DC CIRCUITS

RESISTOR COLOR CODES

MNEMONIC COLOR SIGNIFICANT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
FIGURE
BIG BLACK 0 100
BOYS BROWN 1 101 1%
RACE RED 2 102 2%
OUR ORANGE 3 103
YOUNG YELLOW 4 104
GIRLS GREEN 5 105 0.5%
BUT BLUE 6 106 0.25%
VIOLET VIOLET 7 107 0.1%
GREY GREY 8 108 0.05%
WINS WHITE 9 109
GOLD 0.1 5%
SILVER 0.01 10%
NO COLOR 20%

STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Parts of Atom:
Name Charge Mass (kg)
Proton Positive (+) 1.672 x 10-27
Electron Negative (-) 9.107 x 10-31
Neutron No Charge 1.672 x 10-27

ELECTRIC CHARGE
 Coulomb (C) – unit of electrical charge, which is equivalent to 6.25 x 1018 electrons or
protons. Named after the French physicist, Charles A. Coulomb (1736-1806).

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
 Potential – the capability of doing work
 Volt (V) – unit of potential difference, which is equal to one joule of work done per one
coulomb of charge. Named after the Italian physicist, Alessandro C. Volta (1754-1827)
who invented the first electric battery.

ELECTRIC CURRENT
When a potential difference between two charges forces a third charge to move, the
charge in motion is called an electric current.
 Ampere (A) – unit of charge flow equal to one coulomb of charge past a given point in
one second. Named after the French physicist and mathematician, Andre M. Ampere
(1775-1836).

RESISTANCE
The fact that a wire carrying a current can become hot, it is evident that the work done by the
applied force in producing the current must be accomplished against some opposition or
resistance.
 Ohm (Ω) – practical unit of resistance. Named after the German physicist, Georg S. Ohm
(1787-1854).
𝜌𝐿 𝜌𝑉 𝜌𝐿2
𝑅= 𝑅= 𝑅=
𝐴 𝐴2 𝑉
Where: R = resistance (ohm) ρ = resistivity (ohm-meter)
A = cross-sectional area (square L = length (meter)
meter) V = volume (cubic meter)
  Circular mil (CM) – area of a circle having a diameter (d) of one mil.
CM = d2
1,000 mil = 1 inch 1MCM = 1,000 CM

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE IN RESISTANCE

Experiments have shown that the resistance of all wires generally used in practice in electrical
systems increases as the temperature increases.

𝑅1 𝑇+𝑡 𝑅2 1
= 𝑇+𝑡1 ; = 1 + 𝛼𝑡1 𝛥𝑡 ; 𝛼𝑡1 = 𝑇+𝑡 ; 𝛥𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑅2 2 𝑅1 1
Where: R1=initial resistance (ohm)
R2=final resistance (ohm)
T=inferred absolute temperature
=temperature when resistance of a given material is zero.
t1=initial temperature
t2=final temperature
Δt=change in temperature
α=temperature coefficient of resistance (1/ ̊C)

CONDUCTANCE
 Conductance is a measure of the material’s ability to conduct electric current. It is equal
to the reciprocal of resistance.
 Siemens (formerly mho) – unit of conductance. Named after the German engineer, Ernst
Werner von Siemens (1816-1892).

1 𝛿𝐴 1
𝐺=𝑅 𝐺= 𝛿=𝜌
𝐿
Where: δ=conductivity (siemens per meter)
L=length (meter)
A=cross-sectional area (square-meter)
ρ=specific resistance (ohm-meter)
G=conductance (siemens)
R=resistance (ohm)

OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states that the current flowing in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the
impressed emf applied to the circuit and inversely proportional to the equivalent resistance of the
said circuit.

𝑉 𝑉
𝐼=𝑅 𝑅= 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐼
Where: V=impressed voltage (volt)
I=current drawn (ampere)
R=resistance (ohm)

ELECTRICAL POWER
 Electrical power – rate of using or consuming electrical energy.
 Watt – unit of electrical energy equal to one joule of energy consumed in one second.
Named after the British engineer and inventor James Watt (1736-1819).

𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅 𝑃= 𝑅
Where: P=electrical power (watt) I=current (ampere)
V=voltage R=resistance (ohm)
 SERIES-CONNECTED RESISTORS

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3

PARALLEL-CONNECTED RESISTORS

1
𝑅𝑇 = 1 1 1 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 = 𝐸3 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
+ +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

CURRENT DIVISION THEOREM (CDT)

𝑅2 𝑅1
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑇 𝑅 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑇 𝑅
1 +𝑅2 1 +𝑅2

VOLTAGE DIVISION THEOREM (VDT)

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐸1 = 𝐸𝑇 𝑅 𝐸2 = 𝐸𝑇 𝑅
1 +𝑅2 1 +𝑅2
 DELTA – WYE / T - ᴨ

WYE to DELTA or T to ᴨ transformation:

𝑋𝑌+𝑌𝑍+𝑍𝑋 𝑋𝑌+𝑌𝑍+𝑍𝑋 𝑋𝑌+𝑌𝑍+𝑍𝑋

𝐴= 𝐵= 𝐶=
𝑍 𝑋 𝑌

DELTA to WYE or ᴨ to T transformation:

𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶𝑆
𝑋 = 𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 𝑌 = 𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 𝑍 = 𝐴+𝐵+𝐶

Test Questions:
1. Ohm’s Law formula
a. 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
b. 𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅
c. R=V/R
d. None of the Above
2. Other factors remaining constant, what would be the effect on the current flow in a given
circuit if the applied potential were doubled?
a. It would be doubled
b. It would remain the same
c. It would increase four times/
d. It would be reduce by 1/2
3. Electric power refers to?
a. Joule
b. Watt-second
c. Volt-coulomb
d. Volt-ampere
4. A copper wire of an unknown length has a resistance of 0.80 ohm. By successive passes
through drawing dies, the length of the wire is increased to 2 ½ time its original value.
Assuming that resistivity remains unchanged during the drawing process, determine the
new value of its resistance.
a. 3 ohm
b. 4 ohm
c. 5 ohm
d. 6 ohm
5. What is the size in square millimeter of 250 MCM cable?
a. 118.656 mm2
b. 126.675 mm2
c. 112.565 mm2
d. 132.348 mm2
6. A certain wire has a resistance R. The resistance of another wire identical with the first
except for having twice its diameter is
a. 4R
b. ½ R
c. 2R
d. ¼ R
7. A kilometer of wire having a diameter of 11.7 mm and a resistance of 0.031 ohm is
drawn down so that its diameter is 5.0 mm. What does its resistance become?
a. 0.85 ohm
b. 0.78 ohm
c. 0.93 ohm
d. 0.81 ohm
8. The resistance of a wire is 126.48 ohms at 100 ̊C and 100 ohms at 30 ̊C. Determine the
temperature coefficient of copper at 0 ̊C.
a. 0.00427
b. 0.00615
c. 0.0256
d. 0.0356
9. The resistance of a copper wire at 30 ͦC is 50 ohms. If the temperature coefficient of
copper at 0 ͦC is 0.00427, what is the resistance at 100 ͦC?
a. 72.26 ohms
b. 54.25 ohms
c. 63.24 ohms
d. 58.15 ohms
10. A load of 10 ohms was connected to a 12-volt battery. The current drawn as 1.18
amperes. What is the internal resistance of the battery?
a. 0.35 ohm
b. 0.20 ohm
c. 0.25 ohm
d. 0.30 ohm
11. A circuit consisting of three resistors rated: 10 ohms, 15 ohms, and 20 ohms are
connected in delta. What would be the resistances of the equivalent wye connected load?
a. 0.30, 0.23 and 0.15 ohm
b. 3.0, 4.0 and 5.0 ohms
c. 3.33, 4.44, and 6.66 ohms
d. 5.77, 8.66, and 11.55 ohms
12. A cloud of 2.5 x 1019 electrons move past a given point every 2 seconds. How much is
the intensity of the electron?
a. 1 A
b. 2 A
c. 2.5 A
d. 1.5 A
13. A 15V source is connected across a 12Ω resistor. How much energy is used in three
minutes?
a. 938Wh
b. 0.938Wh
c. 56.25Wh
d. 5.6Wh
14. A basic electric circuit is made up of what components?
a. a load, a resistor and a conductive path for current
b. a voltage source, a load and a conductive path for current
c. a voltage source, a battery and a conductive path for current
d. a copper wire, a battery and a conductive path for current
15. Three lights are connected in parallel across a 120V source. If one light burns out,
a. the remaining two will glow dimmer
b. the remaining two will glow brighter
c. the remaining two will not light
d. the remaining two will glow with the same brightness as before
16. The following resistors are in parallel across a voltage source: 220, 470, 560. The resistor
with the least current is?
a. 220
b. 470
c. 560
d. impossible to determine without knowing the voltage
17. Loop currents should be assumed to flow in which directions?
a. straight
b. counter clockwise
c. clockwise
d. either B or C arbitrarily selected
18. A car battery has an open circuit voltage of 12.6V. The terminal voltage drops to 10.8V
when the battery supplies 240A to a starter motor. What is the Thevenin equivalent
circuit for this battery?
a. Vth = 12.6V, Rth = 7.5mΩ
b. Vth = 10.8V, Rth = 52.5mΩ
c. Vth = 12.6V, Rth = 52.5mΩ
d. Vth = 10.8V, Rth = 7.5mΩ
19. A positively charged dielectric has a charge of 2 coulombs. If 12.5 x 1018 free electrons
are added to it, what will be the net charge on the said dielectric?
a. 4 C
b. -2 C
c. 8 C
d. Zero
20. A battery can deliver 10 joules of energy to move 5 coulombs of charge. What is the
potential difference between the terminals of the battery?
a. 2 V
b. 50 V
c. 0.5 V
d. 5 V
21. A constant current of 4 A charges a capacitor. How long will it take to accumulate a total
charge of 8 coulombs on the plates?
a. 2 s
b. 32 s
c. ½ s
d. 12 s
 AC CIRCUITS
SINUSOIDS AND PHASORS
SINUSOID
-a sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine/cosine function. A sinusoidal current is
usually referred to as alternating current such a current reverses as regular time intervals and has
alternating positive and negative values circuit driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources.
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝑤𝑡)
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝑤𝑡)
Where: Vm / Im = amplitude or maximum value.
w = angular velocity (radians per second)
t=time (second)

 Frequency (f) – number of cycles produced per second or Hertz (Hz). Named after the
German physicist, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1886-1888)
 Period (T) – time needed in seconds to produced one cycle
 Wavelength (λ) – length of one complete cycle

1 𝑉𝑐
𝑇= 𝜆=
𝑓 𝑓

Where: Vc = velocity of propagation (meter per second)

= 3 x 108 m/sec (for radio waves)
= 344 m/sec (for sound waves)
F = frequency (hertz)

 RMS (root-mean square) or effective value of a sinusoidal wave

𝐴𝑚
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
√2
 Average value of a sinusoidal wave – the mean of all the instantaneous values of one-half
cycle.
𝐴𝑣𝑒 = 0.636 𝐴𝑚
SUM OF TWO ALTERNATING WAVES

REACTANCE & IMPEDANCE

 Reactance-property of an inductor or a capacitor to oppose current flow in a given circuit
1 1
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑤𝐿 = 2ᴨ𝑓𝐿 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑤𝐶 = 2ᴨ𝑓𝐶

Where: XL=inductive reactance (ohm)

Xc=capacitive reactance
 C=capacitance (farad)
L=inductance (henry)
w=angular velocity (radians per second)
f=operating frequency (Hertz)
 Impedance (Z)-the joint effect of combining resistance and reactance in an AC circuit.
SERIES AC CIRCUITS

𝐸
𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 𝐸 = √𝐸𝑅 2 + (𝐸𝐿 − 𝐸𝐶 )2 𝐼=𝑍 ER=IR
EL=IXL EC=IXC
PARALLE AC CIRCUIT

TEST QUESTIONS:
1. What is the wavelength of a carrier wave with a frequency of 100 meg hertz?
a. 3.0 m
b. 7.5 m
c. 1.5 m
d. 6.9 m
2. Two current sources deliver current to a common load. The first source delivers a current
whose equation is 25 sin 100ᴨt amperes while the second delivers a current whose
equation is 15 cos 100ᴨt amperes. What is the rms value of the current in the load?
a. 29.15 A
b. 40 A
c. 20.6 A
d. 10 A
3. An industrial coil has a resistance of 32 ohms and a reactance of 24 ohms and rated 440
volts at 60 Hz. A factory will connect the coil to a 440 V, 50 Hz supply. Solve for the
value of a series resistor needed to avoid overcurrent condition.
a. 2.07 ohm
b. 2.64 ohm
c. 2.44 ohm
d. 2.25 ohm
4. For a certain load, the true power is 150W and the reactive power is 125VAR. The
apparent power is?
a. 19.25VA
b. 195.2VA
c. 275VA
d. 25VA
5. A 470Ω resistor and a 0.2µF capacitor are in parallel across a 2.5kHz AC source. The admittance,
Y, in rectangular form is?
a. 212 - j318.3 mS
b. 2.12 + j3.14 mS
c. 3.14 + j2.12 mS
d. 318.3 - j212 mS
6. A 3.3kΩ resistor and a 120mH coil are in parallel. Both components are across a 2kHz, 12V
source. The total current in the circuit is?
a. 8.74 mA
b. 874 mA
c. 874 µA
d. 8.74 µA
7. Which of the following is the advantage of AC over DC?
a. economically produced
b. transmission of AC is more efficient
c. AC voltages can easily be stepped up and down
d. all of these
8. This is the value of alternating voltage or current that will have the same effect on a resistance
as a comparable value of direct voltage or current will have on the same resistance.
a. effective value
b. average value
c. peak value
d. instantaneous value
9. What value of AC is used as a comparison to DC?
a. peak value
b. positive value
c. peak to peak value
d. effective value
10. A 240-V, 25 Hz sinusoidal generator is connected to a 20 ohm resistor. Determine the
instantaneous current when elapsed time is 0.01 sec.
a. 15.43 A
b. 16.30 A
c. 16.97 A
d. 12.00 A
11. Calculate the phase angle between V1=-10 cos (wt-50) and V2=12 sin (wt-10). Which sinusoid is
leading?
a. Θ1 lags Θ2 by 30 degrees
b. Θ1 leads Θ2 by 30 degrees
c. Θ2 lags Θ1 by 30 degrees
d. Θ2 leads Θ1 by 30 degrees
12. Convert the following functions to cosine function with (+) amplitude.
a. 6 sin (2t +15)
b. -2cos (4t + 10)