈𝟑 + 𝐈𝟒 − 𝐈𝟓 = 𝟎

KIRCHHOFF’S SECOND LAWS -:

For any closed part of an electrical circuit the algebraic sum of the e.m.f is equal to the
algebraic sum of the product of the resistance and current flowing through them
⟹ This law is based upon the law of conservation of energy.

-E E -iR iR
Q1 Find current in circuit Q2 Find current in circuit

ABCDA ⟹ABCDA ⟹CEFD

−𝟓𝐢 − 𝟐𝐢 − 𝟓 − 𝟑𝐢 + 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎 −𝟑𝐢 − 𝟐𝐢 − 𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎 −𝟐𝐢𝟐 − 𝟐 + 𝟓 = 𝟎
−𝟏𝟎𝐢 + 𝟓 = 𝟎 −𝟓𝐢 + 𝟓 = 𝟎 −𝟐𝐢𝟐 + 𝟑 = 𝟎
𝐢 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝐀 𝐢 = 𝟏𝐀 𝐢𝟐 = 𝟑/𝟐𝐀
⟹ ABCEFDA
−𝟑𝐢 − 𝟐𝐢 − 𝟐𝐢𝟐 − 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎
−𝟓𝐢 − 𝟐𝐢𝟐 + 𝟕 = 𝟎
−𝟐𝐢𝟐 = −𝟑 ⟹ 𝐢𝟐 = 𝟑/𝟐𝐀
Find VA-VC Find VC-VD Find VA-VF
⟹ABC ⟹CD ⟹ADF
𝐕𝐀 − 𝟑𝐢 − 𝟐𝐢 = 𝐕𝐂 𝐕𝐂 − 𝟓 = 𝐕𝐃 𝐕𝐀 − 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐 = 𝐕𝐅
𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐂 = 𝟓 𝐕𝐂 − 𝐕𝐃 = 𝟓 𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐅 = 𝟖

⟹ADFEC ⟹CBAD ⟹ABCEF

𝐕𝐀 − 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐 + 𝐢𝟐 𝟐 = 𝐕𝐂 𝐕𝐂 + 𝟐𝐢 + 𝟑𝐢 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝐕𝐃 𝐕𝐀 − 𝟑𝐢 − 𝟐𝐢 − 𝟐𝐢𝟐 = 𝐕𝐅
𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐂 = 𝟓 𝐕𝐂 − 𝐕𝐃 = 𝟓 𝐕𝐀 − 𝐕𝐅 = 𝟖

⟹CEFD
𝐕𝐂 − 𝟐𝐢𝟐 − 𝟐 = 𝐕𝐃
𝐕𝐂 − 𝐕𝐃 = 𝟓
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE -:
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit use to
measure an unknown electric resistance by
balancing bridge circuit.

If Wheatstone bridge is Balanced (Ig = 0).

No current throw G

ADBA CDBC
−𝐢𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐢𝟐 𝐑 𝟐 = 𝟎 𝐢𝟏 𝐑 𝟑 −𝐢𝟐 𝐑 𝟒 = 𝟎
𝐢𝟏 𝐑 𝟐 𝐢𝟏 𝐑 𝟒
= =
𝐢𝟐 𝐑 𝟏 𝐢𝟐 𝐑 𝟑

𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟒
=
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟑

METER BRIDGE OR SLIDE WIRE BRIDGE

A meter bridge work on the principle of Wheatstone's bridge . The length of the wire used is
one meter, so it is called meter bridge.
⟹The material of wire used in meter
bridge is manganin(alloy of copper,
manganese, and nickel) or eureka
because of its zero temperature
coefficient of resistance

⟹Thick copper strips are used in meter

bridge because copper is a good
conductor of electricity

⟹Meter bridge is more sensitivity if

relative strength of four resistance is almost
same

RCm =Resistance of the wire per unit

centimetre

𝐑 𝐑 𝐜𝐦 𝐥 𝐥
= =
𝐗 𝐑 𝐜𝐦 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐥 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐥
𝐑 𝐥
=
𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐥
Advantages of meter bridge
(i) It is a null method. Measurement of resistance made by this method is not affected by the internal
Resistance of battery
(ii) No measurement of current or potential difference is involved
(iii) Resistance can be measured to a very high degree of accuracy.
Application
(i)Measure an unknown resistance
(ii)To compare the valves of two unknown resistance

POTENTIOMETER
It is a instrument used for measuring an EMF of Cell by balancing it against the potential difference
produced by passing a known current through resistance wire.

Principle
For a wire having uniform area of cross section, the potential drop is directly proportional to the
length of wire.
Application -:
(a)Potentiometer to compare the e.m.f of two cells (b)Potentiometer to measure internal
∈1& ∈2 resistance -:

Є𝟏 𝐥𝟏 ∈ 𝐥𝟏
= =
Є𝟐 𝐥𝟐 𝐕 𝐥𝟐
Potential gradient ɸ= Potential drop per unit 𝐄
length 𝐫=𝐑 −𝟏
𝐕
𝐥𝟏
𝐫=𝐑 −𝟏
𝐥𝟐
⟹ Sensitivity of potentiometer can be increased by increasing the length of the
potentiometer wire and by reducing the current in the circuit by using a rheostat