Basic Principles of Eddy Current Inspection

Eddy current inspection is one of several NDT methods that use the principal of
“electromagnetism” as the basis for conducting examinations. Several other methods such
as Remote Field Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and Barkhausen Noise also use this
principle.

Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction. When
alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field
develops in and around the conductor. This magnetic field expands as the alternating
current rises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to zero. If another
electrical conductor is brought into the close proximity to this changing magnetic field,
current will be induced in this second conductor. Eddy currents are induced electrical
currents that flow in a circular path. They get their name from “eddies” that are formed
when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles when conditions are right.
One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of inspections
and measurements that can be performed. In the proper circumstances, eddy currents can be
used for:

 Crack detection
 Material thickness measurements
 Coating thickness measurements
 Conductivity measurements for:
o Material identification

o Heat damage detection

o Case depth determination

o Heat treatment monitoring

Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include:

 Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

 Detects surface and near surface defects
 Inspection gives immediate results
 Equipment is very portable
 Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
 Minimum part preparation is required
 Test probe does not need to contact the part
 Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials
Some of the limitations of eddy current inspection include:

 Only conductive materials can be inspected

 Surface must be accessible to the probe
 Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
 Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
 Reference standards needed for setup
 Depth of penetration is limited
 Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and probe
scan direction are undetectable

History of Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing has its origins with

Michael Faraday's discovery of
electromagnetic induction in 1831. Faraday
was a chemist in England during the early
1800's and is credited with the discovery of
electromagnetic induction, electromagnetic
rotations, the magneto-optical effect,
diamagnetism, and other phenomena. In 1879,
another scientist named Hughes recorded
changes in the properties of a coil when
placed in contact with metals of different
conductivity and permeability. However, it
was not until the Second World War that these
effects were put to practical use for testing
materials. Much work was done in the 1950's
and 60's, particularly in the aircraft and
nuclear industries. Eddy current testing is now
a widely used and well-understood inspection
technique.

Present State of Eddy Current Inspection

Eddy current inspection is used in a variety
of industries to find defects and make
measurements. One of the primary uses of
eddy current testing is for defect detection
when the nature of the defect is well
understood. In general, the technique is used
to inspect a relatively small area and the
probe design and test parameters must be
established with a good understanding of the
flaw that is to be detected. Since eddy
currents tend to concentrate at the surface of
a material, they can only be used to detect
surface and near surface defects.

In thin materials such as tubing and sheet

stock, eddy currents can be used to measure
the thickness of the material. This makes eddy current a useful tool for detecting corrosion
damage and other damage that causes a thinning of the material. The technique is used to
make corrosion thinning measurements on aircraft skins and in the walls of tubing used in
assemblies such as heat exchangers. Eddy current testing is also used to measure the
thickness of paints and other coatings.

Eddy currents are also affected by the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of
materials. Therefore, eddy current measurements can be used to sort materials and to tell if
a material has seen high temperatures or been heat treated, which changes the conductivity
of some materials.

Eddy current equipment and probes can be purchased in a wide variety of configurations.
Eddyscopes and a conductivity tester come packaged in very small and battery operated
units for easy portability. Computer based systems are also available that provide easy data
manipulation features for the laboratory. Signal processing software has also been
developed for trend removal, background subtraction, and noise reduction. Impedance
analyzers are also sometimes used to allow improved quantitative eddy-current
measurements. Some laboratories have multidimensional scanning capabilities that are used
to produce images of the scan regions. A few portable scanning systems also exist for
special applications, such as scanning regions of aircraft fuselages.

Research to Improve Eddy current measurements

A great deal of research continues to be done to improve eddy current measurement

techniques. A few of these activities, which are being conducted at Iowa State University,
are described below.

Photoinductive Imaging (PI)

A technique known as photoinductive imaging (PI) was pioneered at CNDE and provides a
powerful, high-resolution scanning and imaging tool. Microscopic resolution is available
using standard-sized eddy-current sensors. Development of probes and instrumentation for
photoinductive (PI) imaging is based on the use of a medium-power (5 W nominal power)
argon ion laser. This probe provides high resolution images and has been used to study
cracks, welds, and diffusion bonds in metallic specimens. The PI technique is being studied
as a way to image local stress variations in steel.

Pulsed Eddy Current

Research is currently being conducted on the use of a technique called pulsed eddy current
(PEC) testing. This technique can be used for the detection and quantification of corrosion
and cracking in multi-layer aluminum aircraft structures. Pulsed eddy-current signals
consist of a spectrum of frequencies meaning that, because of the skin effect, each pulse
signal contains information from a range of depths within a given test specimen. In
addition, the pulse signals are very low-frequency rich which provides excellent depth
penetration. Unlike multi-frequency approaches, the pulse-signals lend themselves to
convenient analysis. .

Measurements have been carried out both in the laboratory and in the field. Corrosion trials
have demonstrated how material loss can be detected and quantified in multi-layer
aluminum structures. More recently, studies carried out on three and four layer structures
show the ability to locate cracks emerging from fasteners. Pulsed eddy-current
measurements have also been applied to ferromagnetic materials. Recent work has been
involved with measuring the case depth in hardened steel samples.

Properties of Electricity

Since eddy current inspection makes use of electromagnetic induction, it is important to

know about the scientific principles of electricity and magnetism. For a review of these
principles, the Science of NDT materials on this Internet site may be helpful. A review of
the key parameters will be provided here.

Electricity

It is well known that one of the subatomic particles of an

atom is the electron. Atoms can and usually do have a
number of electrons circling its nucleus. The electrons
carry a negative electrostatic charge and under certain
conditions can move from atom to atom. The direction of
movement between atoms is random unless a force causes
the electrons to move in one direction. This directional
movement of electrons due to some imbalance of force is
what is known as electricity.

Amperage
The flow of electrons is measured in units called amperes or amps for short. An amp is the
amount of electrical current that exists when a number of electrons, having one coulomb of
charge, move past a given point in one second. A coulomb is the charge carried by 6.25 x
1018 electrons or 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.

Electromotive Force

The force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit is called
the electromotive force, or EMF. Sometimes it is convenient to think of
EMF as electrical pressure. In other words, it is the force that makes
electrons move in a certain direction within a conductor. There are many
sources of EMF, the most common being batteries and electrical
generators.

The Volt

The unit of measure for EMF is the volt. One volt is defined as the electrostatic difference
between two points when one joule of energy is used to move one coulomb of charge from
one point to the other. A joule is the amount of energy that is being consumed when one
watt of power works for one second. This is also known as a watt-second. For our
purposes, just accept the fact that one joule of energy is a very, very small amount of
energy. For example, a typical 60-watt light bulb consumes about 60 joules of energy each
second it is on.

Resistance

Resistance is the opposition of a body or substance to the flow of electrical current through
it, resulting in a change of electrical energy into heat, light, or other forms of energy. The
amount of resistance depends on the type of material. Materials with low resistance are
good conductors of electricity.  Materials with high resistance are good insulators

Current Flow and Ohm's Law

Ohm's law is the most important, basic law of electricity. It defines the relationship
between the three fundamental electrical quantities: current, voltage and resistance. When a
voltage is applied to a circuit containing only resistive elements (i.e. no coils), current flows
according to Ohm's Law, which is shown below.

I=V/R
 Where:  
Electrical Current
I=
(Amperes)
V = Voltage (Voltage)
R = Resistance (Ohms)

    

Ohm's law states that the electrical current (I) flowing in an circuit is proportional to the
voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R). Therefore, if the voltage is
increased, the current will increase provided the resistance of the circuit does not change.
Similarly, increasing the resistance of the circuit will lower the current flow if the voltage is
not changed. The formula can be reorganized so that the relationship can easily be seen for
all of the three variables.

Induction and Inductance

Induction

In 1824, Oersted discovered that current passing though a coil created a magnetic field
capable of shifting a compass needle. Seven years later, Faraday and Henry discovered just
the opposite. They noticed that a moving magnetic field would induce current in an
electrical conductor. This process of generating electrical current in a conductor by placing
the conductor in a changing magnetic field is called electromagnetic induction or just
induction. It is called induction because the current is said to be induced in the conductor
by the magnetic field.

Faraday also noticed that the rate at which the magnetic field changed also had an effect on
the amount of current or voltage that was induced. Faraday's Law for an uncoiled
conductor states that the amount of induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of
flux lines cutting the conductor. Faraday's Law for a straight wire is shown below.
Where:

VL = the induced voltage in volts

dø/dt = the rate of change of magnetic flux in webers/second

Induction is measured in unit of Henries (H) which reflects this dependence on the rate of
change of the magnetic field. One henry is the amount of inductance that is required to
generate one volt of induced voltage when the current is changing at the rate of one ampere
per second. Note that current is used in the definition rather than magnetic field. This is
because current can be used to generate the magnetic field and is easier to measure and
control than magnetic flux.

Inductance

When induction occurs in an electrical circuit and affects the flow of electricity it is called
inductance, L. Self-inductance, or simply inductance, is the property of a circuit whereby
a change in current causes a change in voltage in the same circuit. When one circuit induces
current flow in a second nearby circuit, it is known as mutual-inductance. The image to
the right shows an example of mutual-inductance. When an AC current is flowing through
a piece of wire in a circuit, an electromagnetic field is produced that is constantly growing
and shrinking and changing direction due to the constantly changing current in the wire.
This changing magnetic field will induce electrical current in another wire or circuit that is
brought close to the wire in the primary circuit. The current in the second wire will also be
AC and in fact will look very similar to the current flowing in the first wire. An electrical
transformer uses inductance to change the voltage of electricity into a more useful level. In
nondestructive testing, inductance is used to generate eddy currents in the test piece.
It should be noted that since it is the changing magnetic field that is responsible for
inductance, it is only present in AC circuits. High frequency AC will result in greater
inductive reactance since the magnetic field is changing more rapidly.

Self-inductance and mutual-inductance will be discussed in more detail in the following

pages.

Self-Inductance and Inductive Reactance

The property of self-inductance is a particular form of electromagnetic induction. Self

inductance is defined as the induction of a voltage in a current-carrying wire when the
current in the wire itself is changing. In the case of self-inductance, the magnetic field
created by a changing current in the circuit itself induces a voltage in the same circuit.
Therefore, the voltage is self-induced.

The term inductor is used to describe a circuit element possessing the property of
inductance and a coil of wire is a very common inductor. In circuit diagrams, a coil or wire
is usually used to indicate an inductive component. Taking a closer look at a coil will help
understand the reason that a voltage is induced in a wire carrying a changing current. The
alternating current running through the coil creates a magnetic field in and around the coil
that is increasing and decreasing as the current changes. The magnetic field forms
concentric loops that surround the wire and join to form larger loops that surround the coil
as shown in the image below. When the current increases in one loop the expanding
magnetic field will cut across some or all of the neighboring loops of wire, inducing a
voltage in these loops. This causes a voltage to be induced in the coil when the current is
changing.

By studying this image of a coil, it can be seen that the number of turns in the coil will have
an effect on the amount of voltage that is induced into the circuit. Increasing the number of
turns or the rate of change of magnetic flux increases the amount of induced voltage.
Therefore, Faraday's Law must be modified for a coil of wire and becomes the following.

Where:

VL = induced voltage in volts

N = number of turns in the coil
dø/dt = rate of change of magnetic flux in
            webers/second

The equation simply states that the amount of induced voltage (VL) is proportional to the
number of turns in the coil and the rate of change of the magnetic flux (dø/dt). In other
words, when the frequency of the flux is increased or the number of turns in the coil is
increased, the amount of induced voltage will also increase.

In a circuit, it is much easier to measure current than it is to measure magnetic flux, so the
following equation can be used to determine the induced voltage if the inductance and
frequency of the current are known. This equation can also be reorganized to allow the
inductance to be calculated when the amount of inducted voltage can be determined and the
current frequency is known.

Where:

VL = the induced voltage in volts

L = the value of inductance in henries
di/dt = the rate of change of current in amperes per second

Lenz's Law

Soon after Faraday proposed his law of induction, Heinrich Lenz developed a rule for
determining the direction of the induced current in a loop. Basically, Lenz's law states that
an induced current has a direction such that its magnetic field opposes the change in
magnetic field that induced the current. This means that the current induced in a
conductor will oppose the change in current that is causing the flux to change. Lenz's law is
important in understanding the property of inductive reactance, which is one of the
properties measured in eddy current testing.

Inductive Reactance

The reduction of current flow in a circuit due to induction is called inductive reactance.
By taking a closer look at a coil of wire and applying Lenz's law, it can be seen how
inductance reduces the flow of current in the circuit. In the image below, the direction of
the primary current is shown in red, and the magnetic field generated by the current is
shown in blue. The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by taking your right
hand and pointing your thumb in the direction of the current. Your fingers will then point in
the direction of the magnetic field. It can be seen that the magnetic field from one loop of
the wire will cut across the other loops in the coil and this will induce current flow (shown
in green) in the circuit. According to Lenz's law, the induced current must flow in the
opposite direction of the primary current. The induced current working against the primary
current results in a reduction of current flow in the circuit.

It should be noted that the inductive reactance will increase if the number of winds in the
coil is increased since the magnetic field from one coil will have more coils to interact with.

Since inductive reactance reduces the flow of current in a circuit, it appears as an energy
loss just like resistance. However, it is possible to distinguish between resistance and
inductive reactance in a circuit by looking at the timing between the sine waves of the
voltage and current of the alternating current. In an AC circuit that contains only resistive
components, the voltage and the current will be in-phase, meaning that the peaks and
valleys of their sine waves will occur at the same time. When there is inductive reactance
present in the circuit, the phase of the current will be shifted so that its peaks and valleys do
not occur at the same time as those of the voltage. This will be discussed in more detail in
the section on circuits.

Mutual Inductance
(The Basis for Eddy Current Inspection)

The magnetic flux through a circuit can be related to the current in that circuit and the
currents in other nearby circuits, assuming that there are no nearby permanent magnets.
Consider the following two circuits.

The magnetic field produced by circuit 1 will intersect the wire in circuit 2 and create
current flow. The induced current flow in circuit 2 will have its own magnetic field which
will interact with the magnetic field of circuit 1. At some point P, the magnetic field
consists of a part due to i and a part due to i . These fields are proportional to the currents
1 2

producing them.

The coils in the circuits are labeled L1 and L2 and this term represents the self inductance of
each of the coils. The values of L1 and L2 depend on the geometrical arrangement of the
circuit (i.e. number of turns in the coil) and the conductivity of the material. The constant
M, called the mutual inductance of the two circuits, is dependent on the geometrical
arrangement of both circuits. In particular, if the circuits are far apart, the magnetic flux
through circuit 2 due to the current i will be small and the mutual inductance will be small.
1

L and M are constants.

2

We can write the flux, B through circuit 2 as the sum of two parts.

B2 = Li + iM
2 2 1

An equation similar to the one above can be written for the flux through circuit 1.

B1 = Li + iM
1 1 2

Though it is certainly not obvious, it can be shown that the mutual inductance is the same
for both circuits. Therefore, it can be written as follows:

M =M 1,2 2,1
How is mutual induction used in eddy current
inspection?

In eddy current inspection, the eddy currents are generated

in the test material due to mutual induction. The test probe
is basically a coil of wire through which alternating current
is passed. Therefore, when the probe is connected to an
eddyscope instrument, it is basically represented by circuit 1
above. The second circuit can be any piece of conductive
material.

When alternating current is passed through the coil, a

magnetic field is generated in and around the coil. When the
probe is brought in close proximity to a conductive
material, such as aluminum, the probe's changing magnetic
field generates current flow in the material. The induced
current flows in closed loops in planes perpendicular to the
magnetic flux. They are named eddy currents because they
are thought to resemble the eddy currents that can be seen swirling in streams.

The eddy currents produce their own magnetic fields that

interact with the primary magnetic field of the coil. By
measuring changes in the resistance and inductive reactance
of the coil, information can be gathered about the test
material. This information includes the electrical
conductivity and magnetic permeability of the material, the
amount of material cutting through the coils magnetic field,
and the condition of the material (i.e. whether it contains
cracks or other defects.) The distance that the coil is from
the conductive material is called liftoff, and this distance affects the mutual-inductance of
the circuits. Liftoff can be used to make measurements of the thickness of nonconductive
coatings, such as paint, that hold the probe a certain distance from the surface of the
conductive material.

It should be noted that if a sample is ferromagnetic, the magnetic flux is concentrated and
strengthened despite opposing eddy current effects. The increase inductive reactance due to
the magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic materials makes it easy to distinguish these
materials from nonferromagnetic materials.

Circuits and Phase

A circuit can be thought of as a closed path in which current flows through the components
that make up the circuit. The current ( i) obeys Ohm's Law, which is discussed on the page
on current flow. The simple circuit below consists of a voltage source (in this case an
alternating current voltage source) and a resistor. The graph below the circuit diagram
shows the value of the voltage and the current for this circuit over a period of time. This
graph shows one complete cycle of an alternating current source. From the graph, it can be
seen that as the voltage increases, the current does the same. The voltage and the current are
said to be "in-phase" since their zero, peak, and valley points occur at the same time. They
are also directly proportional to each other.

In the circuit below, the resistive component has been replaced with an inductor. When
inductance is introduced into a circuit, the voltage and the current will be "out-of-phase,"
meaning that the voltage and current do not cross zero, or reach their peaks and valleys at
the same time. When a circuit has an inductive component, the current (i ) will lag the
L

voltage by one quarter of a cycle. One cycle is often referred to as 360 o, so it can be said
that the current lags the voltage by 90o. 

This phase shift occurs because the inductive reactance changes with changing current. 
Recall that it is the changing magnetic field caused by a changing current that produces
inductive reactance.  When the change in current is greatest, inductive reactance will be the
greatest, and the voltage across the inductor will be the highest.  When the change in
current is zero, the inductive reactance will be zero and the voltage across the inductor will
be zero.  Be careful not to confuse the amount of current with the amount of change in the
current.  Consider the points where the current reaches it peak amplitude and changes
direction in the graph below (0o, 180o, and 360o).  As the current is changing directions,
there is a split second when the change in current is zero.  Since the change in current is
zero, no magnetic field is generated to produce the inductive reactance.  When the inductive
reactance is zero, the voltage across the inductor is zero. 

The resistive and inductive components are of primary interest in eddy current testing since
the test probe is basically a coil of wire, which will have both resistance and inductive
reactance. However, there is a small amount of capacitance in the circuits so a mention is
appropriate. This simple circuit below consists of an alternating current voltage source and
a capacitor. Capacitance in a circuit caused the current (i ) to lead the voltage by one quarter
c

of a cycle (90o current lead).

When there is both resistance and inductive reactance (and/or capacitance) in a circuit, the
combined opposition to current flow is known as impedance. Impedance will be discussed
more on the next page.

Impedance

Electrical Impedance (Z), is the total opposition that a circuit presents to alternating
current. Impedance is measured in ohms and may include resistance (R), inductive
reactance (XL), and capacitive reactance (XC). However, the total impedance is not
simply the algebraic sum of the resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance.
Since the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are 90o out of phase with the
resistance and, therefore, their maximum values occur at different times, vector addition
must be used to calculate impedance.

In the image below, a circuit diagram is shown that represents an eddy current inspection
system. The eddy current probe is a coil of wire so it contains resistance and inductive
reactance when driven by alternating current. The capacitive reactance can be dropped as
most eddy current probes have little capacitive reactance. The solid line in the graph below
shows the circuit's total current, which is affected by the total impedance of the circuit. The
two dashed lines represent the portion of the current that is affected by the resistance and
the inductive reactance components individually. It can be seen that the resistance and the
inductive reactance lines are 90o out of phase, so when combined to produce the impedance
line, the phase shift is somewhere between zero and 90 o. The phase shift is always relative
to the resistance line since the resistance line is always in-phase with the voltage. If more
resistance than inductive reactance is present in the circuit, the impedance line will move
toward the resistance line and the phase shift will decrease. If more inductive reactance is
present in the circuit, the impedance line will shift toward the inductive reactance line and
the phase shift will increase.

The relationship between impedance and its individual components (resistance and
inductive reactance) can be represented using a vector as shown below. The amplitude of
the resistance component is shown by a vector along the x-axis and the amplitude of the
inductive reactance is shown by a vector along the y-axis. The amplitude of the the
impedance is shown by a vector that stretches from zero to a point that represents both the
resistance value in the x-direction and the inductive reactance in the y-direction. Eddy
current instruments with impedance plane displays present information in this format.
The impedance in a circuit with resistance and inductive reactance can be calculated using
the following equation. If capacitive reactance was present in the circuit, its value would be
added to the inductance term before squaring.

The phase angle of the circuit can be calculated using the equation below. If capacitive
reactance was present in the circuit, its value would be subtracted from the inductive
reactance term.
Impedance and Ohm's Law

In previous pages, Ohm's Law was discussed for a purely resistive circuit. When there is
inductive reactance or capacitive reactance also present in the circuit, Ohm's Law must be
written to include the total impedance in the circuit. Therefore, Ohm's law becomes:

I=V/Z

Ohm's law now simply states that the current (I), in amperes, is proportional to the voltage
(V), in volts, divided by the impedance (Z), in ohms.

Depth of Penetration & Current Density

Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current

circulating in planes perpendicular to the magnetic
flux. They normally travel parallel to the coil's
winding and flow is limited to the area of the
inducing magnetic field. Eddy currents concentrate
near the surface adjacent to an excitation coil and
their strength decreases with distance from the coil as
shown in the image. Eddy current density decreases
exponentially with depth. This phenomenon is known
as the skin effect.

The skin effect arises when the eddy currents flowing in the test object at any depth
produce magnetic fields which oppose the primary field, thus reducing the net magnetic
flux and causing a decrease in current flow as the depth increases. Alternatively, eddy
currents near the surface can be viewed as shielding the coil's magnetic field, thereby
weakening the magnetic field at greater depths and reducing induced currents.

The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a material is affected by the frequency of the
excitation current and the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the
specimen. The depth of penetration decreases with increasing frequency and increasing
conductivity and magnetic permeability. The depth at which eddy current density has
decreased to 1/e, or about 37% of the surface density, is called the standard depth of
penetration (). The word 'standard' denotes plane wave electromagnetic field excitation
within the test sample (conditions which are rarely achieved in practice). Although eddy
currents penetrate deeper than one standard depth of penetration, they decrease rapidly with
depth. At two standard depths of penetration (2), eddy current density has decreased to 1/e
squared or 13.5% of the surface density. At three depths (3), the eddy current density is
down to only 5% of the surface density.
Since the sensitivity of an eddy current inspection depends on the eddy current density at
the defect location, it is important to know the strength of the eddy currents at this location.
When attempting to locate flaws, a frequency is often selected which places the expected
flaw depth within one standard depth of penetration. This helps to assure that the strength
of the eddy currents will be sufficient to produce a flaw indication. Alternately, when using
eddy currents to measure the electrical conductivity of a material, the frequency is often set
so that it produces three standard depths of penetration within the material. This helps to
assure that the eddy currents will be so weak at the back side of the material that changes in
the material thickness will not affect the eddy current measurements.

The applet below illustrates how eddy current density changes in a semi-infinite conductor.
The applet can be used to calculate the standard depth of penetration. The equation for this
calculation is:

Where:
   = Standard Depth of Penetration (mm)
 = 3.14
f = Test Frequency (Hz)
 = Magnetic Permeability (H/mm)
 = Electrical Conductivity (% IACS)
 Phase Lag

Phase lag is a parameter of the eddy current signal that makes it possible to obtain
information about the depth of a defect within a material.  Phase lag is the shift in time
between the eddy current response from a disruption on the surface and a disruption at
some distance below the surface.  The generation of eddy currents can be thought of as a
time dependent process, meaning that the eddy currents below the surface take a little
longer to form than those at the surface.  Disruptions in the eddy currents away from the
surface will produce more phase lag than disruptions near the surface. Both the signal
voltage and current will have this phase shift or lag with depth, which is different from the
phase angle discussed earlier.  (With the phase angle, the current shifted with respect to the
voltage.)

Phase lag is an important parameter in eddy current testing because it makes it possible to
estimate the depth of a defect, and with proper reference specimens, determine the rough
size of a defect. The signal produced by a flaw depends on both the amplitude and phase of
the eddy currents being disrupted.  A small surface defect and large internal defect can have
a similar effect on the magnitude of impedance in a test coil.  However, because of the
increasing phase lag with depth, there will be a characteristic difference in the test coil
impedance vector. 

Phase lag can be calculated with the following equation.  The phase lag angle calculated
with this equation is useful for estimating the subsurface depth of a discontinuity that is
concentrated at a specific depth.  Discontinuities, such as a crack that spans many depths,
must be divided into sections along its length and a weighted average determined for phase and
amplitude at each position below the surface.

In
Radians

In
Degrees

Where:
=Phase Lag (Rad or Degrees)
x=Distance Below Surface (in or mm)
=Standard Depth of Penetration (in or mm)
Radian:
A unit in circular measure, an angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc of
equal length to the radius. One radian is equal to 57.296.

At one standard depth of penetration, the phase lag is one radian or 57 o. This means that the
eddy currents flowing at one standard depth of penetration () below the surface, lag the
surface currents by 57o.  At two standard depths of penetration (2), they lag the surface
currents by 114o.  Therefore, by measuring the phase lag of a signal the depth of a defect
can be estimated.
On the impedance plane, the liftoff signal serves as the reference phase direction.  The
angle between the liftoff and defect signals is about twice the phase lag calculated with the
above equation.  As mentioned above, discontinuities that have a significant dimension
normal to the surface, will produce an angle that is based on the weighted average of the
disruption to the eddy currents at the various depths along its length.

Eddy Current Instruments

Eddy current instruments can be purchased

in a large variety of configurations. Both
analog and digital instruments are available.
Instruments are commonly classified by the
type of display used to present the data. The
common display types are analog meter,
digital readout, impedance plane and time
versus signal amplitude. Some instruments
are capable of presenting data in several display formats.

The most basic eddy current testing instrument consists of an alternating current source, a
coil of wire connected to this source, and a voltmeter to measure the voltage change across
the coil. An ammeter could also be used to measure the current change in the circuit instead
of using the voltmeter.

While it might actually be possible to detect some types of defects with this type of
equipment, most eddy current instruments are a bit more sophisticated. In the following
pages, a few of the more important aspects of eddy current instrumentation will be
discussed.

Resonant Circuits

Eddy current probes typically have a frequency or a range of frequencies that they are
designed to operated.  When the probe is operated outside of this range, problems with the
data can occur.  When a probe is operated at too high of a frequency, resonance can occurs
in the circuit. In a parallel circuit with resistance (R), inductance (X L) and capacitance (XC),
as the frequency increases XL decreases and XC increase.  Resonance occurs when XL and
XC are equal but opposite in strength.  At the resonant frequency, the total impedance of the
circuit appears to come only from resistance since X L and XC cancel out.    Every circuit
containing capacitance and inductance has a resonant frequency that is inversely
proportional to the square root of the product of the capacitance and inductance.

In eddy current probes and cables, it is commonly stated that capacitance is negligible. 
However, even circuits not containing discreet components for resistance, capacitance, and
inductance can still exhibit their effects.  When two conductors are placed side by side,
there is always some capacitance between them.  Thus, when many turns of wire are placed
close together in a coil, a certain amount of stray capacitance is produced.  Additionally, the
cable used to interconnect pieces of electronic equipment or equipment to probes, often has
some capacitance, as well as, inductance. This stray capacitance is usually very small and
in most cases has no significant effect. However, they are not negligible in sensitive circuits
and at high frequencies they become quite important.

Bridges

The bridge circuit shown in the applet below is known as the Maxwell-Wien bridge (often
called the Maxwell bridge), and is used to measure unknown inductances in terms of
calibrated resistance and capacitance. Calibration-grade inductors are more difficult to
manufacture than capacitors of similar precision, and so the use of a simple "symmetrical"
inductance bridge is not always practical. Because the phase shifts of inductors and
capacitors are exactly opposite each other, a capacitive impedance can balance out an
inductive impedance if they are located in opposite legs of a bridge, as they are here.

Unlike this straight Wien bridge, the balance of the Maxwell-Wien bridge is independent of
the source frequency. In some cases, this bridge can be made to balance in the presence of
mixed frequencies from the AC voltage source, the limiting factor being the inductor's
stability over a wide frequency range.

Exercise: Using the equations within the applet, calculate appropriate values for C and R2
for a set of probe values. Then, using your calculated values, balance the bridge. The
oscilloscope trace representing current (brightest green) across the top and bottom of the
bridge should be minimized (straight line).

In the simplest implementation, the standard capacitor (C) and the resistor in parallel with it
are made variable, and both must be adjusted to achieve balance. However, the bridge can
be made to work if the capacitor is fixed (non-variable) and more than one resistor is made
variable (at least the resistor in parallel with the capacitor, and one of the other two).
However, in the latter configuration it takes more trial-and-error adjustment to achieve
balance as the different variable resistors interact in balancing magnitude and phase.
Another advantage of using a Maxwell bridge to measure inductance rather than a
symmetrical inductance bridge is the elimination of measurement error due to the mutual
inductance between the two inductors. Magnetic fields can be difficult to shield, and even a
small amount of coupling between coils in a bridge can introduce substantial errors in
certain conditions. With no second inductor to react within the Maxwell bridge, this
problem is eliminated.

Display - Complex Impedance Plane (eddy scope)

Electrical Impedance (Z), is the total opposition that a circuit

presents to an alternating current. Impedance, measured in
ohms, may include resistance (R), inductive reactance (X ), and
L

capacitive reactance (X ). Eddy current circuits usually have

C

only R and (X ) components. As discussed in the page on

L

impedance, the resistance component and the reactance

component are not in phase, so vector addition must be used to
relate them with impedance. For an eddy current circuit with
resistance and inductive reactance components, the total
impedance is calculated using the following equation.

You will recall that this can be graphically displayed using the
impedance plane diagram as seen above. Impedance also has an associated angle, called the
phase angle of the circuit, which can be calculated by the following equation.

The impedance plane diagram is a very useful way of displaying eddy current data. As
shown in the figure below, the strength of the eddy currents and the magnetic permeability
of the test material cause the eddy current signal on the impedance plane to react in a
variety of different ways.
If the eddy current circuit is balanced in air and then placed on a piece of aluminum, the
resistance component will increase (eddy currents are being generated in the aluminum and
this takes energy away from the coil, which shows up as resistance) and the inductive
reactance of the coil decreases (the magnetic field created by the eddy currents opposes the
coil's magnetic field and the net effect is a weaker magnetic field to produce inductance). If
a crack is present in the material, fewer eddy currents will be able to form and the
resistance will go back down and the inductive reactance will go back up. Changes in
conductivity will cause the eddy current signal to change in a different way.

When a probe is placed on a magnetic material such as steel, something different happens.
Just like with aluminum (conductive but not magnetic), eddy currents form, taking energy
away from the coil, which shows up as an increase in the coils resistance. And, just like
with the aluminum, the eddy currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the
coils magnetic field. However, you will note for the diagram that the reactance increases.
This is because the magnetic permeability of the steel concentrates the coil's magnetic field.
This increase in the magnetic field strength completely overshadows the magnetic field of
the eddy currents. The presence of a crack or a change in the conductivity will produce a
change in the eddy current signal similar to that seen with aluminum.

Display - Analog Meter

Analog instruments are the simplest of the instruments available for eddy current
inspections. They are used for crack detection, corrosion inspection, or conductivity testing.
These types of instruments contain a simple bridge circuit, which compares a balancing
load to that measured on the test specimen. If any changes in the test specimen occur which
deviate from normal you will see a movement on the instruments meter.

Analog meters such as the D'Arsonval design pictured in the applet below, must "rectify"
the AC into DC. This is most easily accomplished through the use of devices called diodes.
Without going into elaborate detail over how and why diodes work as they do, remember
that they each act like a one-way valve for electrons to flow. They act as a conductor for
one polarity and an insulator for another. Arranged in a bridge, four diodes will serve to
steer AC through the meter movement in a constant direction.

An analog meter can easily measure just a few microamperes of current and is well suited
for use in balancing bridges.

Probes - Mode of Operation

Eddy current probes are available in a large

variety of shapes and sizes. In fact, one of
the major advantages of eddy current
inspection is that probes can be custom
designed for a wide variety of applications.
Eddy current probes are classified by the
configuration and mode of operation of the
test coils. The configuration of the probe
generally refers to the way the coil or coils
are packaged to best "couple" to the test area
of interest. An example of different
configurations of probes would be bobbin probes, which are inserted into a piece of pipe to
inspect from the inside out, versus encircling probes, in which the coil or coils encircle the
pipe to inspect from the outside in. The mode of operation refers to the way the coil or coils
are wired and interface with the test equipment. The mode of operation of a probe generally
falls into one of four categories: absolute, differential, reflection and hybrid. Each of these
classifications will be discussed in more detail below.
Absolute Probes

Absolute probes generally have a single test coil that is

used to generate the eddy currents and sense changes in
the eddy current field. As discussed in the physics section,
AC is passed through the coil and this sets up an
expanding and collapsing magnetic field in and around the
coil. When the probe is positioned next to a conductive
material, the changing magnetic field generates eddy
currents within the material. The generation of the eddy
currents take energy from the coil and this appears as an
increase in the electrical resistance of the coil. The eddy
currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes
the magnetic field of the coil and this changes the
inductive reactance of the coil. By measuring the absolute change in impedance of the test
coil, much information can be gained about the test material.

Absolute coils can be used for flaw detection, conductivity measurements, liftoff
measurements and thickness measurements. They are widely used due to their versatility.
Since absolute probes are sensitive to things such as conductivity, permeability liftoff and
temperature, steps must be taken to minimize these variables when they are not important
to the inspection being performed. It is very common for commercially available absolute
probes to have a fixed "air loaded" reference coil that compensates for ambient temperature
variations.

Differential Probes

Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition, although they could
be wound in addition with similar results. When the two coils are over a flaw-free area of
test sample, there is no differential signal developed between the coils since they are both
inspecting identical material. However, when one coil is over a defect and the other is over
good material, a differential signal is produced. They have the advantage of being very
sensitive to defects yet relatively insensitive to slowly varying properties such as gradual
dimensional or temperature variations. Probe wobble signals are also reduced with this
probe type. There are also disadvantages to using differential probes. Most notably, the
signals may be difficult to interpret. For example, if a flaw is longer than the spacing
between the two coils, only the leading and trailing edges will be detected due to signal
cancellation when both coils sense the flaw equally.
Reflection Probes

Reflection probes have two coils similar to a differential probe, but one coil is used to
excite the eddy currents and the other is used to sense changes in the test material. Probes
of this arrangement are often referred to as driver/pickup probes. The advantage of
reflection probes is that the driver and pickup coils can be separately optimized for their
intended purpose. The driver coil can be made so as to produce a strong and uniform flux
field in the vicinity of the pickup coil, while the pickup coil can be made very small so that
it will be sensitive to very small defects.

Some absolute and differential "transformer" type eddy current probes.

The through-transmission method is sometimes used when complete penetration of plates

and tube walls is required.

Hybrid Probes

An example of a hybrid probe is the split D, differential

probe shown to the right. This probe has a driver coil that
surrounds two D shaped sensing coils. It operates in the
reflection mode but additionally, its sensing coils operate
in the differential mode. This type of probe is very
sensitive to surface cracks. Another example of a hybrid
probe is one that uses a conventional coil to generate eddy
currents in the material but then uses a different type of
sensor to detect changes on the surface and within the test
material. An example of a hybrid probe is one that uses a
Hall effect sensor to detect changes in the magnetic flux
leaking from the test surface. Hybrid probes are usually specially designed for a specific
inspection application.

Probes - Configurations

As mentioned on the previous page, eddy current probes are classified by the configuration
and mode of operation of the test coils. The configuration of the probe generally refers to
the way the coil or coils are packaged to best "couple" to the test area of interest. Some of
the common classifications of probes based on their configuration include surface probes,
bolt hole probes, inside diameter (ID) probes, and outside diameter (OD) probes.

Surface Probes

Surface probes are usually designed to be handheld and are

intended to be used in contact with the test surface. Surface
probes generally consist of a coil of very fine wire encased
in a protective housing. The size of the coil and shape of the
housing are determined by the intended use of the probe.
Most of the coils are wound so that the axis of the coil is
perpendicular to the test surface. This coil configuration is
sometimes referred to as a pancake coil and is good for
detecting surface discontinuities that are oriented
perpendicular to the test surface. Discontinuities, such as
delaminations, that are in a parallel plane to the test surface
will likely go undetected with this coil configuration.

Wide surface coils are used when scanning large areas for relatively large defects. They
sample a relatively large area and allow for deeper penetration. Since they do sample a
large area, they are often used for conductivity tests to get more of a bulk material
measurement. However, their large sampling area limits their ability to detect small
discontinuities.

Pencil probes have a small surface coil that is encased in a long slender housing to permit
inspection in restricted spaces. They are available with a straight shaft or with a bent shaft,
which facilitates easier handling and use in applications such as the inspection of small
diameter bores. Pencil probes are prone to wobble due to their small base and sleeves are
sometimes used to provide a wider base.

Bolt Hole Probes

Bolt hole probes are a special type of surface probe that is designed to be used with a bolt
hole scanner. They have a surface coil that is mounted inside a housing that matches the
diameter of the hole being inspected. The probe is inserted in the hole and the scanner
rotates the probe within the hole.

ID or Bobbin Probes

ID probes, which are also referred to as Bobbin probes or

feed-through probes, are inserted into hollow products,
such as pipes, to inspect from the inside out. The ID probes
have a housing that keep the probe centered in the product
and the coil(s) orientation somewhat constant relative to
the test surface. The coils are most commonly wound
around the circumference of the probe so that the probe inspects an area around the entire
circumference of the test object at one time.

OD or Encircling Coils

OD probes are often called encircling coils. They are similar to

ID probes except that the coil(s) encircle the material to inspect
from the outside in. OD probes are commonly used to inspect
solid products, such as bars.

Probes - Shielding & Loading

One of the challenges of performing an eddy current inspection

is getting sufficient eddy current field strength in the region of
interest within the material. Another challenge is keeping the
field away from nonrelevant features of the test component. The
impedance change caused by nonrelevant features can
complicate the interpretation of the signal. Probe shielding and
loading are sometimes used to limit the spread and concentrate
the magnetic field of the coil. Of course, if the magnetic field is
concentrated near the coil, the eddy currents will also be
concentrated in this area.

Probe Shielding

Probe shielding is used to prevent or reduce the interaction of the

probe's magnetic field with nonrelevent features in close proximity of
the probe. Shielding could be used to reduce edge effects when testing
near dimensional transitions such as a step or an edge. Shielding could
also be used to reduce the effects of conductive or magnetic fasteners
in the region of testing.

Eddy current probes are most often shielded using magnetic shielding
or eddy current shielding. Magnetically shielded probes have their coil
surrounded by a ring of ferrite or other material with high permeability
and low conductivity. The ferrite creates an area of low magnetic reluctance and the probe's
magnetic field is concentrated in this area rather than spreading beyond the shielding. This
concentrates the magnetic field into a tighter area around the coil.

Eddy current shielding uses a ring of highly conductive but nonmagnetic material, usually
copper, to surround the coil. The portion of the coil's magnetic field that cuts across the
shielding will generate eddy currents in the shielding material rather than in the nonrelevent
features outside of the shielded area. The higher the frequency of the current used to drive
the probe, the more effective the shielding will be due to the skin effect in the shielding
material.

Probe Loading with Ferrite Cores

Sometimes coils are wound around a ferrite core. Since ferrite is

ferromagnetic, the magnetic flux produced by the coil prefers to
travel through the ferrite as opposed to the air. Therefore, the
ferrite core concentrates the magnetic field near the center of the
probe. This, in turn, concentrates the eddy currents near the
center of the probe. Probes with ferrite cores tend to be more
sensitive than air core probes and less affected by probe wobble
and lift-off.

Coil (Probe) Design

The most important feature in eddy current testing is the way in which the eddy currents are
induced and detected in the material under test. This depends on the design of the probe. 
As discussed in the previous pages, probes can contain one or more coils, a core and
shielding.  All have an important effect on the probe, but the coil requires the most design
consideration. 

A coil consists of a length of wire wound in a helical manner around the length of a
former.  The main purpose of the former is to provide a sufficient amount of rigidity in the
coil to prevent distortion.  Formers used for coils with diameters greater than a few
millimeters (i.e. encircling and pancake coils), generally take the form of tubes or rings
made from dielectric materials.  Small-diameter coils are usually wound directly onto a
solid former.

The region inside the former is called the core, which can consist of either a solid material
or just air.  When the core is air or a nonconductive material, the probe is often referred to
as an air-core probe. Some coils are wound around a ferrite core which concentrates the the
coil's magnetic field into a smaller area.  These coils are referred to as "loaded" coils.

The wire used in an eddy current probe is typically made from copper or other nonferrous
metal to avoid magnetic hysteresis effects. The winding usually has more than one layer so
as to increase the value of inductance for a given length of coil.  The higher the inductance
(L) of a coil, at a given frequency, the greater the sensitivity of eddy current testing.

It is essential that the current through the coil is as low as possible. Too high a current may
produce:

 a rise in temperature, hence an expansion of the coil, which increases the value of L.
  magnetic hysteresis, which is small but detectable when a ferrite core is used.

Impedance Matching

Eddy current testing requires us to determine the components of the impedance of the
detecting coil or the potential difference across it. Most applications require the
determination only of changes in impedance, which can be measured with a high degree of
sensitivity using an AC bridge. The principles of operation of the most commonly used
eddy current instruments are based on Maxwell's inductance bridge, in which the
components of the impedance of the detecting coil, commonly called a probe, are compared
with known variable impedances connected in series and forming the balancing arm of the
bridge. Refer back to Bridges.

The input to the bridge is an AC

oscillator, often variable in both
frequency and amplitude. The detector
arm takes the form of either a meter or a
storage cathode-ray oscilloscope, a
phase-sensitive detector, a rectifier to
provide a steady indication, and usually
an attenuator to confine the output
indication within a convenient range.
Storage facilities are necessary in the
oscilloscope in order to retain the signal
from the detector for reference during
scanning with the probe.

The highest sensitivity of detection is

achieved by properly matching the
impedance of the probe to the impedance
of the measuring instrument. Thus, with
a bridge circuit that is initially balanced,
a subsequent but usually small variation
in the impedance of the probe upsets the balance, and a potential difference appears across
the detector arm of the bridge.

Although the Maxwell inductance bridge forms the basis of most eddy current instruments,
there are several reasons why it cannot be used in its simplest form (i.e. Hague, 1934),
including the creation of stray capacitances, such as those formed by the leads and leakages
to earth. These unwanted impedances can be eliminated by earthing devices and the
addition of suitable impedances to produce one or more wide-band frequency (i.e. low Q)
resonance circuits. Instruments having a wide frequency range (i.e. from 1 kHz to 2 MHz)
may possess around five of these bands to cover the range. The value of the impedance of
the probe is therefore an important consideration in achieving proper matching and, as a
result, it may be necessary to change the probe when switching from one frequency band to
another.
 Reference Standards

In eddy current testing, the use of reference standards in setting up the equipment is
particularly important since signals are affected by many different variables and slight
changes in equipment setup can drastically alter the appearance of a signal. As with most
other NDT methods, the most useful information is obtained when comparing the results
from an unknown object to results from a similar object with well characterized features
and defects. In almost all cases, eddy current inspection procedures require the equipment
to be configured using reference standards.

For crack detection, corrosion thinning and other material damage, reference standards are
used to setup the equipment to produce a recognizable signal or set of signals from a defect
or set of defects. In many cases, the appearance of a test signal can be related to the
appearance of a signal from a known defect on the reference standard to estimate the size of
a defect in the test component. Signals that vary significantly from the responses produced
by the reference standard must be further investigated to the determine the source of the
signal.

The reference standard should be of the same material as the test article. If this is not
possible or practical, it should be of material that has the same electrical conductivity and
magnetic permeability. Component features (material thickness, geometry, etc.) should be
the same in the reference standard as those in the test region of interest. If the reference
standard is the type with intentional defects, these defects should be as representative of
actual defects in the test component as possible. The closer the reference standard is to the
actual test component, the better. However, since cracks and corrosion damage are often
difficult and costly to produce, artificial defects are commonly used. Narrow notches
produced with electron discharge machining (EDM) and saw cuts are commonly used to
represent cracks, and drilled holes are often used to simulate corrosion pitting.

Common eddy current reference standards include:

  Conductivity standards.
 Flat plate discontinuity standards.
 Flat plate metal thinning standards (step or tapered wedges).
 Tube discontinuity standards.
 Tube metal thinning standards.
 Hole (with and without fastener) discontinuity standards.

Signal Filtering

Signal filtering is often used in eddy current testing to eliminate unwanted frequencies from
the receiver signal. While the correct filter settings can significantly improve the visibility
of a defect signal, incorrect settings can distort the signal presentation and even eliminate
the defect signal completely. Therefore, it is important to understand the concept of signal
filtering.

Filtering is applied to the received signal and, therefore, is not directly related to the probe
drive frequency. This is most easily understood when picturing a time versus signal
amplitude display. With this display mode, it is easy to see that the signal shape is
dependent on the time or duration that the probe coil is sensing something. For example, if
a surface probe is placed on the surface of conductor and rocked back and forth, it will
produce a wave like signal. When the probe is rocked fast, the signal will have a higher
frequency than when the probe is rocked slowly back and forth. The signal does not need a
wavelike appearance to have frequency content and most eddy current signals will be
composed of a large number of frequencies. Consider a probe that senses a notch for 1/60th
of a second. In a period of one second the probe could (in theory) go over the notch 60
times, resulting in the notch signal having a frequency of 60 Hz. But, imposed on this same
signal, could be the signal resulting from probe wobble, electronic noise, a conductivity
shift and other factors which occur at different frequencies.

Filters Effects

The two standard filters found in most impedance

plane display instruments are the ‘High Pass Filter’
(HPF) and ‘Low Pass Filter’ (LPF). Some
instruments also have a‘Band Pass Filter’ (BPF),
which is a combination high and low pass filter.
Filters are adjusted in Hertz (Hz).

The HPF allows high frequencies to pass and filters

out the low frequencies. The HPF is basically
filtering out changes in the signal that occur over a
significant period of time.
The LPF allows low frequency to pass and filters out the high frequency. In other words, all
portions of the signal that change rapidly (have a high slope) are filtered, such as electronic
noise.

In the image above, the gradual (low frequency) changes were first filtered out with a HPF
and then high frequency electronic noise was filtered with a LPF to leave a clearly visible
flaw indication. It should also be noted that since flaw indication signals are comprised of
multiple frequencies, both filters have a tendency to reduce the indication signal strength.
Additionally, scan speed must be controlled when using filters. Scan over a flaw too slow
and the HPF might filter out the flaw indication. Scan over the flaw too fast and the LPF
might eliminate the flaw indication.

Filter Settings

If the spectrum of the signal frequency and

the signal amplitude or attenuation are
plotted, the filter responses can be
illustrated in graphical form. The image to
the right shows the response of a LPF of
20Hz and a HPF of 40Hz. The LPF allows
only the frequencies in yellow to pass and
the HPF only allow those frequencies in the
blue area to pass. Therefore, it can be seen
that with these settings there are no
frequencies that pass (i.e. the frequencies
passed by the LPF are filtered out by the
HPF and visa versa).

To create a window of acceptance for the

signals, the filters need to overlap. In the
image to the right, the LPF has been
adjusted to 60Hz and the HPF to 10Hz. The
area shown in gray is where the two
frequencies overlap and the signal is
passed. A signal of 30Hz will get through at
full amplitude, while a signal of 15Hz will
be attenuated by approximately 50%. All
frequencies above or below the gray area
(the pass band) will be rejected by one of
the two filters.

Use of Filters

The main function of the LPF is to remove high frequency interference noise. This noise
can come from a variety of sources including the instrumentation and/or the probe itself.
The noise appears as an unstable dot that produces jagged lines on the display as seen in the
signal from a surface notch shown in the left image below. Lowering the LPF frequency
will remove more of the higher frequencies from the signal and produce a cleaner signal as
shown in the center image below. When using a LPF, it should be set to the highest
frequency that produces a usable signal. To reduce noise in large surface or ring probes, it
may be necessary to use a very low LPF setting (down to 10Hz). The lower the LPF setting,
the slower the scanning speed must be and the more closely it must be controlled. The
image on the right below shows a signal that has been clipped due to using a scan speed too
fast for the selected HPF setting.

The HPF is used to eliminate low frequencies which are produced by slow changes, such as
conductivity shift within a material, varying distance to an edge while scanning parallel to
it, or out-of-round holes in fastener hole inspection. The HPF is useful when performing
automated or semiautomatic scans to keep the signal from wandering too far from the null
(balance) point. The most common application for the HPF is the inspection of fastener
holes using a rotating scanner. As the scanner rotates at a constant RPM, the HPF can be
adjusted to achieve the desired effect.

Use of the HPF when scanning manually is not recommended, as keeping a constant
scanning speed is difficult, and the signal deforms and amplitude decreases. The size of a
signal decreases as the scan speed decreases and a flaw indication can be eliminated
completely if the scan is not done with sufficient speed. In the images below, it can be seen
that a typical response from a surface notch in aluminum without HPF (left image) looks
considerably different when the HPF is activated (right image). With the HPF, looping
signals with a positive and similar negative deflection are produced on the impedance
plane.
The use of a minimal HPF setting (1 or 2 Hz) may be used when manually scanning,
provided the operator can largely control the scan speed and becomes familiar with the
indication signal changes as scan speed is varied slightly. An good example of such an
application would be the manual scan of the radius of a wheel that is rotated by hand, but
the speed of rotation can be kept relatively constant.

Surface Breaking Cracks

Eddy current equipment can be used for a variety of

applications such as the detection of cracks
(discontinuities), measurement of metal thickness,
detection of metal thinning due to corrosion and erosion,
determination of coating thickness, and the measurement
of electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability.
Eddy current inspection is an excellent method for
detecting surface and near surface defects when the
probable defect location and orientation is well known.

Defects such as cracks are detected when they disrupt

the path of eddy currents and weaken their strength. The
images to the right show an eddy current surface probe
on the surface of a conductive component. The strength
of the eddy currents under the coil of the probe ins
indicated by color. In the lower image, there is a flaw
under the right side of the coil and it can be see that the
eddy currents are weaker in this area.

Of course, factors such as the type of material, surface

finish and condition of the material, the design of the
probe, and many other factors can affect the sensitivity
of the inspection. Successful detection of surface breaking and near surface cracks requires:

1. A knowledge of probable defect type, position, and orientation.

2. Selection of the proper probe. The probe should fit the geometry of the part and the
coil must produce eddy currents that will be disrupted by the flaw.
3. Selection of a reasonable probe drive frequency. For surface flaws, the frequency
should be as high as possible for maximum resolution and high sensitivity. For
subsurface flaws, lower frequencies are necessary to get the required depth of
penetration and this results in less sensitivity. Ferromagnetic or highly conductive
materials require the use of an even lower frequency to arrive at some level of
penetration.
 4. Setup or reference specimens of similar material to the component being inspected
and with features that are representative of the defect or condition being inspected
for.

The basic steps in performing an inspection with a surface probe are the following:

1. Select and setup the instrument

and probe.
2. Select a frequency to produce the
desired depth of penetration.
3. Adjust the instrument to obtain an
easily recognizable defect
response using a calibration
standard or setup specimen.
4. Place the inspection probe (coil)
on the component surface and null the instrument.
5. Scan the probe over part of the surface in a pattern that will provide complete
coverage of the area being inspected. Care must be taken to maintain the same
probe-to-surface orientation as probe wobble can affect interpretation of the signal.
In some cases, fixtures to help maintain orientation or automated scanners may be
required.
6. Monitor the signal for a local change in impedance that will occur as the probe
moves over a discontinuity.

The signal with 50 Khz and 300 Khz, for compare the signal responses from a surface
breaking crack with the signals from the calibration notches.

50 KHZ

300 KHZ
 Surface Crack Detection Using Sliding Probes

Many commercial aircraft applications involve the use of multiple fasteners to connect the
multi-layer skins. Because of the fatigue stress that is caused by the typical application of
any commercial aircraft, fatigue cracks can be induced in the vicinity of the fastener holes.
In order to inspect the fastener holes in an adequate amount of time, sliding probes are an
efficient method of inspection.

Sliding probes have been named so because they move over fasteners in a sliding motion.
There are two types of sliding probes, fixed and adjustable, which are usually operated in
the reflection mode. This means that the eddy currents are induced by the driver coil and
detected by a separate receiving coil.

Sliding probes are one of the fastest methods to inspect large numbers of fastener holes.
They are capable of detecting surface and subsurface discontinuities, but they can only
detect defects in one direction. The probes are marked with a detection line to indicate the
direction of inspection. In order to make a complete inspection there must be two scans that
are orthogonal (90 degrees) to each other.

Probe Types

Fixed Sliding Probes

These probes are generally used for thinner material compared to the adjustable probes.
Maximum penetration is about 1/8 inch. Fixed sliding probes are particularly well suited for
finding longitudinal surface or subsurface cracks such as those found in lap joints. Typical
frequency range is from 100 Hz to 100 kHz.

Adjustable Sliding Probes

These probes are well suited for finding subsurface cracks in thick
multi-layer structures, like wing skins. Maximum penetration is
about 3/4 inch. The frequency range for adjustable sliding probes
is from 100 Hz to 40 kHz. Adjustable probes, as the name implies,
are adjustable with the use of spacers, which will change the
penetration capabilities. The spacer thickness between the coils is
normally adjusted for the best detection. For tangential scans or 90 degree scanning with an
offset from the center, a thinner spacer is often used.

The spacer thickness range can vary from 0 (no spacer) for
inspections close to the surface and small fastener heads to a
maximum of about 0.3 inch for deep penetration with large heads
in the bigger probe types. A wider spacer will give more tolerance
to probe deviation as the sensitive area becomes wider but the
instrument will require more gain. Sliding probes usually penetrate
thicker materials compared to the donut probes.

Reference Standards

Reference/calibration standards for setup of sliding probes typically consist of three or four
aluminum plates that are fastened together within a lap joint type configuration. EDM
notches or naturally/artificially- induced cracks are located in the second or third layer of
the standard.

Reference standards used should be manufactured from the same material type, alloy,
material thickness, and chemical composition that will be found on the aircraft component
to be inspected. Sizes and tolerances of flaws introduced in the standards are usually
regulated by inspection specifications.

Inspection Variables

Liftoff Signal Adjustment

Liftoff is normally adjusted to be relatively horizontal.  The term "relatively horizontal" is

used here because the liftoff signal often appears a curved line rather than a straight line.
Sometimes liftoff can be a sharp curve and may need to be adjusted to run slightly upwards
before moving downwards. See Figures 1 and 2.
Scan Patterns

A typical scan is centralized over the fastener head and moves along the axis of the fastener
holes. This scan is generally used to detect cracks positioned along the axis of the fastener
holes. For detecting cracks located transverse or 90 degrees from the axis of the fastener
holes, a scan that is 90 degrees from the axis of the fastener holes is recommended.

Signal Interpretation

When the probe moves over a fastener hole with a crack, the indication changes and
typically will create a larger vertical movement. The vertical amplitude of the loop depends
on the crack length, with longer cracks giving higher indications.

If the crack is in the far side of the fastener, as the probe moves over it, the dot will follow
the fastener line first but will move upwards (clockwise) as it goes over the crack. If the
crack is in the near side, it will be found first and the dot will move along the crack level
before coming down to the fastener level.

If two cracks on opposite sides of the fastener hole are present, the dot will move upwards
to the height by the first crack length and then come back to the fastener line and balance
point. If the second crack is longer than the first one, the dot will move even higher and
complete the loop (clockwise) before going down to the balance point. See Figures 3 and 4.
Probe Scan Deviation
Most probes are designed to give a narrow indication for a good fastener hole so that the
loops from the cracks are more noticeable. Some probes and structures can give wider
indications and a similar result can be obtained if the probe is not straight when it
approaches the fastener. It is important to keep the probe centralized over the fastener
heads. Doing this will give you a maximum indication for the fastener and a crack.

If the probe deviates from the center line, the crack indication will move along the loop that
we saw in Figure 5 and is now present in Figure 6. The crack indication is at "a" when the
probe is centralized and moves toward "b" as it deviates in one direction, or "c" as it
deviates in the opposite direction. Point "b" gives an important indication even if it loses a
small amount of amplitude it has gained in phase, giving a better separation angle. This is
because we deviated to the side where the crack is located.

Crack Angle Deviation

A reduction in the crack indication occurs when the crack is at an angle to the probe scan
direction. This happens if the crack is not completely at 90 degrees to the normal probe
scan or changes direction as it grows. Both the fixed and adjustable sliding probes are
capable of detecting cracks up to about 30 degrees off angle. See Figures 7 and 8.
Electrical Contact

When inspecting fasteners that have just been installed or reference standards that have
intimate contact with the aluminum skin plate, it is not unusual to obtain a smaller than
normal indication. In some extreme cases, the fastener indication may disappear almost
completely. This is due to the good electrical contact between the fastener and the skin. 
This condition allows the eddy currents to circulate without encountering a boundary, and
therefore, no obstacle or barrier. Because of this effect, it is recommended to paint the holes
before fastener installation.

Tube Inspection

Eddy current inspection is often used to detect corrosion, erosion,

cracking and other changes in tubing. Heat exchangers and steam
generators, which are used in power plants, have thousands of
tubes that must be prevented from leaking. This is especially
important in nuclear power plants where reused, contaminated
water must be prevented from mixing with fresh water that will be
returned to the environment. The contaminated water flows on one
side of the tube (inside or outside) and the fresh water flows on the
other side. The heat is transferred from the contaminated water to
the fresh water and the fresh water is then returned back to is
source, which is usually a lake or river. It is very important to keep
the two water sources from mixing, so power plants are
periodically shutdown so the tubes and other equipment can be
inspected and repaired. The eddy current test method and the
related remote field testing method provide high-speed inspection techniques for these
applications.
A technique that is often used involves
feeding a differential bobbin probe into the
individual tube of the heat exchanger. With
the differential probe, no signal will be
seen on the eddy current instrument as long
as no metal thinning is present. When
metal thinning is present, a loop will be
seen on the impedance plane as one coil of
the differential probe passes over the
flawed area and a second loop will be
produced when the second coil passes over the damage. When the corrosion is on the
outside surface of the tube, the depth of corrosion is indicated by a shift in the phase lag.
The size of the indication provides an indication of the total extent of the corrosion damage.

A tube inspection using a bobbin probe is simulated below. Click the "null" button and then
drag either the absolute or the differential probe through the tube. Note the different signal
responses provided by the two probes. Also note that the absolute probe is much more
sensitive to dings and the build up of magnetite on the outside of the tube than the
differential probe is.

Outside groove: Red color signal

Inside groove: Blue color signal
Through hole: Green color signal
Steel support plate: Lila color signal
Magnetite deposit: Yellow color signal
Dent: Pinck color signal

Conductivity Measurements

One of the uses of eddy current instruments is for

the measurement of electrical conductivity. The
value of the electrical conductivity of a metal
depends on several factors, such as its chemical
composition and the stress state of its crystalline
structure. Therefore, electrical conductivity
information can be used for sorting metals, checking
for proper heat treatment, and inspecting for heat
damage.

The technique usually involves nulling an absolute probe in air and placing the probe in
contact with the sample surface. For nonmagnetic materials, the change in impedance of the
coil can be correlated directly to the conductivity of the material. The technique can be used
to easily sort magnetic materials from nonmagnetic materials but it is difficult to separate
the conductivity effects from the magnetic permeability effects, so conductivity
measurements are limited to nonmagnetic materials. It is important to control factors that
can affect the results such as the inspection temperature and the part geometry.
Conductivity changes with temperature so measurements should be made at a constant
temperature and adjustments made for temperature variations when necessary. The
thickness of the specimen should generally be greater than three standard depths of
penetration. This is so the eddy currents at the back surface of the sample are sufficiently
weaker than the variations in the specimen thickness that are not seen in the measurements.

Generally large pancake type, surface probes are used to get a value for a relatively large sample
area. The instrument is usually setup such that a ferromagnetic material produces a response that
is nearly vertical. Then, all conductive but nonmagnetic materials will produce a trace that moves
down and to the right as the probe is moved toward the surface. Think back to the discussion on
the impedance plane and these type of responses make sense. Remember that inductive
reactance changes are plotted along the y-axis and resistance changes are plotted in the x-axis.
Since ferromagnetic materials will concentrate the magnetic field produced by a coil, the inductive
reactance of the coil will increase. The effects on the signal from the magnetic permeability
overshadow the effects from conductivity since they are so much stronger.
When the probe is brought near a conductive but nonmagnetic material, the coil's inductive
reactance goes down since the magnetic field from the eddy currents opposes the magnetic
field of the coil. The resistance in the coil increases since it takes some of the coil's energy
to generate the eddy currents and this appears as additional resistance in the circuit. As the
conductivity of the materials being tested increases, the resistance losses will be less and
the inductive reactance changes will be greater. Therefore, the signals will be come more
vertical as the conductivity increases, as shown in the image above.

To sort materials using an impedance plane device, the signal from the unknown sample
must be compared to a signal from a variety of reference standards.  However, there are
devices available that can be calibrated to produce a value for electrical conductivity which
can then be compared to published values of electrical conductivity in MS/m or percent
IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard). Please be aware that the conductivity of a
particular material can vary significantly with slight variations in the chemical composition
and, thus, a conductivity range is generally provided for a material. The conductivity range
for one material may overlap with the range of a second material of interest, so conductivity
alone can not always be used to sort materials. The electrical conductivity values for a
variety of materials can be found in the material properties reference tables.

Conductivity Measurements
for the Verification of Heat Treatment

With some materials, such as solution heat treatable

aluminum alloys, conductivity measurements are
often made verifying that parts and materials have
received the proper heat treatment. High purity
aluminum is soft and ductile, and gains strength and
hardness with the addition of alloying elements. A
few such aluminum alloys are the 2000 series (2014,
2024, etc.), 6000 series (6061, 6063, etc.), and 7000
series (7050, 7075, etc.). The 2xxx series aluminum alloys have copper, the 6xxx series
have magnesium, and the 7xxx have zinc as their major alloying elements.

Heat treatment of aluminum alloys is accomplished in two phases - solution heat treatment
and then aging. In the solution heat treatment step, the alloys are heated to an elevated
temperature to dissolve the alloying elements into solution. The metal is then rapidly cooled
or quenched to “freeze” the atoms of the alloying elements in the lattice structure of the
aluminum. This distorts and stresses the structure, making electron movement more
difficult, thereby decreasing the electrical conductivity. In this condition, the alloys are still
relatively soft but start to gain strength as the alloying elements begin to precipitate out of
solution to form extremely small particles that impede the movement of dislocations within
the material. The formation of the precipitates can be controlled for many alloys by heating
and holding the material at an elevated temperature for a period of time (artificial aging).
As the alloying elements precipitate out of solid solution, the conductivity of the material
gradually increases. By controlling the amount of precipitated particles within the
aluminum, the properties can be controlled to produce peak strength or some combinations
of strength and corrosion resistance. Sometimes, the material must be annealed or put into
the softest, most ductile condition possible in order to perform forming operations.
Annealing allows all of the alloying elements to precipitate out of solution to form a coarse,
widely spaced precipitate. The electrical conductivity is greatest when the material is in the
annealed condition.

Since solution heat-treated and aged materials are stronger, components can be made using
less material. A lighter or more compact design is often of great importance to the designer
and well worth the cost of the heat treating process. However, think of the consequences
that could arise if a component that was supposed to be solution heat-treated and aged
somehow left the manufacturing facility and was put into service unheat-treated or
annealed. This is a real possibility since heat-treated aluminum parts look exactly like
unheat-treated parts. Consider 2024 aluminum as an example. Select tensile properties and
its electrical conductivity for various heat treatment conditions are given in the following
table.

Properties for Alclad 2024 Aluminum

Electrical
Heat Treatment Condition Ultimate Strength Yield Strength
Conductivity
Annealed (O) 26 ksi (180 MPa) 11 ksi (75 MPa) 50 % IACS
Solution Heat Treated and
64 ksi (440 MPa) 42 ksi (290 MPa) 30 % IACS
Naturally Aged (T42)
Solution Heat Treated,
Coldworked and 70 ksi (485 MPa) 66 ksi (455 MPa) 38 % IACS
Artificially Aged (T861)

It can be seen that the yield strength for the material is 42 kilopounds/square inch (ksi) (290
MPa) in the solution heat-treated and naturally aged condition (T42 condition). The yield
strength can be increased to 66 ksi (455 MPa) when coldworked and artificially aged (T861
condition). But in the annealed condition, the yield strength is reduced to 11 ksi (75 MPa).
If an annealed part were accidentally used where a part in the T42 or T861 was intended, it
would likely fail prematurely. However, a quick check of the conductivity using an eddy
current instrument of all parts prior to shipping would prevent this from occurring.

Thickness Measurements of Thin Material

Eddy current techniques can be used to perform a number of dimensional measurements.

The ability to make rapid measurements without the
need for couplant or, in some cases even surface
contact, makes eddy current techniques very useful.
The type of measurements that can be made include:

 thickness of thin metal sheet and foil, and of

metallic coatings on metallic and nonmetallic
substrate
 cross-sectional dimensions of cylindrical
tubes and rods
 thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metallic
substrates

Corrosion Thinning of Aircraft Skins

One application where the eddy current technique is

commonly used to measure material thickness is in the
detection and characterization of corrosion damage on the
skins of aircraft. Eddy current techniques can be used to
do spot checks or scanners can be used to inspect small
areas. Eddy current inspection has an advantage over
ultrasound in this application because no mechanical coupling is required to get the energy
into the structure. Therefore, in multi-layered areas of the structure like lap splices, eddy
current can often determine if corrosion thinning is present in buried layers.

Eddy current inspection has an advantage over radiography for this application because
only single sided access is required to perform the inspection. To get a piece of film on the
back side of the aircraft skin might require removing interior furnishings, panels, and
insulation which could be very costly. Advanced eddy current techniques are being
developed that can determine thickness changes down to about three percent of the skin
thickness.

Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Sheet, Strip and Foil

Eddy current techniques are used to measure the thickness of hot sheet, strip and foil in
rolling mills, and to measure the amount of metal thinning that has occurred over time due
to corrosion on fuselage skins of aircraft. On the impedance plane, thickness variations
exhibit the same type of eddy current signal response as a subsurface defect, except that the
signal represents a void of infinite size and depth. The phase rotation pattern is the same,
but the signal amplitude is greater. In the applet, the lift-off curves for different areas of the
taper wedge can be produced by nulling the probe in air and touching it to the surface at
various locations of the tapered wedge. If a line is drawn between the end points of the lift-
off curves, a comma shaped curve is produced. As illustrated in the second applet, this
comma shaped curve is the path that is traced on the screen when the probe is scanned
down the length of the tapered wedge so that the entire range of thickness values are
measured.

Conductividad A-B,
curva de conductividad puntos B-C

When making this measurement, it is important to keep in mind that the depth of
penetration of the eddy currents must cover the entire range of thicknesses being measured.
Typically, a frequency is selected that produces about one standard depth of penetration at
the maximum thickness. Unfortunately, at lower frequencies, which are often needed to get
the necessary penetration, the probe impedance is more sensitive to changes in electrical
conductivity. Thus, the effects of electrical conductivity cannot be phased out and it is
important to verify that any variations of conductivity over the region of interest are at a
sufficiently low level.

Measurement of Cross-sectional Dimensions of Cylindrical Tubes and Rods

Dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods can be measured with either OD coils or internal
axial coils, whichever is appropriate. The relationship between change in impedance and
change in diameter is fairly constant, except at very low frequencies. However, the
advantages of operating at a higher normalized frequency are twofold. First, the
contribution of any conductivity change to the impedance of the coil becomes less
important and it can easily be phased out. Second, there is an increase in measurement
sensitivity resulting from the higher value of the inductive component of the impedance.
Because of the large phase difference between the impedance vectors corresponding to
changes in fill-factor and conductivity (and defect size), simultaneous testing for
dimensions, conductivity, and defects can be carried out.

Typical applications include measuring eccentricities of the diameters of tubes and rods and
the thickness of tube walls. Long tubes are often tested by passing them at a constant speed
through encircling coils (generally differential) and providing a close fit to achieve as high
a fill-factor as possible.

An important application of tube-wall thickness measurement is the detection and

assessment of corrosion, both external and internal. Internal probes must be used when the
external surface is not accessible, such as when testing pipes that are buried or supported by
brackets. Success has been achieved in measuring thickness variations in ferromagnetic
metal pipes with the remote field technique.

Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Layers

It is also possible to measure the thickness of a thin layer of metal on a metallic substrate,
provided the two metals have widely differing electrical conductivities (i.e. silver on lead
where = 67 and 10 MS/m, respectively). A frequency must be selected such that there is
complete eddy current penetration of the layer, but not of the substrate itself. The method
has also been used successfully for measuring thickness of very thin protective coatings of
ferromagnetic metals (i.e. chromium and nickel) on non-ferromagnetic metal bases.

Depending on the required degree of penetration, measurements can be made using a

single-coil probe or a transformer probe, preferably reflection type. Small-diameter probe
coils are usually preferred since they can provide very high sensitivity and minimize effects
related to property or thickness variations in the underlying base metal when used in
combination with suitably high test frequencies. The goal is to confine the magnetizing
field, and the resulting eddy current distribution, to just beyond the thin coating layer and to
minimize the field within the base metals.
 Thickness Measurements of Nonconducting Coatings on
Conductive Materials

The thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metal substrates can be determined simply from
the effect of liftoff on impedance. This method has widespread use for measuring thickness
of paint and plastic coatings. The coating serves as a spacer between the probe and the
conductive surface. As the distance between the probe and the conductive base metal
increases, the eddy current field strength decreases because less of the probe's magnetic
field can interact with the base metal. Thicknesses between 0.5 and 25 µm can be measured
to an accuracy between 10% for lower values and 4% for higher values. Contributions to
impedance changes due to conductivity variations should be phased out, unless it is known
that conductivity variations are negligible, as normally found at higher frequencies.

Fairly precise measurements can be made with a standard eddy current flaw detector and a
calibration specimen. The probe is nulled in air and the direction of the lift-off signal is
established. The location of the signal is marked on the screen as the probe is placed on the
calibration specimen in areas of decreasing coating thickness. When the probe is placed on
the test surface, the position of the signal will move from the air null position to a point that
can be correlated to the calibration markings.

Specialized eddy current coating thickness detectors are also available and are often pocket-
sized with the probe resembling a small pencil. They are usually operated by a small battery
and provide a digital read-out in the appropriate units. Calibration adjustments, some of
which are laid down by standards such as BS EN 2360 (1995) and ASTM B 244 and E 376,
may be assisted by the use of an inbuilt microprocessor.

Scanning
Eddy current data can be collected using automated scanning systems to improve the
quality of the measurements and to construct images of scanned areas. The most common
type of scanning is line scanning where an automated system is used to push the probe at a
fixed speed. Line scan systems are often used when performing tube inspections or aircraft
engine blade slot inspections, where scanning in one dimension is needed. The data is
usually presented as a strip chart recording. The advantage of using a linear scanning
system is that the probe is moved at a constant speed, so indications on the strip chart can
be correlated to a position on the part being scanned. As with all automated scanning
systems, operator variables, such as wobble of the probe, are reduced.

Two-dimensional scanning systems are used to scan a two-dimensional area. This could be
a scanning system that scans over a relatively flat area in a X-Y raster mode, or it could be
a bolt hole inspection system that rotates the probe as it is moved into the hole. The data is
typically displayed as a false-color plot of signal strength or phase angle shift as a function
of position, just like an ultrasonic C-scan presentation. Shown below is a portable scanning
system that is designed to work on the skins of aircraft fuselage and wing sections.

Listed below are some automated scanning

advantages:

 minimizes changes in liftoff or fill factor

resulting from probe wobble, uneven surfaces,
and eccentricity of tubes caused by faulty
manufacture or damage
 accurate indexing
 repeatability
 high resolution mapping

Multiple Frequency Techniques

Multiple frequency eddy current techniques simply involve collecting data at several
different frequencies and then comparing the data or mixing the data in some way.

Why the need for multiple frequencies? - Some background information

The impedance of an eddy current probe may be affected by the following factors:

 variations in operating frequency

 variations in electrical conductivity and the magnetic permeability of a object or
structure, caused by structural changes such as grain structure, work hardening, heat
treatment, etc.
  changes in liftoff or fill factor resulting from probe wobble, uneven surfaces, and
eccentricity of tubes caused by faulty manufacture or damage
 the presence of surface defects such as cracks, and subsurface defects such as voids
and nonmetallic inclusions
 dimensional changes, for example, thinning of tube walls due to corrosion,
deposition of metal deposits or sludge, and the effects of denting
 the presence of supports, walls, and brackets
 the presence of discontinuities such as edges

Several of these factors are often present simultaneously. In the simple case where interest
is confined to detecting defects or other abrupt changes in geometry, a differential probe
can be used to eliminate unwanted factors, providing they vary in a gradual manner. For
example, variations in electrical conductivity and tube thinning affect both coils of a
differential probe simultaneously. However, if unwanted parameters that occur abruptly are
affecting the measurements, they can sometimes be negated by mixing signals collected at
several frequencies.

An example of where a multi-frequency eddy current inspection is used is in heat

exchanger tube inspections. Heat exchanger assemblies are often a collection of tubing that
have support brackets on the outside. When attempting to inspect the full wall thickness of
the tubing, the signal from the mounting bracket is often troublesome. By collecting a
signal at the frequency necessary to inspect the full thickness of the tube and subtracting a
second signal collected at a lower frequency (which will be more sensitive to the bracket
but less sensitive to features in the tubing), the effects of the bracket can be reduced.

There are a number of commercially available multi-frequency eddy current instruments.

Most operate at only two frequencies at a time but some units can collect data at up to four
frequencies simultaneously. Multi-frequency measurements can also be made using an
impedance analyzer but this equipment is generally not suitable for field measurements. A
typical impedance analyzer system is shown below. The interest in pulsed eddy current
instruments is largely due to their ability to, in essence, perform multi-frequency
measurements very quickly and easily.
 Swept Frequency

Swept frequency eddy current techniques involve collecting eddy current data at a wide
range of frequencies. This usually involves the use of a specialized piece of equipment such
as an impedance analyzer, which can be configured to automatically make measurements
over a range of frequencies. The swept-frequency technique can be implemented with
commercial equipment but it is a difficult and time-consuming measurement. The
advantage of a swept frequency measurement is that depth information can be obtained
since eddy current depth of penetration varies as a function of frequency.

Swept frequency measurements are useful in applications such as measuring the thickness
of conductive coatings on conductive base metal, differentiating between flaws in surface
coatings and flaws in the base metal and differentiating between flaws in various layers of
built-up structure. An example application would be the lap splice of a commercial aircraft.
Swept frequency measurements would make it possible to tell if cracking was occurring on
the outer skin, the inner skin or a double layer. Below is an example of the type of data that
can be obtained from swept-frequency measurements.

Data from swept-frequency measurements on two heats of material.

It can be seen that in the etched condition, the material labeled "good" exhibits a much
different signal response than the material labeled "bad." It can also be seen that a
frequency of around 2.2 MHz provides the largest separation in the curves. Therefore, this
frequency should be used if a single frequency is used to sort the parts made from the two
metals.

Pulsed Eddy Current Inspection

Conventional eddy current inspection techniques use sinusoidal alternating electrical

current of a particular frequency to excite the probe. The pulsed eddy current technique
uses a step function voltage to excite the probe. The advantage of using a step function
voltage is that it contains a continuum of frequencies. As a result, the electromagnetic
response to several different frequencies can be measured with just a single step. Since the
depth of penetration is dependent on the frequency of excitation, information from a range
of depths can be obtained all at once. If measurements are made in the time domain (that is
by looking at signal strength as a function of time), indications produced by flaws or other
features near the inspection coil will be seen first and more distant features will be seen
later in time.

To improve the strength and ease interpretation of the signal, a reference signal is usually
collected, to which all other signals are compared (just like nulling the probe in
conventional eddy current inspection). Flaws, conductivity, and dimensional changes
produce a change in the signal and a difference between the reference signal and the
measurement signal that is displayed. The distance of the flaw and other features relative to
the probe will cause the signal to shift in time. Therefore, time gating techniques (like in
ultrasonic inspection) can be used to gain information about the depth of a feature of
interest.

Remote Field Sensing

Eddy current testing for external defects in tubes where external access is not possible (e.g.
buried pipelines), is conducted using internal probes. When testing thick-walled
ferromagnetic metal pipes with conventional internal probes, very low frequencies (e.g. 30
Hz for a steel pipe 10 mm thick) are necessary to achieve the through-penetration of the
eddy currents. This situation produces a very low sensitivity of flaw detection. The degree
of penetration can, in principle, be increased by the application of a saturation magnetic
field. However, because of the large volume of metal present, a large saturation unit
carrying a heavy direct current may be required to produce an adequate saturating field.

The difficulties encountered in the internal testing of ferromagnetic tubes can be greatly
alleviated with the use of the remote field eddy current method.  This method provides
measurable through penetration of the walls at three times the maximum frequency possible
with the conventional direct field method. This technique was introduced by Schmidt in
1958. Although it has been used by the petroleum industry for detecting corrosion in their
installations since the early 1960s, it has only recently evoked general interest. This interest
is largely because the method is highly sensitive to variations in wall thickness, but
relatively insensitive to fill-factor changes. The method has the added advantage of
allowing equal sensitivities of detection at both the inner and outer surfaces of a
ferromagnetic tube. It cannot, however, differentiate between signals from these respective
surfaces.

EC Standards and Methods

STANDARDS

British Standards (BS) and American Standards (ASTM) relating to magnetic flux leakage
and eddy current methods of testing are given below. National standards are currently being
harmonized across the whole of Europe, and British Standards are no exception.
Harmonized standards will eventually be identified by the initials BS EN; for example, BS
5411 has been revised and is now known as BS EN 2360. Harmonization is unlikely to be
completed before 2001. The year of updating a British Standard is given in brackets. ASTM
standards are published annually and updated when necessary.

FLUX LEAKAGE METHODS (INCLUDING MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION)

British Standards (BS)

BS 6072:1981 (1986) Magnetic particle flaw detection

BS 4489:1984 Black light measurement
BS 5044:1973 (1987) Contrast aid paints
BS 5138:1974 (1988) Forged and stamped crankshafts
BS 3683 (part 2):1985 Glossary
BS 4069:1982 Inks and powders

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

ASTM E 709 Magnetic particle inspection practice

ASTM E 125 Indications in ferrous castings
ASTM E 1316 Definition of terms
ASTM E 570 Flux leakage examination of ferromagnetic steel tubular products

EDDY CURRENT METHODS

British Standards (BS)

BS 3683 (part 5):1965 (1989) Eddy current flaw detection glossary

BS 3889 (part 2A): 1986 (1991) Automatic eddy current testing of wrought steel tubes
BS 3889 (part 213): 1966 (1987) Eddy current testing of nonferrous tubes
BS 5411 (part 3):1984 Eddy current methods for measurement of coating thickness of
nonconductive coatings on nonmagnetic base material. Withdrawn: now known as BS EN
2360 (1995).

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

ASTM A 450/A450M General requirements for carbon, ferritic alloys and austenitic alloy
steel tubes
ASTM B 244 Method for measurement of thickness of anodic coatings of aluminum and
other nonconductive coatings on nonmagnetic base materials with eddy current instruments

ASTM B 659 Recommended practice for measurement of thickness of metallic coatings on

nonmetallic substrates
ASTM E 215 Standardizing equipment for electromagnetic testing of seamless aluminum
alloy tube
ASTM E 243 Electromagnetic (eddy current) testing of seamless copper and copper alloy
tubes
ASTM E 309 Eddy current examination of steel tubular products using magnetic saturation
ASTM E 376 Measuring coating thickness by magnetic field or eddy current
(electromagnetic) test methods
ASTM E 426 Electromagnetic (eddy current) testing of seamless and welded tubular
products austenitic stainless steel and similar alloys
ASTM E 566 Electromagnetic (eddy current) sorting of ferrous metals
ASTM E 571 Electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of nickel and nickel alloy tubular
products
ASTM E 690 In-situ electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of nonmagnetic heat-
exchanger tubes
ASTM E 703 Electromagnetic (eddy current) sorting of nonferrous metals
ASTM E 1004 Electromagnetic (eddy current) measurements of electrical conductivity
ASTM E 1033 Electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of type F continuously welded
(CW) ferromagnetic pipe and tubing above the Curie temperature
ASTM E 1316 Definition of terms relating to electromagnetic testing
ASTM G 46 Recommended practice for examination and evaluation of pitting corrosion