EE 151 Presentation - pptx-1

Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
EE 151 - APPLIED ELECTRICITY
Facilitator:- F. B. Effah (PhD)

Teaching Assistant:- Godfred Arthur
Address: Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

Faculty of Electrical & Computer Engineering
College of Engineering
Email: fbeffah.coe@knust.edu.gh
Office: Room 325, Caeser building
Office Hours: Monday – Thursday, 9am – 5pm
• Target students:
Firs year students on courses offered by Department of
Electrical and Electronic Engineering.
• Aims:
To introduce students with the physical principles
underpinning Electrical and Electronic Engineering, including
tools required to analyze electric and magnetic circuits.
2
Learning Outcomes
On completion of this subject, students will be able to
Knowledge and understanding
LO1: Understand Kirchhoff’s laws, Norton and Thévenin
equivalent circuits and be able to apply to simple circuits
LO2: Understand the concept of phasors and be able to apply to
simple ac circuits
Intended
LO3: Understand the superposition principle and be able to apply
Learning to simple ac circuits
Outcomes Intellectual skills
LO4: Reduce complex circuits to a simple form
LO5: Perform analysis on linear and non-linear magnetic circuits
Professional practical skills
LO6: Apply appropriate methods to analyse various circuits
3
Teaching Activities
 Presentation of lecture notes
 Tutorials
Examples class
4
Assessment
Distribution (%) LO1 LO2 LO3 LO4 LO5 LO6
Quizzes 10      
Assessment Homework 5      
Mid-Sem. Exam. 15      
Final Exam. 70      
Total 100
5
Reading List
 PowerPoint presentation
 P. Y. Okyere, E. A. Frimpong, Fundamentals of
Electric and Magnetic Circuits
 J. W. Nilsson and S. A. Riedel, Electric circuits,
Prentice hall, 7th ed., 2005
 R. Boylestad, Introductory circuit analysis, Prentice
Hall, 11th ed., 2007 6
Organization of Semester
 Unit 1: Circuits and Network Theorems Wk. 2 – Wk. 4
Kirchhoff's laws, Thevenin’s Theorem, Norton's Theorem, Superposition Theorem,
Reciprocity Theorem and Delta-Star Transformation.
 Unit 2: Alternating current circuitsWk. 4 – Wk. 6

Determination of Average and RMS values, Harmonics, Phasors, impedance, current
and power in ac circuits
 Unit 3: Three-phase circuits Wk. 6 – Wk. 9

Connection of three-phase windings, three phase loads, power in three-phase
circuits, solving three-phase circuit problems
 Unit 4: Magnetic circuits Wk. 9 – Wk. 11

Components and terminologies, solving magnetic circuit problems
7
UNIT 1: CIRCUIT AND NETWORKScience
THEOREMS& Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
 Definition
of a circuit
An interconnection of elements forming a closed path along which current
can flow.
R
+
V(t) L
-
C
Elements of an electric circuit

Active elements: Energy producing elements eg. Batteries,
Generators, Solar cells, Transistor models
Passive elements: Energy using elements eg.
Resistors, inductors, capacitors
8
CIRCUIT TERMINOLOGIES
 Node (Junction) –A point where currents split or come

together [ points c, d, e and f]
Path – Any connection where current flows [eg bc, be,
fa]
b c e g
a d f h
9
Branch – A connection (path) between two nodes [eg.

cd, cbad, df]
Loop/Mesh – a closed path of a circuit [ eg. cghdc]
b c e g
a d f h
10
 Short-circuit– A branch of theoretically zero resistance. It

diverts to itself all currents that would have flown in adjacent
branches (branches hooked to the same node) except
branches with sources.
a b R1 c R3 d
R1 a R2 R4
V R2 V R3
h g f e b
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
11
 Short-circuit cont.
Self assessment
Which of the resistors in the circuit below have been short-
circuited?
R 1 ANS: R2 and R3
V R2 R3
12
 Open circuit – A branch of theoretically infinite resistance.

It prevents current from flowing in its branch.
R2 R3 R5
V R1 R4
13
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
14
RESISTORS IN SERIES
15
RESISTORS IN SERIES
Resistors are in series when the same current flows through

them. There is NO JUNCTION between them.
R1 R2 R1 R2
V V R3
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
In Fig. 1 : R1 and R2 are in series
In Fig. 2: None of the resistors are in series
16
RESISTORS IN SERIES
Self assessment 1
Which of the following resistors are in series?
R2 R5 R6
R3
R1
R4
ANS: R1&R2, R3 & R4 and R5 & R6

17
RESISTORS IN SERIES
 Total (effective) resistance of series resistors

The total resistance RT for resistors R1, R2, R3, ….., RN which are
in series is given by:
RT  R1  R2  ...  RN
18
Resistors are said to be in parallel when the voltage across

them is the same.
R1//R2 R1//R2
R1//R2
R1//R3
R3//R2
19
Colloquially, TWO resistors are in parallel if it is possible to

traverse them without passing through another element.
R1 V R2
20
Self assessment
Which of the resistors in the circuit below are in parallel?
1.6Ω
3Ω 6Ω
4Ω
ANS: 4 // 6
21
Total resistance
When resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel, the total resistance RT
is given by:
1 1 1 R1 R2
   RT 
RT R1 R2 R1  R2
22
Science
EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
A CIRCUIT
Effective circuit resistance is found by identifying and putting

together series and or parallel resistors
Eg 1. Find the total resistance of the circuit below.
23 11
Solution RT  2 // 3  1  1  
23 5
23
EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF A CIRCUIT
Eg. 2. Find the total resistance of the circuit below.
Solution
2 2
RT  2 // 2   1   1  2
22
24
Science
EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
A CIRCUIT
Self Assessment 1
Find the total resistance of the circuit below.
2Ω
3Ω 6Ω
4Ω
V
Answer
 4 6  22 66
RT  4 // 6   2// 3    2 // 3  // 3  
4  6  5 37 25
EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF A CIRCUIT
Self Assessment 2
Find the total resistance of the circuit below.
Answer
1  3 1 3
RT  1 // 1  1// 1 // 1    1 // 1 // 1  //  
2  2 2 8
26
CURRENT DIVISIONScience
RULE & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
The current division rule is applied to share current between

parallel branches. Consider the circuits below
I
R1 R2
RT  I1 I2
R1  R2
R1 R2 V R1 R2
V  IRT I
R1  R2
R1 R2
I
V R1  R2 R1 R2 1 R2
I1   I  I
R1 R1 R1  R2 R1 R1  R2 27
CURRENT DIVISION RULE
Similarly, I
I1 I2
V R1 R2
R1
I2  I
R1  R2
28
Comparing currents I
I1 I2
V R1 R2
R2 R1
I1  I I2  I
R1  R2 R1  R2
29
Consider the figure below,

I
I1 I2
V R1 R2
R2 R1
I1  I I2   I
R1  R2 R1  R2
30
Example 1
Find the values of I1 and I2 in the circuit below.
10A
I1 I2
V 3Ω 2Ω
Solution
R2 2
I1  I   10  4 A
R1  R2 23
R1 3
I2   I   10  6 A
R1  R2 23 31
Example 2
Find the value of I1 in the circuit below.
10A
I1
V 3Ω 2Ω 2Ω
Solution
10A
I1 1
I1   10  2.5 A
V 3Ω 1Ω 1 3
32
VOLTAGE DROP
 Any time a voltage drives current through a resistor, some

of the voltage drops across the resistor.
The magnitude of the drop is the product of the resistance
and current
I V1 V2
R1 R2
V2  V  V1
33
VOLTAGE DROP
Example
Find the values of I and R in the circuit below.
I 4V
R 3
10V
Solution
Voltage across 3Ω resistor = 10 – 4 = 6V
Current in 3Ω resistor = I = 6/3 = 2A
Resistance R = 4V/I = 4/2 = 2Ω
34
REVISION EXERCISE
Find the value of I in the circuit below.

I
3 3.5
4 1 2 5 7
25V
Solution
I I
3 6

4 1 2 4 1 5
25V 25V
35
REVISION EXERCISE
12

13
1
25V
25 V 25
RT   IT    13 A
13 RT 25
13
36
REVISION EXERCISE
I
6

5
4 1
25V
6
I  5  13  3 A
6
4
5
37
Assignment 1Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
Find the value of the current in all resistors of the circuit

below using total resistance and voltage drop principles. DO
NOT use current division rule.
3.5 3
2 1 4 5 7
25V
Submission date: God willing a week today

Submission time: Before lecture starts
Where to submit: Teaching Assistant’s office
38
KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW(KCL)
The Law
The sum of currents entering a node equals the sum of currents leaving
the node.
i5
i6
i1 i4
i3
i2
Sum of currents entering
i1  i3  i5
Sum of currents Leaving
i2  i4  i6
Applying KCL
i1  i3  i5  i2  i4  i6
39
Example
Find the value of i in the figure below.
i
2
3 4
7
Solution
i23 47
i  5  11
i 6
40
Self assessment
Find the value of i in the figure below.
i
2
3 4
ANS
7
i2
41
KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW(KVL)
The law
The algebraic sum of the voltages in a loop (closed path) equals zero.
Alternatively, in a loop, the algebraic sum of voltage sources equals the
algebraic sum of voltage drops.
R1 R2 R4
a I1 b I2 c I4 d
I3 I5
R3 R5
V1 V2
Loop abgha h g f e
V1=I1R1+I3R3
Loop adeha
V1-V2=I1R1+I2R2-I4R4
42
R1 R2 R4
a I1 b I2 c I4 d
I3 I5
R3 R5
V1 V2
h g f e
0 = -I2R2 + I3R3 +I5R5

Loop cbgfc
V1=I1R1 + I2R2 – I5R5
Loop acfha
43
Example 1
Find the current in all parts of the circuit below.
2Ω 4Ω
b c e
I1 I2
32V 8Ω 20V
I3
a d
Applying KVL to loop bcdab 32 – 2I1 – 8I3 = 0
f
32 = 2I1 + 8I3 (1)

Applying KVL to loop ecdfe 20 – 4I2 – 8I3 = 0
20 = 4I2 + 8I3 (2)
44
Example 1
Find the current in all parts of the circuit below.
2Ω 4Ω
b c e
I1 I2
32V 8Ω 20V
I3
a d
Applying KVL to loop bcdab 32 – 2I1 – 8I3 = 0
f
32 = 2I1 + 8I3 (1)

Applying KVL to loop ecdfe 20 – 4I2 – 8I3 = 0
20 = 4I2 + 8I3 (2)
45
2Ω 4Ω
b c e
I1 I2
32V 8Ω 20V
I3
a d f
Applying KCL to node c: I 3  I1  I 2 (3)

Solving the equations simultaneously yields
I1 = 4A, I2 = -1A and I3 = 3A

46
Example 2
Find the currents in all parts of the circuit below.
2Ω c 5Ω e 2Ω g
b
I1 I1-I2 I2 I2-I3 I3
7V 3Ω 2Ω
10 V
I2
a d f h
2Ω
Solution
Apply KVL to loop cefdc
5I2 + 2 ( I2 – I3 ) + 2I2 - 3 ( I1 – I2 ) = 0
47
0 = -3I1 + 12I2 - 2I3 (1)

2Ω c 5Ω e 2Ω g
b
I1 I1-I2 I2 I2-I3 I3
7V 3Ω 2Ω
10 V
I2
a d f h
2Ω
Apply KVL to loop abcda: 7 = 2I1 + 3(I1 – I2)
7 = 5I1 – 3I2 (2)
Apply KVL to loop ghfeg: 10 = -2 ( I2 – I3 ) + 2I3
10 = -2I2 + 4I3 (3)
48
Solving the three equations:

0 = -3I1 + 12I2 - 2I3 (1)
7 = 5I1 – 3I2 (2)
10 = -2I2 + 4I3 (3)
Simultaneously,
I1 = 2.0A, I2 = 1.0A and I3 = 3.0A
49
Thevenin’s Theorem
Theorem:
Any linear circuit connected between two terminals can be
replaced by a Thevenin’s voltage(VTH) in series with a
Thevenin's resistance (RTH).
VTH is the open-circuit voltage across the two terminals

RTH is the resistance seen from the two terminals when all
sources
12 Ω
have been deactivated RTH
A B
A
6Ω VTH
42 V 35 V
B
50
To find the current through a resistor in a circuit, the following

steps are taken:
1. Remove the resistor from the circuit and mark the two
terminals.
12 Ω 3
A B
42 V 35 V
6Ω
51
2. Find the open-circuit voltage (VTH) across the two

terminals by applying KVL. Treat VTH as a source.
12 Ω
A B
VTH
42 V 35 V
6Ω
52
3. Recall the circuit created before step 2 and deactivate all

sources. Short-circuit voltage sources and Open-circuit
current sources.
12 Ω
A B
42 V 35 V
6Ω
53
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
4. Find the total resistance of the circuit resulting from step

3 as seen from the two terminals
12 Ω
A B
6Ω
54
5. Reproduce the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and connect

the resistor whose current is to be found.
RTH
A
VTH 3
B
55
6. Calculate the current in the circuit in step 5. This is the

current being sought.
I
RTH
A
VTH VTH 3
i
RTH  R
B
56
Example 1
Using Thevenin’s theorem, determine the current in the 3-Ω
resistor of the circuit below. 12 Ω 3Ω
42 V 35 V
6Ω
Solution 12 Ω
A B
Steps 1 & 2
VTH
6Ω
42 V 35 V
I
57
12 Ω A B
a b c
VTH
6Ω
42 V 35 V
I
f e d
Applying KVL to loop dcbed:

35 + VTH = 6I (1)
Applying KVL to loop fabef: 42  (12  6) I

7
I A
3 58
7
Substituting for I in equation 1: 35  VTH  6( )
3
Steps 3 & 4
VTH  21V
12 Ω RTH
A B
12  6
RTH  12 // 6   4
6Ω 12  6
59
Steps 5 & 6 RTH = 4Ω

A
I3
VTH= -21V 3Ω
VTH 21
I3 =   3 A
RTH  3 43
60
Example 2
Find the current in the 10-Ω resistor of the circuit below using
Thevenin’s theorem. 5Ω 10 Ω 12 Ω
4V 15 Ω 8Ω 6V
Solution 5Ω VTH
12 Ω
Steps 1 & 2 A B
4V I1 15 Ω I2 8Ω 6V
61
5Ω VTH
c 12 Ω d
a b
A B
4V I1 15 Ω I2 8Ω 6V
h g f e
Applying KVL to loop cbgfc: VTH = 15I1 - 8I2 (1)

1
Applying KVL to loop abgha: 4 = (5+15)I1 I1  A
5
Applying KVL to loop dcfed: 6  (12  8) I
2
3
I2  A
10 62
Substituting for I1 and I2 in equation 1 yields:

 1  3  3
VTH  15   8   V
 5   10  5
5Ω RTH
12 Ω
Steps 3 & 4 A B
15 Ω 8Ω
171
RTH  (5 // 15)  (12 // 8)  
20
63
Steps 5 & 6 RTH

A
I
VTH 10 Ω
VTH 3 3  20
I    = 0.032 A
RTH  10  171  5  371
5  10 
 20 
64
Use Thevenin’s theorem to find the current in the 5Ω resistor

of the circuit below.
2Ω c 5Ω e 2Ω g
b
7V 3Ω 2Ω
10 V
a d f h
2Ω
65
NORTON’S Theorem
Theorem:
Any linear circuit connected between two terminals can be
replaced by a Norton’s current(IN) in parallel with a Norton's
resistance (RN).
IN is the short-circuit current between the two terminals

RN is the resistance seen from the two terminals when all
sources
12 Ω have
A
been
B
deactivated (RN = RTH) A
6Ω IN
42 V RN
35 V
B
66
NORTON’S Theorem
To find the current through a resistor in a circuit, the following

steps are taken:
1. Remove the resistor from the circuit and mark the two
terminals.
12 Ω 3
A B
42 V 35 V
6Ω
67
NORTON’S Theorem
2. Find the short-circuit current (IN) through the two

terminals by applying KVL.
12 Ω IN
A B
42 V 35 V
6Ω
68
NORTON’S Theorem
3. Recall the circuit created before step 2 and deactivate all

sources. Short-circuit voltage sources and Open-circuit
current sources.
12 Ω
A B
42 V 35 V
6Ω
69
NORTON’S THEOREM
4. Find the total resistance of the circuit resulting from step

3 as seen from the two terminals
12 Ω
A B
6Ω
70
NORTON’S THEOREM
5. Reproduce the Norton’s equivalent circuit and connect

the resistor whose current is to be found.
IN 3
RN
71
NORTON’S THEOREM
6. Calculate the current in the circuit in step 5. This is the

current being sought for.
I
A
IN 3
RN
RN
i  IN
RN  3
B
72
NORTON’S THEOREM
Example 1
Using Norton’s theorem, determine the current in the 3-Ω
resistor of the circuit below. 12 Ω 3Ω
42 V 35 V
6Ω
Solution I+IN 12 Ω A IN B
Steps 1 & 2 I
6 Ω
42 V 35 V
73
NORTON’S THEOREM
12 Ω
a I+IN b A IN B c
I
6 Ω
42 V 35 V
f e d
Applying KVL to loop abefa: 42 = 12(I+IN) + 6I
42 = 18I + 12IN (1)
Applying KVL to loop cbedc: 35 = 6I
35
I A
6
74
NORTON’S THEOREM
 35 
Substituting for I in equation 1: 42  18   12 I N
 6
 21
IN  A
Steps 3 & 4 4
12 Ω RN
A B 12  6
RN  12 // 6   4
12  6
6Ω
75
NORTON’S THEOREM
Steps 5 & 6
I3
A
 21 4 3
A
4
B
4  21
I3    3 A
43 4
76
NORTON’S THEOREM
Example 2
Determine the current in the load resistor RL
A
R1 R2 R3 R4 RL
E1 E2 E3 E4
B
A
Solution I1 I2 I3 I4
R1 R2 R3 R4 IN
E1 E2 E3 E4
B
77
NORTON’S THEOREM
A
I1 I2 I3 I4
R1 R2 R3 R4 IN
E1 E2 E3 E4
B
Solution I N  I1  I 2  I 3  I 4
Applying KCL E1 E2 E3 E4
   
R1 R2 R3 R4
78
NORTON’S THEOREM
Finding RN
A
R1 R2 R3 R4 RN
1 1 1 1 1
   
R N R1 R2 R3 R4
79
NORTON’S THEOREM
Finding IL A
IL
IN RN RL
B
RN
IL   IN
RN  RL
80
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
The Theorem
The current through(or the voltage across) any element in a
multiple-source linear circuit can be found by taking the
algebraic sum of the current through(or the voltage across)
that element due to each individual source acting alone.
81
The Theorem I
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
42V 35V
IA IB
12Ω 12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
6Ω 3Ω
+
42V 35V
82
Example 1
Use superposition theorem to find the current supplied by
the 35V battery of the circuit below.
I
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
Solution 42V 35V
With the 42V battery acting alone,

IA
RT  3 // 6   12  14
12Ω 42
6Ω 3Ω IT   3A
14
6
42V IA  3  2A
63
83

IB
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
35V
RT  12 // 6  3  7
35
IT   5A
7
I B  IT  5 A
84
With both batteries acting,

I IA IB
12Ω 12Ω 12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
6Ω
=
3Ω
+
6Ω 3Ω
42V 35V 35V

42V
I  IB  I A
 5  2  3A
85
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
The Theorem
An ideal ammeter and ideal voltage source when inserted in
two different branches of a linear network can be
interchanged without changing the reading of the ammeter
R1 R2 R1 R2
+
+
V(t)
R3 A = A
R3 V(t)
- -
86
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Similarly,
An ideal voltmeter and ideal current source when connected
across two different branches of a network can be
interchanged without changing the reading of the voltmeter.
R3 R3
+ +
R1 R2 + R1 R2 +
i R4
-
V = V R4
-
i
- -
87
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Example 1
Jointly use superposition and reciprocity theorems to find
the current supplied by the 35V battery of the circuit below.
I
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
Solution 42V 35V

RT  3 // 6   12  14
IA 42
12Ω IT   3A
6Ω 3Ω 14
6
IA  3  2A
42V
63 88
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
The second circuit to be solved is:

IB IA
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω 12Ω
is comparable 6Ω 3Ω
35V to 42V
Applying the reciprocity theorem

IA IA
12Ω 12Ω
6Ω 3Ω 6Ω 3Ω
42V
= 42V
A B
89
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
IB IA
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω 12Ω
6Ω 3Ω
is comparable
35V
to circuit B 42V
Applying proportion,
If 42V = IA =2A,
Then 35V =(35*2)/42=5/3A
5
A
3
IB
Applying KVL,
12Ω 3Ω 5
6Ω
35  3I  12 
B
3
35V  I B  5A
90
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
I  IB  I A
 5  2  3A
91
Use Norton’s theorem to find the current in the 2Ω resistor

connected between e and f in the circuit below.
2Ω c 5Ω e 2Ω g
b
7V 3Ω 2Ω
10 V
a d f h
2Ω
92
DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATION

The transformation is employed in situations where
neither series nor parallel arrangements can be
identified.

An arrangement of three(3) resistors where the resistors
are connected to each other is a delta arrangement.
A
A A
R2 R3
R2 R3
B R1 C
B R1 C
93

An arrangement of three(3) resistors where all
resistors have a common point of connection
through one terminal is a star(wye)
arrangement.
Ra
Ra
Rc Rb Rc Rb
94
A delta arrangement can be changed to star and vice versa

using the following relations:
A R2 R3
Ra 
R1  R2  R3
Ra R3 R1
R2 R3 Rb 
R1  R2  R3
Rc Rb R1 R2
Rc 
B R1 C R1  R2  R3
95
A
Rb Rc
R1  Rb  Rc 
Ra
Ra
R2 R3
Ra Rc
Rb R2  Ra  Rc 
Rc Rb
B R1 C Ra Rb
R3  Ra  Rb 
Rc
When all values are the same, delta values are 3
times star values
96
Example 1
Determine the voltage V0 across the 6Ω resistor of the circuit below
6Ω
2Ω 2Ω
a
10 V 2Ω 6Ω Vo
Solution 6
2
Ra
2
Ra  Rb  Rc  2  3  6
2 Rb
6
10 R
c
97
6Ω
6Ω
10V 6Ω
6Ω
6Ω
3Ω
a
3
V0   10V  5V
3Ω 33
10V 6Ω
Vo
b
98
Assignment 4 Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
Use Norton’s theorem to find the current in the 3Ω resistor

connected between points A and B of the circuit below.
A
3Ω 2.4Ω
3Ω
3Ω 5Ω
3Ω
10v
Where to submit: Teaching Assitant’s office
99
ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS


Alternating current (AC) circuits are circuits with currents and voltages which are time-varying

Examples of AC waveforms are:
Sine wave

Square wave

Triangular wave
100
TERMINOLOGIES IN AC CIRCUITS

Amplitude (peak): The maximum deviation of the function from its center
position

Cycle: A repeating portion of a function (wave).

Period (T): The duration of a cycle
1

Frequency(f): The inverse of period. f 
T
v(V)
E
A B C
t(s)
-E
101
AVERAGE VALUE

Average value: The average value of a periodic function is its dc value.
If
Then
i  f (t )
1 T area[ f (t )]
I av 
T  0
f (t ) dt 
T
102
AVERAGE VALUE
The following steps are followed when finding average values of waveforms:
1.Identify a cycle of the wave
2.Note the period
3.Find the area of the cycle
4.Divide the area by the period
103
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE

The Root Mean Square (RMS) or Effective value of an alternating quantity is the value of a direct current which when flowing through a given
resistance for a given time produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same resistance.
The RMS value of an alternating current is:
i  f (t )
1
area[ f t  ]
2
 1 T  2
  0  f (t ) dt 
2
I rms 
T  T
104

The following steps are taken when finding the RMS value of a waveform :
1.Identify a cycle of the waveform
2.Note the period
3.Square the cycle
4.Find the area under the squared cycle
5.Divide the area by the period
6.Take the square root of the result
105

Example 1
Find the average and rms values of the waveform below.
v
Solution E
Average Value
Cycle spans from 0 to 4
Period= 4s
Area of cycle
2 4 6 8 s
-E
 2  E   2   E 
106

0
Area 0
Vavg    0V
period 4
107

v
RMS value
Cycle spans 0 to 4 E
Period = 4s
Squared cycle
2 4 6 8 s
Area covered by squared cycle
-E
Division of area by period
E2
2 4
 4  E  4E 2 2
4E 2
 E 2
4 108

Taking square root
Vrms  E E
2
109

Example 2
Calculate the effective value of the voltage below.
sine
Solution
V m

Cycle spans from 0 to 2π

Area of sine part
θ
π 2π
2
 2  Vm (1  cos 2 )
As   Vm sin d   2
d
Vm
0 2
0 2
 
2
110

sine
Vm
Area of triangular part
θ
π 2π
2 
 V
 m 2  V 
2
 V 2
m
3
At  
Total area:
   d   2   
m
0
    3  0 3
Mean
V  V  5 2
2 2
  m
 Vm  m
2 3 6
5 2
Vm 
6 5 2
  Vm
2 12 111

RMS value
5 2 5
 Vm  Vm
Note:
12
The area of a squared right-angled triangular wave is
12
bh 2

3 112
SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES AND CURRENT

Voltages and currents of commercial ac generators have the following expressions:
or
v  Vm sin t
is the peak voltage
is the frequency in Hz
v  Vm sin 2ft
Vm
is the angular frequency in radian per second. It specifies how many oscillations occur in a unit time interval
f

113
SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES AND CURRENT
i  I m sin t or
i  I m sin 2ft
is the peak current
is the frequency in Hz
Im
is the angular frequency in radian per second. It specifies how many oscillations occur in a unit time interval
f

114
RMS VALUE OF SINUSOIDAL QUANTITIES

The RMS value of a sinusoidal voltage
is given by:
v  Vm sin 2ft
1
1 T 2 2  2
V    Vm sin 2ftdt 
T 0 
1
 1 TV
2
 2
  0 (1  cos 4ft ) dt 
m
T 2 
1
V T 
2 2
Vm
 
m

 2 T  2
115

Similarly,
The RMS value of a sinusoidal current
i  I m sin 2ft
is given by:
Im
I 
2
116

Example 1
Find the rms values of the following quantities:
(a)
(b)
i  10 2 sin 100t
v  20 sin 100t
Solution
(a)
(b)
10 2
I   10
2
20
V   14.14
2
117
HARMONICS
Non-sinusoidal periodic voltages and currents can be expressed as the sum of sine waves in which the
lowest frequency is f and all other frequencies are integral multiples of f.
For example, a square wave of amplitude E can be expressed as:
v(t )
4E  1 1 
v(t )  sin 2ft  sin 6ft  sin 10ft    
  3 5 
118
HARMONICS

Any quantity which contains multiple frequencies is a harmonic quantity.

The frequency of which others have been expressed as multiples of is the fundamental frequency.

An odd multiple of the fundamental is an odd harmonic.

An even multiple of the fundamental is an even harmonic.
119
RMS VALUE OF A HARMONIC

QUANTITY
The effective value of a harmonic quantity is obtained by:


First obtaining the square of the rms value of each term

Adding the obtained squared rms values

Taking the square root of the sum
v(t )  ao  a1 sin t  1   a 2 sin 2t   2   a3 sin 3t   3   ........

2 2 2
 a1   a 2   a3 
2
V  a o           ..........
 2  2  2 120
RMS VALUE OF A HARMONIC

QUANTITY
Example
Find the RMS value of the current
i (t )  2  5 sin wt  3 2 sin 3wt  30 

Solution
0
2 2
 5  3 2
I  2   
2

 2  2 
 5.05 121
PHASORS

Phasors are used to represent sinusoidal quantities to avoid drawing the sine waves.

A phasor is a straight line whose length is proportional to the rms voltage or current it represents.

To show the phase angle or phase displacement between voltages and currents, the phasors bear an arrow.
122
PHASORS

Two phasors are said to be in phase when they point in the same direction. The phase angle between them is then zero.
V
I I V
123
PHASORS

Two phasors are said to be out of phase when they point in different directions.

The phase angle between them is the angle through which one of them has to be rotated to make it point in the same direction as the other.
φ
I
124
PHASOR DIAGRAMS

It is used to show at a glance the magnitude and phase relations among the various quantities within a network. This is often helpful in the analysis of the network.

Example
A 50 Hz source having rms voltage of 240 V delivers a rms current of 10 A to a circuit. The current lags the voltage by 30°. (a) Draw the phasor diagram for the circuit. (b)
Express the voltage and current as functions of time.
125
PHASOR DIAGRAMS

Solution
(a) Take V as the reference
(b) V = 240V
o
30
I = 10A
v (t )  240 2 sin 100t


i (t )  10 2 sin(100t  30 )
126
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF SINUSOIDAL

QUANTITIES

The sum of sinusoidal quantities is obtained by taking the vector sum of their phasors.

The difference of sinusoidal quantities is obtained by first reversing the subtracted quantity and adding it as a vector to the other phasors.

A sinusoidal quantity is reversed by adding 1800 to its angle

Only sinusoidal quantities of the SAME FREQUENCY can be added or subtracted.
127

QUANTITIES

Example 1
Let v1(t) = 60 sin ωt and v2(t) = 80 sin (ωt – 90°). Determine (a) v1 + v2 and (b) v1 – v2

Solution
(a) Phasor diagram
V1 ≡ 60
Φ
V1 + V2
V2 ≡ 80
V1  V2  602  802  100

1  80 
  tan    530
 60 
128

QUANTITIES
 v1  v2  100 sin t  53
(b)
 0

v1  v2  v1   v2 
Phasor diagram
 60 sin t  80 sin t  900  1800 

 60 sin t  80 sin t  900 
-V2 ≡ 80
V1 ≡ 60 129

QUANTITIES
V1 – V2
-V2 ≡ 80
Φ
V1 ≡ 60
V1 V2  60  80  100
2 2
1  80 
  tan    53 0
 60 
 v1  v2  100 sin t  53  0
 130

QUANTITIES

Example 2
Four conductors meet at a junction. The following relationship exists between them.
Find the value of given that
i4 i 4  i1  i 2  i 3
i1  5 sin t
i 2  8 sint  3   5 sin 3t
i 3  15 sint  4   8 sin3t  3 
131

QUANTITIES

Solution
(a) There are two different frequencies. They must therefore be added separately.
Addition of part.
X-component
Y-component
 8
 8 cos 60  5  15 cos 45 o 0 60o

5
 19.607 45 o
 8 sin 60  0  15 sin 45 o 0
 3.678 132

QUANTITIES
Amplitude
19.607    3.678 
2 2
Angle

Therefore, part of is
 19.949
  3.678 
 tan    10.62
1
0
 19.607 
 i4
19.949 sint  10.62  0
133

QUANTITIES
3
Addition of part.
X-component
Y-component
Amplitude 8
 8 cos 60  5 0
60o
9
5
 8 sin 60  0 0
 6.928
 9  6.928  11 .358
2 2
134

QUANTITIES
Angle
 6.928 
Therefore, part of is
Hence tan    37.59

1
0
 9 
3 i4
11 .358 sin3t  37.59 0


i4  19.949 sint  10.62   0
11 .358 sin3t  37.59 0


135
ASSIGNMENT 5
Four circuit elements are connected in series across a sinusoidal alternating voltage given by . The instantaneous voltage across three of the elements are given by
 
(a)Determine the expression for the fourth voltage in the form
(b) What is the r.m.s. value of v4? e  110 sin t  300

Use phasor diagrams. DO NOT use complex number approach
v1  30 sin t , v2  60 sin t  600  and v3  30 sin t  300 
v4  A sin t   
136
IMPEDANCE (Z)

The opposition to current flow in ac circuits owing to the presence of combinations of resistive, inductive and capacitive elements.
Opposition due to inductance (L) is called inductive reactance(XL).

Opposition due to capacitance is called capacitive reactance(XC).

137
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Phase relationship between the current and voltage in a resistor
v
Let
i
i
It is noted that the voltage across and the current through a resistor are in phase.
+
R R v
v  Vm sin t -
v Vm sin t
i   I m sin t
R R
138
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Phase relationship between the current and voltage in an inductor
Let
i
di +
It is noted that the current through an inductor lags the voltage by 90 0.
vL VL  I L X L
dt L v
i  I m sin t -
v  L  I m cos t  LI m sint  90 

0
 Vm sint  90 
0
X L  L 139
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Phase relationship between the current and voltage in a capacitor
Let
i
dv V  I X
It is noted that the current through a capacitor leads the voltage by 90 0.
ic C C C
C
+
v
dt -
v  Vm sin t
i  C  Vm cos t  CVm sint  90 0
 I m sin t  90 
0
Xc  1
c 140
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Series circuit containing R and L
VR VL
I VL V
R XL
VR I
V  VR  VL 2
2
V  VR  VL
2 2 Z  R  XL
2 2
 IZ    IR    IX L 
2
2 2 2
Z R  XL 2
141
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Phase angle between current and voltage in a series RL circuit

The current in a series RL circuit lags the voltage but not by 90 0
 XL  VL V
  tan  
1
 R  ϕ
VR I
142
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Series circuit containing R and C
VR VC
VR I
I
R
XC
ϕ
VC V
V
V  VR  VC 2
2 2
Z  R  XC
2 2
V  VR  VC 2
2
Z R  XC 2
 IZ    IR    IX C  2 2 2
143
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Phase angle between current and voltage in a series RC circuit

The current in a series RC circuit leads the voltage but not by 90 0
VR I
 XC  ϕ
  tan  
1
 R 
VC V
144
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Series circuit containing R, L and C
VR VL VC VL
I
R XL XC V
VR I
V VC
V  VR  VL  V c
V  VR  VL  VC 
2 2 2
145
IMPEDANCE (Z)
V  VR  VL  VC 
2 2 2
  IR    IX L  IX c 
2 2
V   IR    IX L  IX c 
2 2
IZ  I R   X L  X c 
2 2
R  X L  Xc 
2
Z 2
146
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Phase angle between current and voltage in a series RLC circuit

Current in a series RLC circuit may lead or lag the voltage depending on the relative values of XL
and XC
XL
Z
 X L  XC 
  tan  
1
ϕ
 R 
R
XC
147
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Example 1
A coil has R=12Ω and L=0.1H. It is connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (a) the reactance and impedance of the coil (b) the current and (c) the phase difference or angle between the current and the applied voltage.

Solution
(a)
I
XL
R
XL Z
ϕ
R I
X L  2fL  2  50  0.1  31.416 

V
2
Z  R  X L  12  31.416
2 2 2
 33.630  148
IMPEDANCE (Z)
V 100
(b)
(c)
I   2 .974 A
X L V
Z 33.630 ϕ
R I
 XL   1  31.416 
  tan 
1
  tan  
 R   12 
 69.09 0
149
IMPEDANCE (Z)

Example 2
A metal filament lamp, rated at 750W, 100V is to be connected in series with a capacitor across a 230V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (a) the capacitance required and (b) the phase angle between the current and supply voltage.

Solution
(a)
R
VC I
ϕ
I
XC 
R
XC
2 IC
XC V
2
V  VR  VC
2
V
VC  V  VR  230  100
2 2 2 2
 207.123V
150
IMPEDANCE (Z)
PR 750
(a)
Hence,
I R  IC  I    7.5 A
VR 100
VC 207.123
 XC    27.616 
IC 7.5
1 1
c 
2fX C 2  50  27.616
 115 F
151
IMPEDANCE (Z)
(b)
 X C   tan  1  VC 
  tan  1

 R   VR 
 1  207.123 
 tan  
 100 
 64.23 0
152

There are three kinds of power in ac circuits
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
1. Apparent Power (S) which is measured in Volt-amperes (VA)
2. Active Power (P) which is measured in Watts (W).
Active Power is also called Actual Power, Useful Power, True Power, Real Power or simply, Power
3. Reactive Power (Q) which is measured in Volt-amperes reactive (VAR)
153

The following relationships exist between S, P and Q
is called power factor (pf)
S  VI Q
S
S  P Q 2 2 2 ϕ
P
P  S cos  Q  S sin
cos 
P
pf 
S 154

Power factor may be said to be lagging or leading.

Power factor is lagging when current lags voltage

Power factor is leading when current leads voltage
155

Relationships between the three passive elements , P and Q.
1.Resistors consume only P
Q
2.Inductors consume only Q
3.Capacitors do not consume P and Q. They rather supply Q or reduce the consumption of Q.
XL S
Z
ϕ
R ϕ
P
XC
156

Example 1
A single-phase motor connected to a 400-V, 50-Hz supply is developing 10 kW with efficiency of 84 per cent and a power factor of 0.7 lagging. Calculate (a) the input kVA (b) the active and reactive components of the current and (c) the reactive kVA.

Solution
(a)
Pout 10
Pin    11 .905 kW
 0.84
157
Pin 11 .905
S   17.007 kVA
(b)
pf 0.7
S 17.007  10 3
S  VI  I  
V 400
 42.518 A
I
r
I I a  I cos   42.518  0.7
 29.766 A
2
ϕ Ir  I  Ia
2
I
 30.361 A
a
158
Q  VI sin  VI r  400  30.361
(b)
 12.144 kVAR
159

Example 2
An emf whose instantaneous value is given by 283sin(314t + π/4)V is applied to an inductive circuit and the current in the circuit is 5.66sin(314t – π/6)A. Determine (a) the frequency of the emf (b) the R and L (c) the power absorbed.

Solution
(a)
(b)
314
2f  314  f   50 Hz
2
V 283 5.66
Z    50 
I 2 2
160
  10 Z
       75 XL 0
(b)
4 6 24
R  Z cos   50 cos75 0 ϕ
 12.941 R
X L  Z sin  50 sin75  48.296 
0
XL 48.296
X L  2fL  L  
2f 2  50
 0.154 H
161
(c)
283 5.66
P  VI cos    cos75 0
2 2
 207.286W
162
USING COMPLEX NUMBERS

TO SOLVE AC CIRCUIT PROBLEMS

The ability to make a vector quantity appear as a scalar quantity using complex numbers is utilized in the analysis of ac circuits.

All the mathematical manipulations in complex algebra hold when employing complex numbers in analyzing ac circuits.

The operator ‘i’ is replaced with ‘j’ in other to avoid confusing it with current.
163


The three passive elements are represented as follows:
1. as a complex number is
4.Series impedance
R R
XL jX L
XC  jX C
XL
Z
Z  R  j X L  X C  ϕ
R
XC
164

Example 1
Express in rectangular and polar notations, the impedance of each of the following circuits at a frequency of 50 Hz: (a) a resistance of 20 Ω (b) a resistance of 20 Ω in series with an inductance of 0.1 H (c) a resistance of 50 Ω in series with a capacitance of 40 μF.

Solution
(a)
(b)
Z  20  j 0  200 0
X L  2fL  2  50  0.1  31.416 

 Z  20  j 31.416
 37.242 57.52 0 165

(c)
1 1
XC  
2fC 2  50  40  10 6
 Z  50  j79.577  79.577 
 93.981  57.86 0
166


Example 2
A circuit is arranged as indicated in the figure below, the values being as shown. Calculate the value of the current in each branch and its phase relative to the supply voltage.

Solution
A
150 μF 20 Ω
C
Z A  20  j 0 0.1 H B
5Ω
200 V, 50 Hz
Z B  R  jX L  5  j 31.4
Z C   jX C   j 21.2 
Z AB  Z A // Z B  15.84 29.48 0
167

A
Choosing the voltage as the reference phasor,
150 μF 20 Ω
 13.78  j7.8
C
B 0.1 H
Z T  Z C  Z AB
5Ω
200 V, 50 Hz
  j 21.2  13.78  j7.8 

 19.22  44.2 0
V 2000 0
I C  IT  
ZT 19.22  44.2 0
 10.4  44.2 0
168

Current leads supply voltage by 44.20
VAB  IZ AB 10.4  44.2  15.84  29.48 

0 0
Current leads supply voltage by 73.680
 164.873.68 150 μF A
0
VAB 20 Ω
IA  C
ZA B 0.1 H 5Ω
164.873.68 0 200 V, 50 Hz

20
 8.24 73.68 0
169

VAB  164.873.68
Current lags supply voltage by 7.270 0
0  5.18   7.27
0
IB 
Z B 31.79 80.95
A
150 μF 20 Ω
C
B 0.1 H 5Ω
200 V, 50 Hz
170

S  VI
Q is positive when the current lags the voltage
*
 P  jQ

Q is negative when the current leads the voltage
171
CALCULATION OF COMPLEX
POWER

Example 1
The potential difference across and the current in a circuit are represented by 100 + j200 v and 10 + j5 a respectively. Calculate the power and reactive voltamperes (or vars).

Solution
S  VI  100  j 200 10  j 5 

*
*
 100  j 200 10  j 5 

 2000  j 1500
P  2000W Q  1500VAR 172
POWER
Example 2
A small installation consists of the following loads connected in parallel across a single-phase 240V, 50Hz supply:
(a) a fan motor taking an input of 1.5kVA at 0.75pf lag,
(b) a 1000W radiator operating at unity power factor
(c) a number of fluorescent lamps taking a total load of 1.2kVA at 0.95pf lagging
Find the total current, kW, kVA and power factor of the load.
173

Solution
POWER
The problem is solved by obtaining the active and reactive component of each load and then summing all reactive components and all active components
Load (kVA) cosϕ P(kW) = sinϕ Q(kVAR) =

Scosϕ Ssinϕ
( a ) 1.5 0.75 1.125 0.66 0.99

( b ) 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 0
( c ) 1.2 0.95 1.14 0.312 0.374
TOTAL
3.265 1.364
174
POWER
 Total kW  3.265
Total kVA  P  Q
2 2
 3.265  1.364
2 2
 3.54
S 3.54  10 3
I   14.8 A
V 240
P 3.265
pf    0.923 lagging
S 3.54 175
POWER

NOTE
In the problem above, if one load had a leading power factor, then its Q would have a negative sign and thus would have subtracted from the others.
176
Assignment 6
A small installation consists of the following loads connected

in parallel across a single-phase 240V, 50Hz supply:
(a) a fan motor having an input of 2kVA at 0.75pf lag,
(b) a 1.5kW radiator operating at unity power factor,
(c) a 1kVA load operating 0.85 leading power factor.
Find the total current, kW, kVA and power factor of the load.

177
THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
A single-phase generator produces a single

sinusoidal voltage.
A 3-phase generator on the other hand
produces three equal voltages which are out
of phase with one another by 120o.
The three voltages are generated in three
separate windings arranged in a special way
in the machine.
178
A 3-phase system is a power supply system

consisting of three voltages which are 120 o out
of phase with one another.
Three-phase systems have the following
advantages over single phase systems
Three-phase motors, generators and
transformers are simpler, cheaper and more
efficient
Three-phase transmission lines can deliver
more power for a given weight and cost 179
The voltage regulation of three-phase

transmission lines is inherently better
A 1-phase supply can be obtained from a 3-

phase one
180
Winding arrangement of a three-phase

generator
181
A three-phase transmission line
182
11 kV Distribution Feeder
183
A Distribution Line
184

The two main connections of three-phase windings
1.A star arrangement where all winding have a common point

Letters a, b and c , colours red (R), yellow (Y) and blue (B) or numbers 1, 2 and 3 are used to name the windings
a line
L1
Neutral point Va
Vb
Vc L2
c b
L3
185
2. A delta arrangement where all winding are connected to each other
a
Letters a, b and c , colours red (R), yellow(Y) and blue (B) or numbers 1, 2 and 3 are used to name the windings line
L1
Va Vb
c L2
b
Vc
186

The phasor diagram for the three-voltages (in star or delta) is indicated below.
V3,Vc or VB
Vc  Vm sint  120 o

V1,Va or VR
Va  Vm sin t
V2,Vb or VY
Vb  Vm sint  120 o

187

Line and phase voltages
The voltage from one line to another is called a line-to-line voltage or simple a line voltage
The voltage across each winding is a phase voltage
On a phasor diagram, a line voltage is drawn from the end of one phase to another in the anti clockwise direction
Van = V0
Vab
N Vbn = V  120
b
Vcn = V   120
c
188

Relationship between line and phase voltages for a star connection
Hence, for a star connection, the line voltage is times the phase voltage.
Vab  Van  Vbn

 V0  V  120
o 0
 V 1  1  120 
0
 V 1  cos 120   j sin 120 

3 3
  3V 30
0
V  j
2 2 
3
VL  3V p
189

Relationship between Line and phase voltages for a delta connection
Va Vb VL
VL  V p
Vc
190

Relationship between Line and phase current for a star connection
a IL L1
IL  I p Ia
Ib
Ic L2
b
c
L3
191

Relationship between Line and phase currents for a delta connection
ILa
Hence, for a delta connection, the line current is times the phase current
I La  I a  I b I I a b
 I0  I  120
o 0
 I 1  1  120 
0 Ic
 I 1  cos 120   j sin 120 

3 3
  3I 30
0
 I  j
2 2 
3
I L  3I p
192

Analysis of three-phase balanced circuits
A balanced three-phase circuit is that in which identical loads are connected in each phase.
The currents that flow in a balanced three-phase system are equal in magnitude and also 120° out of phase.
A balanced three-phase circuit is analysed by considering just one phase
When finding total power, the per phase power is multiplied by three
1-phase power factor is the same as 3-phase
193

Example 1
Three identical resistors are connected in star across a 3-phase, 415-V supply. If each resistor has a resistance of 50 ohms, calculate (a) the voltage across each resistor (b) the current in each resistor (c) the total power supplied to the load

Solution
(a)
(b)
VL 415
Vp    240
3 3
V p 240
Ip    4.8 A
R 50
194
Pp  V p I p  240  4.8  1152W
(c)
 PT  3  Pp  3  1152  3456W
195

Example 2
Three identical impedances are connected in delta across a 3-phase, 415-V supply. If the line current is 10 A, calculate (a) the current in each impedance (b) the value of each impedance.

Solution

(a)

(b)
IL 10
Ip    5.78 A
3 3
V p 415
Zp    71.80 
I p 5.78
196

Example 3
A 3-phase, 450-V system supplies a balanced delta-connected load of 12 kW at 0.8 power factor lagging. Calculate (a) the phase currents (b) the line currents and (c) the effective impedance per phase.

Solution

(a)
Pp  V p I p cos 12
Pp  10 3
 Ip   3  11 .1 A
V p cos 450  0.8
197
IL  3I p  3  11 .1  19.2 A
(b)
(c)
Vp
Zp 
Ip
4500 o
  40.5  36.9 0
11 .1  cos 0.8 

1
198

Power in three-phase circuits
The total apparent power of a balanced three-phase circuit (star or delta) is given by:
The total active power of a balanced three-phase circuit (star or delta) is given by:
The total reactive power of a balanced three-phase circuit (star or delta) is given by:
S 3VL I L
P 3VL I L cos 
Q 3VL I L sin
199

Analysis of parallel balanced three-phase circuit problems
When the parallel loads are not of the same kind(say one is delta and the other is star), then they must be changed either all to star or all to delta.
When all are in star, the circuit is analyzed by taking one phase of each and applying the star characteristics.

When all are in delta, the circuit is analyzed by taking one phase of each and applying the delta characteristics.
200
Parallel circuits are better analysed by reverting to complex numbers.

Example 1
A Y-connected impedance Z1 = 20.0 + j37.75 Ω per phase is connected in parallel with ∆-connected impedance Z2 = 30.0 – j159.3 Ω per phase. For an impressed 3-phase voltage of 398 V line to line, compute the line current, power factor and the power taken by the parallel combination.

Solution
The circuit is solved by making all star.
201
Y-connected impedance Z1 = 20.0 + j37.75 Ω
∆-connected impedance Z2 = 30.0 – j159.3 Ω
Changing the delta to star
30.0  j 159.3
Z 2e 
3
398  10
I
.0  j 53.1
Vp   230V
p
3
Z1 Z2e
Vp Vp Vp
Ip  
Z1 Z 2e
 3.37   9.9 0
I L  I p  3.37 A
pf  cos  cos 9.9  0.985 lagging
0
P  3VL I L cos 
 3  398  3.37  0.985
 2.29 kW
203

Example 2
A manufacturing plant draws 415 kVA from a 2400 V, 3-phase line. If the plant power factor is 0.875 lagging, calculate (a) the impedance of the plant per phase (b) the phase angle between the phase voltage and phase current.

Solution
The load is considered to be star.
(a)
VL 2400
Vp    1390V
3 3
204
S
S 3VL I L  I L 
3VL
415000
 I p  IL   100 A
3  2400
V p 1390
Zp    13.9 
Ip 100
  cos 0.875   29
1 0
205

Example 3
A star-connected motor is connected to a 4000 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz line. The motor produces an output power of 2681 kW at efficiency of 93 % and a power factor of 0.9 lagging. Calculate (a) the active power absorbed by the motor, (b) the reactive power absorbed by the motor, (c) the apparent power supplied by the transmission line and (d) the motor line current.

Solution
(a)
Pout 2681
Pin    2883kW
 0.93
206
Pout 2681
(a)
Pin    2883kW
(b)
 0.93
(c)
Pin 2883
S   3203kVA
pf 0.9
Q S P 2 2
 3203  2883  1395 kVAR

2 2
S  3203kVA
207
(d)
S 3203  103
IL    462 A
3VL 3  4000
208
(a)Three-phase four-wire feeding unbalanced star-connected loads

Three-phase unbalanced load does not have the same impedance in all the three phases.
The neutral points of the source and the load are the same, so the voltage across each phase of the load is the phase voltage of the source
Three-phase four wire is usually used for low-voltage power distribution

The neutral carries current if the load is unbalanced
I N  I pa  I pb  I pc
209

Each phase is analyzed separately when the load is unbalanced

Example 1
A three-phase four-wire system has the following data: Supply voltage is 415 V, Z1 = 8 + j0 Ω, Z2 = 0 - j8 Ω and Z3 = 0 + j8 Ω. Determine the load currents and the current in the neutral.

Solution
VL 415
Vp    240V
3 3
210
V p 2400 0
I p1    300 0
Z1 8  j0
V p 240  120 0
I p2    30   30 0
Z2 0  j8
V p 240 120 0
I p3    30  30 0
Z3 0  j8
I N  I p1  I p 2  I p 3
I N  30 0  30   30  30  30
0 0 0
211
I N  82 A
212

Example 2
In a three-phase four-wire system, the line voltage is 400V and resistive loads of 10 kW, 8 kW and 5 kW are connected between the three lines and neutral. Calculate (a) the current in each line and (b) the current in the neutral conductor.

Solution
(a)
VL 400
Vp    231V
3 3
213
Let Ia, Ib and Ic be the currents drawn by the 10kW, 8kW and 5kW loads respectively.
Pa 10  10 3
Ia    43.3 A
V p cos  231  1
Pb 8  10 3
Ib    34.6 A
Vp 231
Pc 5  10 3
Ic    21.65 A
Vp 231
214
I N  Ia  Ib  Ic
 43.30  34.6   120  21.65 120
0 0 0
 18.9 A
215
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

A magnetic circuit is a closed path followed by any group of lines of magnetic flux.

Magnetic circuits are created with coils and ferromagnetic (iron, cobalt, nickel, etc) or permanent magnetic materials.
216
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Terminologies in magnetic circuits

Flux(ϕ)
It is a measure of the amount of magnetic field passing through a given surface. The SI unit of flux is Weber(Wb).

Flux density (B)
It is the flux per unit area. It is the flux divided by the cross-sectional area. The SI unit is Weber per square meter (Wb/m2) or Tesla (T)

B
A 217

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Magnetomotive force (F)
It is the source which sets up the flux flowing around a magnetic circuit. The unit is Amperes (A) or Ampere-turns(AT). It is the product of current in coil and number of turns of coil
F  NI
218
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS


Reluctance(S or )
It is likened to resistance. It is the opposition offered by a material to the flow of magnetic flux.
is the length of the magnetic path in meters (m)

is the cross sectional area in square meter (m2)
The unit of reluctance is ampere-turns per weber (AT/Wb)
L
S
o r A
L
A
F  S 219

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Magnetic field intensity (H)
It is the mmf per unit length. The unit is Amperes per meter (A/m)or Ampere-Turns per meter (AT/m)
F
H
L
220

B-H curves
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
They are curves which show the relation between magnetic flux density and magnetic field intensity for various materials

The B-H curve of vacuum is as shown
• is a constant called magnetic

• constant or permeability of free
• space
B  o H
o
H
 o  4  10 H / m 7
221
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

B-H curve of non-magnetic materials
The B-H curves are almost identical to that of vacuum.
B  o H
222

B-H curve of magnetic materials
The B-H curves have linear, non-linear and saturation regions
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
• is a the relative permeability
• of the magnetic material.
The above formula only works for the linear region.
B  o r H
r
223
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Analysis of linear magnetic circuits
Magnetic circuits are analyzed by drawing an equivalent electric circuit and applying the laws used to analyze electric circuits. The following similarities exit.
(a)
Flux is similar to current
(b)
Magnetomotive force is similar to electromotive force
(c)Reluctance is similar to resistance
224
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Analysis of non-linear magnetic circuits
Not all the laws of electric circuits can be applied to magnetic circuits. Kirchoff’s laws are applicable and when applied to magnetic circuits are stated as follows:
First law: The total magnetic flux towards a junction is equal to the total magnetic flux away from that junction.
Second law: In any closed magnetic circuit, the algebraic sum of the product of magnetic field strength and the length of each part of the circuit is equal to the resultant magnetomotive force.
225
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Example 1
A 600-turn coil carrying a current of 0.2A sets up a flux of 200mWb in a magnetic circuit. (i) What is the mmf in amperes developed in the circuit?
(ii) Determine the total reluctance of the circuit.
226

Example 2
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
The figure below shows the equivalent electric circuit of a three-part magnetic circuit energised by a 100-turn coil carrying a current of 1A. The mmf drop across part ‘b’ is 40AT
a Sc
285 AT Wb 50 mWb
F Sb
227
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
(a)Calculate the flux in part c.
(b)
Determine the reluctance of parts b and c.
(c)Obtain the flux density in part b if the cross sectional area of the material used is 0.05m 2.
228
LINEAR MAGNETIC CIRCUIT PROBLEMS


Example 1
A magnetic circuit comprises three parts in series each of uniform cross section. They are (a) a length of 80 mm and cross sectional area 50mm 2 (b) a length of 60mm and cross sectional area 90 mm 2 (c) an air gap of length 0.5 mm and cross sectional area 150mm 2 . A coil of 4000 turns is wound on part (b)
and the flux density in the air gap is 0.3 T. Assuming that all the flux passes through the given circuit and that the relative permeability of section (a) and (b) is μ r = 3000, estimate the coil current to produce such a flux density.
229

Solution
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
The electric analogue circuit is shown below.
Sa Sb Sc(air)
F  NI
F
I F
Φ
N
F  Fa  Fb  Fc
La
Fa  S a Bair Aair   19.1AT
a r A
230
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Lb
Fb  S b   7.96 AT
a r A
Lc
Fc  S c   119 .3 AT
a r A
F  Fa  Fb  Fc  146.36 AT
F 146.36
I    36 .59 mA
N 4000
231

Example 2
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
A steel ring of cross-sectional area 50mm 2 has an air gap of 2mm and of the same cross-sectional area as shown in Fig. 4.5.a. The coil shown has 2000 turns with current 10 A. If the mean radius of the steel ring is 5cm and μ r = 800, calculate (a) the total reluctance of the circuit (b) the flux Φ in the ring.

Solution
•(a) The equivalent electric
• circuit is as shown
Ssteel
F
Sair
232
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Ls 2  5  10 2
Ss  
0  r As 4  10  800  50  10
7 6
10 8
 A / Wb
16
La 2  10 3
Sa  
 0 Aa 4  10 7  50  10  6
10 8
 A / Wb

233
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
10 8
10 8
S 
Total reluctance
(b)
16 
 0.381  10 A / Wb
8
F  S
F NI 2000  10
   
S S 0.381  10 8
 5.25  10 Wb
4
234
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Example 3
•It is desired to produce a magnetic field of 1 Wb/m 2 in the air gap of the electromagnet shown in Example 2. The cross section of the iron is 1 cm 2, the mean length Li + Lg = 10 cm, gap length Lg = 5 mm, and from the B-H curve of the iron μ r was found to be 500 at B = 1 Wb/m 2. Calculate the m.m.f.
required.

Solution
 Li Lg 
F   S i  S g      

  A
 0 r i  0 Ag 
Ai  Ag  A
235
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
  Li 
F   Lg 
0 A   r 
1  9.5  10
2

 7 
 5  10  3
4  10  500 
 4130 AT
236
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Example4
A coil of 1500 turns is wound on a circular wooden former which has a mean circumference of 30cm and a cross-sectional area of 4cm 2. Calculate (a) the flux density in the ring when the coil carries a current of 0.4 A (b) the flux in the ring in webers.

When the wooden former was replaced with a steel former of the same dimensions, the total flux became 600μWb for a current of 0.4 A. Calculate the relative permeability of the steel and the reluctance of the magnetic circuit at this flux density.
237
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Solution
A coil of 1500 turns is wound on a circular wooden
(a)
F NI 0.4  1500
H    2000 AT / m
L L 0.3
B   0 H  4  10  2000
7
 2.513mWb / m 2
  BA  2.513  10  3  4  10  4
 1.005 Wb
238
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
With the magnetic former
H  2000 AT / Wb   600 Wb

 600  10 6
B    1.5Wb / m 2
A 4  10 4
B 1.5
r    597
0 H 4  10  2000
7
F NI 1500  0.4
S    10 AT / Wb
4
  600  10 4
239
THE END
240

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Kwame Nkrumah University of

Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

EE 151 - APPLIED ELECTRICITY

Facilitator:- F. B. Effah (PhD)

Address: Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

 Presentation of lecture notes

Distribution (%) LO1 LO2 LO3 LO4 LO5 LO6

 Unit 2: Alternating current circuitsWk. 4 – Wk. 6

 Unit 3: Three-phase circuits Wk. 6 – Wk. 9

 Unit 4: Magnetic circuits Wk. 9 – Wk. 11

Elements of an electric circuit

 Node (Junction) –A point where currents split or come

Branch – A connection (path) between two nodes [eg.

 Short-circuit– A branch of theoretically zero resistance. It

 Open circuit – A branch of theoretically infinite resistance.

Resistors are in series when the same current flows through

ANS: R1&R2, R3 & R4 and R5 & R6

 Total (effective) resistance of series resistors

Resistors are said to be in parallel when the voltage across

Colloquially, TWO resistors are in parallel if it is possible to

Effective circuit resistance is found by identifying and putting

EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF A CIRCUIT

Eg. 2. Find the total resistance of the circuit below.

The current division rule is applied to share current between

Consider the figure below,

 Any time a voltage drives current through a resistor, some

Find the value of I in the circuit below.

Find the value of the current in all resistors of the circuit

Submission date: God willing a week today

0 = -I2R2 + I3R3 +I5R5

32 = 2I1 + 8I3 (1)

32 = 2I1 + 8I3 (1)

Applying KCL to node c: I 3  I1  I 2 (3)

I1 = 4A, I2 = -1A and I3 = 3A

0 = -3I1 + 12I2 - 2I3 (1)

Solving the three equations:

I1 = 2.0A, I2 = 1.0A and I3 = 3.0A

VTH is the open-circuit voltage across the two terminals

To find the current through a resistor in a circuit, the following

2. Find the open-circuit voltage (VTH) across the two

3. Recall the circuit created before step 2 and deactivate all

4. Find the total resistance of the circuit resulting from step

5. Reproduce the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and connect

6. Calculate the current in the circuit in step 5. This is the

Applying KVL to loop dcbed:

Applying KVL to loop fabef: 42  (12  6) I

Steps 5 & 6 RTH = 4Ω

Applying KVL to loop cbgfc: VTH = 15I1 - 8I2 (1)

Substituting for I1 and I2 in equation 1 yields:

Steps 5 & 6 RTH

Use Thevenin’s theorem to find the current in the 5Ω resistor

IN is the short-circuit current between the two terminals

To find the current through a resistor in a circuit, the following

2. Find the short-circuit current (IN) through the two

3. Recall the circuit created before step 2 and deactivate all

4. Find the total resistance of the circuit resulting from step

5. Reproduce the Norton’s equivalent circuit and connect

6. Calculate the current in the circuit in step 5. This is the

Solution 42V 35V

With the 42V battery acting alone,

With the 35V battery acting alone,

With both batteries acting,

42V 35V 35V