(7) ALTERNATING CURRENT

ALTERNATING CURRENT -:
The electric current, whose magnitude
change with time & direction reverses
periodically, is known as alternating
current.
𝒊 = 𝒊˳ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝑖˳ =Amplitudeof Current or Peak
(maximum) value of Alternating
current𝛾
𝛾 = frequency.
T= Time period.
𝟐
𝝎= = 𝟐𝜸
𝑻

ALTERNATING E.M.F
The 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 or voltage whose magnitude
change with time &direction reverses
periodically is known as alternating
𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇.
𝑬 = 𝑬˳𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕
Since alternating current varies
continuously with time, its effect is
measured by.
(a) Mean value or average value
(b) Root Mean square value or
(virtual value)

MEAN VALUE OR AVERAGE VALUE -:

The mean or average value of A.C over any half cycle is defined as
that value of steady current which would send the same amount of
charge through a circuit in the time half cycle (T/2) as is sent by the
A.C through the same circuit , in the same time.

Average value of A.C over complete cycle is always zero.

𝑖 = 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑇/2 𝑇/2 𝑇/2
𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 (𝑖˳𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑚 = 0
= 0
= 0 −𝑖˳𝑇 𝑇 2𝜋
𝑇/2 𝑇/2 𝑇 𝑸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0
2 2𝜋 2 𝑇
𝑇/2 𝑇/2
−𝑖˳𝑇
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑸= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0
0 0
2𝜋
𝑇
−𝑖˳ −𝑖˳𝑇 −𝑖˳𝑇 𝑖𝑇
𝑸 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 2 𝑸= −1 − 1 = −2 =
𝜔 0 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋

−𝑖˳ 𝜔𝑇 𝑸 𝑖˳𝑇 2 2𝑖˳

𝑸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 𝑖𝑚 = 𝑇 = =
𝜔 2 𝜋 𝑇 𝜋
2
𝟐𝒊˳ 𝟐𝑬˳
𝒊𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝒊˳ 𝑬𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝑬˳
𝝅 𝝅
ROOT MEANS SQUARE (RMS) OR VIRTUAL VALUE OF A.C

It is that steady current, which when passed through a 𝑇/2 𝑇/2

resistance for a given time will produce the same amount of heat as (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
the alternating current does in the same resistance and in the same 2
0 0
time.
𝑇/2
It is denoted by irms or iv. 1
= (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝒊 = 𝒊˳ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 2
0
Small amount of heat produced in the resistance R in time dt.
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 𝑇/2 𝑇/2
1
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑅 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡
2
2 2 0 0
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑅𝑖˳ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑻/𝟐 𝑻/𝟐 𝑻/𝟐

𝒅𝑯 = 𝑹𝒊˳ 𝟐 𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑻/𝟐 𝑻 𝑻
𝒅𝒕 = 𝒕 = −𝟎 =
𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟐 𝟐
𝟎

𝑻/𝟐
𝑹𝒊𝟐𝒗 𝑻
= 𝑹𝒊˳𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝝎𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝑇/2
𝟎 1 𝑇/2
𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
0 2𝜔 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 1 − 2 sin2 
1 𝜔𝑇
𝑅𝑖𝑣2 𝑇 𝑇 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛0
= 𝑅𝑖˳2 2𝜔 2
2 4
1 2𝜋
𝑖2˳ 𝑖˳ = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑇−0
𝑖𝑉2 = 𝑖𝑉 = 2𝜔 𝑇
2 2
1
𝒊˳ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 − 0
2𝜔
𝒊𝑽 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝒊˳
𝟐
𝟏
= 𝟎−𝟎 =𝟎
𝑬˳ 𝟐𝝎
𝑬𝑽 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑬˳
𝟐 𝑻/𝟐
𝟏 𝑻 𝑻
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝝎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = − 𝟎 =
𝟎 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
A.C THROUGH RESISTOR

ET = ER = iR
𝐸𝑇
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑅 =
𝑅
𝐸˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = Circuit diagram Phasor Diagram
𝑅
𝑖 = 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
Angular frequency of current in the circuit is 𝜔 & is same
as that of the applied voltage
In a resistance, applied voltage is in phase with the
resulting current.

Wave diagram

A.C THROUGH INDUCTOR

𝐿𝑑𝑖
𝐸𝑇 − =0
𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑑𝑖
𝐸𝑇 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝐸𝑇
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
Circuit diagram Phasor Diagram
𝐸𝑇
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑖 = 𝐸˳ 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝐸˳
𝑖= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
−𝐸˳
𝑖= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
𝐿𝑤 Wave diagram
−𝐸˳ 𝜋
𝑖= sin − 𝜔𝑡 𝐸˳
𝐿𝜔 2 𝑖˳ =
𝐸˳ 𝜋 𝐿𝜔
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡 −
𝐿𝜔 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝐿 = 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑠𝑒𝑐
 𝜔𝐿 has the dimensions of resistance (ohm)
 𝜔𝐿 is called as ‘Inductive – reactance’’ and it is represented by XL
XL = 𝝎𝑳 = 2r𝜸 L

Current in an inductor ‘lags’ the applied voltage by (𝝅/2) or voltage leads the current by (𝝅/2)

If w = 0 , XL = 0, If w = ∞ , XL = ∞
Inductor is called ‘low pass filter’
Inductors offer an easy path to D.C & resistance to A.C
A.C THROUGH A CAPACITOR -:
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑞
𝐸𝑇 =
𝑐
𝑞 = 𝐸𝑇 𝐶
𝑞 = 𝐸˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝐶
Differentiating both side .𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 time.
Circuit diagram Phasor Diagram
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
=𝐶 (𝐸˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 = 𝜔𝐶 𝐸˳ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
𝐸˳
𝑖= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
1/𝐶𝜔
𝐸˳ 𝜋
𝑖= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 +
1/𝐶𝜔 2
Wave diagram

Current in the circuit has same frequency as the applied

voltage but leads it by (𝝅/2) or voltage across a capacitor
1 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
lags the current by 𝝅/2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = = 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝜔𝐶 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
1
 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜔𝐶
1
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆.
𝜔𝐶
𝟏 𝟏
𝑿𝑪 = =
𝝎𝒄 𝟐𝝅𝜸𝑪

If w = 0 , XC = ∞, If w = ∞ , XC = 0
 Capacitor is called ‘high pass filter’
 Capacitor block D.C & offers an easy path to A.C

L-C-R CIRCUIT
 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡
𝑖 = 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − Ø )
𝑖𝑜 peak value of current
Ø is the phase difference between voltage & current in the
circuit

𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸𝑅 + 𝐸𝐿 + 𝐸𝐶 Capacitive reactance(𝑿𝑳 ) Inductive reactance( 𝑿𝑪 )

𝑖𝑍 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝑋𝐿 𝑗 − 𝑖𝑋𝐶 𝑗 𝟏
𝑿𝑳 = 𝝎𝑳 𝝎=𝟐𝒓𝜸
𝑿𝑪 =
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 𝑗 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑗 𝝎𝑪
Reactance(𝑿) impedance (Z)
𝑍 = 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )𝑗
𝑿 = (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝒋 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋2
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2

Unit of reactance is ohm and it Unit of impedance is ohm & it is always

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋2 can be positive, negative or zero positive
2
1
𝑍= 𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 −
𝜔𝐶

The current i or peak value of current i˳ is calculated by The phase difference Ø between i & 𝑬𝑻 is given by
applying ohm’s law to AC circuit by replacing resistance R
by impedance Z 𝑿 𝑿
𝑬𝑻 𝑬˳ 𝑻𝒂𝒏 Ø = Ø = 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝑹 𝑹
𝒊= 𝒐𝒓 𝒊˳ = 1
𝒁 𝒁 𝑋 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶
−1
∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅 𝑅

RESONANCE IN LCR (XL=XC)

𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝑖= = 𝑖= =
𝑍 1 2 𝑅2 +0 𝑅
𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶
(At Resonance frequency 𝜔 = 𝜔˳) 𝐸˳ 𝐸˳
𝑖˳ = =
𝑅2 + 0 𝑅
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
1
𝜔˳𝐿 =
𝜔˳𝐶
1
𝜔˳2 =
𝐿𝐶

1
𝜔˳ =
𝐿𝐶
 1
𝛾˳ =
2𝑟 𝐿𝐶
1
At resonance 𝜔˳𝐿 = 𝜔˳𝐶
𝑋 0
𝑇𝑎𝑛 ∅ = = =0
𝑅 𝑅
𝑇𝑎𝑛 ∅ = 0
∅=0

At resonance in LCR circuit

When resonance take place in series LCR circuit. The current and emf are in same phase
The current in the series LCR – circuit have maximum value ( 𝑬 𝑹 )
Impedance of series LCR circuit becomes minimum i.e equal to R.

C – R CIRCUIT
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − Ø )
𝑖𝑜 peak value of current
Ø is the phase difference between voltage & current in the
circuit

𝑋𝐶 1
Ø = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅 𝑅𝜔𝐶
Current is the circuit at any time will e given by
𝑖 = 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡 + Ø)
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸𝑅 + 𝐸𝐶 Current leads the applied voltage by
1
𝑖𝑍 = 𝑖𝑅 − 𝑖𝑋𝐶 𝑗 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅𝜔𝐶
𝑍 = 𝑅 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑗 The current i or peak value of current i˳ is calculated by
applying ohm’s law to AC circuit by replacing resistance R
𝑍= 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2
by impedance Z
𝑬𝑻 𝑬˳
1 2 𝒊= 𝒐𝒓 𝒊˳ =
𝒁 𝒁
𝑍= 𝑅2 +
𝜔𝐶
L – R CIRCUIT -:
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡
𝑖 = 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − Ø )
𝑖𝑜 peak value of current
Ø is the phase difference between voltage & current in the circuit

𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿
∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅 𝑅
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸𝑅 + 𝐸𝐶 Current is the circuit at any time will e given by
𝑖 = 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡 + Ø)
𝑖𝑍 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝑋𝐿 𝑗 Current lage the applied voltage by
𝑍 = 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )𝑗 𝜔𝐿
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅
𝑍= 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2
The current i or peak value of current i˳ is
calculated by applying ohm’s law to ac circuit by
𝑍= 𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 2
replacing resistance R by impedance Z
𝑬𝑻 𝑬˳
𝒊= 𝒐𝒓 𝒊˳ =
𝒁 𝒁

L – C - CIRCUIT -:
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡
𝑖 = 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − Ø )
𝑖𝑜 peak value of current
Ø is the phase difference between voltage & current in the circuit

𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸𝐿 + 𝐸𝐶
𝑖𝑍 = 𝑖𝑋𝐿 𝑗 − 𝑖𝑋𝐶 𝑗
𝑋 = (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )𝑗
𝑋 𝑋 𝜋
∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ∞ =
𝑅 0 2
𝐼 = 𝐼˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 − ∅ Current is the circuit at any time will e given by
𝑖 = 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡 + Ø)
Current lage the applied voltage by
𝜔𝐿
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅

RESONANCE
The amplitude of current in the circuit becomes infinite due to
zero impedance. This situated is called ‘resonance’
 𝐸˳ 𝐸˳
𝑖𝑓 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 𝑖˳ = = =∞
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 0
1
𝜔𝐿 =
𝜔𝐶
1
𝑤2 =
𝐿𝐶
1
𝑤=
𝐿𝐶
1
𝛾=
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

SHARPHESS OF RESONANCE & QUALITY

FACTOR -:

At resonate frequency 𝜔o, the current in the LCR – series circuit
becomes maximum.
If Resistance is low ⟹ large current flow ⟹ circuit said to be
more selective or more sharp

Suppose that we choose a value of 𝜔, for which the current in the

𝟏
circuit is times the current amplitude at resonance.
𝟐
From fig. it Follows that there are two such values

𝜔1 = 𝜔˳ + ∆𝜔
𝜔2 = 𝜔˳ − ∆𝜔
𝜔1 − 𝜔2 = 2∆𝜔 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝝎˳
𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝟐∆𝝎

𝐸 𝑖
=
1 2 2
𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶 ∆𝜔 𝐿𝜔˳
𝐿𝜔˳ 1 + − ∆𝜔
=𝑅
𝜔˳ 1 + 𝜔˳
𝐸 1 𝐸
= 𝑋
1 2 2 𝑅 −1
𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶 ∆𝜔 ∆𝜔
𝐿𝜔˳ 1 + − 𝐿𝜔˳ 1 + =𝑅
𝜔˳ 𝜔˳
2
1 𝟏+𝒙 −𝟏
= 𝟏 − 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟒
𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 − = 2𝑅
𝜔𝐶
∆𝜔 ∆𝜔
𝐿𝜔˳(1 + ) − 𝐿𝜔˳ 1 − =𝑅
1 2 𝜔˳ 𝜔˳
𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 − = 2𝑅 2
𝜔𝐶 ∆𝜔 ∆𝜔
𝐿𝜔˳ + 𝐿𝜔˳ − 𝐿𝜔˳ + 𝐿𝜔˳ = 𝑅
1 2 𝜔˳ 𝜔˳
𝜔𝐿 − = 𝑅2
𝜔𝐶 ∆𝜔
2𝐿𝜔˳ =𝑅
𝜔˳

1
𝜔𝐿 − =𝑅
𝜔𝐶 2∆𝜔 𝑅
=
1 𝜔˳ 𝐿𝜔˳
𝜔˳ + ∆𝜔 𝐿 − =𝑅
𝜔˳ + ∆𝜔 𝐶
𝝎˳ 𝑳𝝎˳
=
𝟐∆𝝎 𝑹
 ∆𝑤 1
𝐿𝜔˳ 1 + − ∆𝜔
=𝑅 𝝎˳ 𝟏 𝑳
𝑤˳ 𝐶𝜔˳ 1 + =
𝜔˳ 𝟐∆𝝎 𝑹 𝑪

1
𝐿𝜔˳ =
𝐶𝜔˳

POWER OF AN A.C CIRCUIT -:

𝑇
E = E˳sin𝜔t 𝑇
sin2 𝜔𝑡 =
𝑖 = 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + Ø 2
0
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐸𝑑𝑞 = 𝐸𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝑇 𝑇

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐸˳𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + Ø 𝑑𝑡
0 0

𝑑𝑤 = 𝐸˳𝑖˳𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑤 = 𝐸˳𝑖˳ sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑑𝑡

𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐸˳𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑑𝑡
2

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐸˳𝑖˳ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔2 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑑𝑡 +
2
0 0 0

𝑇
𝑇
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐸˳𝐼˳ 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 0
2
0

𝐸˳𝑖˳𝑇
W= 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø
2

Average power of circuit

𝑊 𝐸˳𝑖˳𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝐸˳𝑖˳
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø
𝑇 2𝑇 2

𝑃𝑎 𝑣 = 𝐸𝑣 𝑖𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø

Average power is also called true power.

𝐸𝑣 𝐼𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟.
𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.
Average power = apparent power X power factor.
LC – OSCILLATIOS -:

If the charged capacitor is connected to an inductor L,

LC – oscillations are produced.

𝑞 𝑑𝑖
−𝐿 =0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
−𝑑𝑞
𝑖=
𝑑𝑡
𝑞 𝑑𝑞 2
+ 2 =0
𝐿𝐶 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑞 2 𝑞
2
+ =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶

𝒅𝟐 𝒙
This equation has 𝟐 + 𝝎˳𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟎 for a simple harmonic
𝒅𝒕
oscillator The charge therefore, oscillates with natural
frequency.

𝟏
𝝎˳ =
𝑳𝑪
And varies sin sinusoidally with time.
𝒒 = 𝒒˳ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎˳𝒕

In the LC – circuit the sum of the energy stored in capacitor

and the inductor at any instant is constant.

𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Energy stored in capacitor =
𝟐 𝑪

𝑞˳2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡
=
2𝐶
𝟏 𝑞 = 𝑞˳𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
Energy stored in inductor = 𝟐 𝑳𝒊𝟐
1 𝑖 = −𝑞˳𝑤 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
= 𝐿 𝑞˳2 𝜔2 sin2 𝜔 𝑡 1
2 𝜔2 =
𝐿𝐶

1 1
= 𝐿 𝑞˳2 sin2 𝜔 𝑡
2 𝐿𝐶

𝑞˳2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
=
2𝐶

Total energy stored in LC -:

𝒒˳𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒘𝒕 𝒒˳𝟐 𝟐

𝒒˳𝟐
𝑼 = + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒕 =
𝟐𝑪 𝟐𝑪 𝟐𝑪

TRANSFORMERS-:
Electrical transformer is a static electrical machine which transforms electrical power from one circuit to another circuit, without
changing the frequency. Transformer can increase or decrease the voltage with corresponding decrease or increase in current .
Principle Of Transformer:- The basic principle behind working of a transformer is the phenomenon of mutual induction

Construction Of Transformer
Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated steel core. The coils are insulated from each other as
well as from the steel core. In all types of transformers, core is constructed by assembling (stacking) laminated sheets of steel,
with minimum air-gap between them (to achieve continuous magnetic path). The steel used is having high silicon content and
sometimes heat treated, to provide high permeability and low hysteresis loss. Laminated sheets of steel are used to reduce
eddy current loss. The sheets are cut in the shape as E,I and L.

NP = Number of turn in primary

VP = Applied voltage in primary Coil
NS = Number of turn in secondary
VS = Induced e.m.f in secondary Coil

𝑑Ø
𝑉𝑆 = −𝑁𝑆
𝑑𝑡
𝑑Ø
𝑉𝑝 = −𝑁𝑃
𝑑𝑡
𝑽 𝑺 𝑵𝑺
=
𝑽 𝒑 𝑵𝑷
If transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient
(no energy looses) the power.

Input is equal to the power output

𝑖𝑃 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑉𝑠

𝒊𝑷 𝑽𝒔 𝑵𝒔
= =
𝒊𝒔 𝑽𝒑 𝑵𝒑

TRANSFORMERS ARE OF FOLLOWING TWO TYPES :

Step-up transformer. The number of turns in secondary coil Ns is greater than the number of turns in primary coil Np
i.e. Ns > Np . It converts a low voltage at high current into a high voltage at low current.

Step-down transformer. The number of turns in secondary coil Ns of a step- down transformer is less than that in
primary coil Np i.e. Ns < Np.. It converts a high voltage at low current into a low voltage at high current

ENERGY LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

(i) Flux losses. The coupling of the primary and secondary coils is never perfect and whole of the magnetic flux
produced in primary coil never gets linked up with the secondary coil
(ii) Copper losses. Due to resistance of the windings of primary and secondary coils, some electrical energy is always
converted into heat energy.
(iii) Iron losses. The varying magnetic flux produces eddy currents in the iron core, which also leads to the wastage of
energy in the form of heat. It is minimised by using a laminated iron core.
(iv) Hysteresis losses. The alternating current flowing through the coils magnetises and demagnetises the iron core
again and again. During each cycle of magnetisation, some energy is lost due to hysteresis, the energy lost during a
cycle of magnetisation being equal to area of the hysteresis loop (in magnitude). However, the loss of energy can be
minimised by selecting the material of core, which has a narrow hysteresis loop

(v) Humming losses. Due to the passage of alternating current, the core of the transformer starts vibrating and
produces humming sound

Consider that 11,000 watt of electric power is transmitted first at 220 V and then at 22,000 V.
Loss of electric energy. When transmission of electric energy is done at 220 V, a current equal to 11,000/220 i.e. 50
A flows through the line wires. If R is resistance of line wires, energy equal to 502 R i.e. 2,500 R joule will be dissipated
per second as heat energy. On the other hand, when transmission is done at 22,000 V, a current equal to
11,000/22,000 i.e. 0.5 A flows through the line wires. In this case, the electric energy dissipated per second as heat
will be 0.52 R i.e. 0.25 R joule per second only.
Therefore, we conclude that if transmission of electric energy is done at high voltage, the dissipation of energy
is much reduced.
Therefore, it may be concluded that if transmission is done at high voltage, the transmission is much
economical from the point of view of the cost of the line wires and the poles used to support the wires.

USES OF A TRANSFORMER
1. A step-down transformer is used for obtaining large current for electric welding.
2. A step-down transformer is used in induction furnace for melting the metals.
3. A step-up transformer is used for the production of X-rays.
4. Transformers are used in voltage regulators and stabilised power supplies.
5. Small transformers are used in radio sets, televisions, telephones, loud speakers, etc

.ADVANTAGES OF A.C. OVER D.C.

1. The generation of A.C. is found to be economical than that of D.C.
2. The alternating voltages can be easily stepped up or stepped down by using a transformer.
3. The alternating currents can be regulated by using a choke coil without any significant wastage of electrical energy.
4. The alternating voltages can be transmitted to distant places at a very small loss of the electric power.
5. Further, A.C. can be easily converted into D.C. by using rectifiers.

DISADVANTAGES. OF A.C. OVER D.C

1. The A.C. supply is more fatal and dangerous than D.C. in terms of shock received due to them
2. The alternating current always flows on the outer layer of the wire. Therefore, for in A.C. circuits instead of a single
thick wire, a number of thin wires are used. As such, the alternating current flows through all the wires and the skin
effect is avoided.