TEE 1103

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Introduction to AC

LECTURE 9Y2016
By
LOVEMORE GUNDA
 1 – Introduction
 AC means Alternating Current and has become an acronym for
all alternating electrical signals
 Alternating refers to a voltage or current whose magnitude
alternates between two prescribed levels in a set time sequence
Examples of Alternating Signals
 1 – Introduction
 The sinusoidal waveform is the most commonly used signal in
AC analysis
 Its shape is not affected by resistors, capacitors or inductors
 Alternating refers to a voltage or current whose magnitude
alternates between two prescribed levels in a set time sequence
Advantages of AC over DC
• AC voltages can be efficiently stepped up/down using
transformer
• AC motors are cheaper and simpler in construction than DC
motors
• Switchgear for AC system is simpler than DC system
 1 – Introduction
1.1. Terms Describing AC signals
 1 – Introduction
1.1. Terms Describing AC signals
i. Waveform: Path traced by a quantity plotted as a function of some variable like time,
position, temperature, angular displacement e.t.c
ii. Instantaneous value (𝑣𝑡 ): Magnitude of a signal at any instant of time, denoted by
lower case letters
iii. Amplitude (A): It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity. Also
called as maximum or peak value
iv. Peak to peak value (𝑉𝑝𝑝 ): Is the total displacement between the crest and the trough
of a signal
v. Period (T): The time interval between successive repetitions of a periodic waveform.
 It is also the time between two points on a waveform at which the signal has the same
magnitude and direction
 It can be defined as the time taken by a signal to complete one cycle
 Unit is the Second
vi. Cycle: A portion of waveform contained in one period of time
vii. Frequency (f): Number of cycles completed in 1 second. Unit is the Hertz
1
𝑓=𝑇
viii. Angular Frequency (ω): The number of radians covered in one second (i.e the
angle covered by the rotating coil). The unit of angular frequency is rad/sec.
2𝜋
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑇
 1 – Introduction
1.2. Representation of AC Signals
i. Waveform: A trace representing the AC signal as a function of
time or angular displacement

ii. Equation: A mathematical expression representing an AC signal

 1 – Introduction
1.2. Representation of AC Signals
iii. Phasor: A line used to represent a complex electrical quantity as
a vector.

 Phasors can be represented in Rectangular Coordinates of in Polar Coordinates

Rectangular: 𝑃 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
Polar: 𝑃 = 𝑟
𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑥
 2 – Phase Relations
 The standard sine waveform has a positive zero cross over point
at t=0 or at Ɵ=0
 Other signals are versions of the sine waveform shifted either to
the left or to the right
 If the standard sine waveform is given by 𝐴𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 , then the
shifted waveform is given by 𝐴𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃) where 𝜃 is the
phase shift angle and is POSITIVE for a left(←) shift and
NEGATIVE for a right (→) shift
 2 – Phase Relations
2.1. Leading and Lagging
 Terms are used to describe AC signals of the same frequency
 The leading signal reaches the positive zero cross over point than
the other, or has a more positive phase angle than the other
 The difference between the phase angles of two waveforms is the
phase difference
V = 𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
I = 𝐼𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 30𝑜
 Voltage leads current by an
angle of 30𝑜
 The phase difference is 30𝑜
 3 – Values of AC Quantities
 Average value: The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating
quantity over one cycle.
 The value is ZERO for symmetrical waveforms over one cycle hence is
normally evaluated over half a cycle,

 RMS value (Effective Value): The equivalent DC value that gives the same
average power as the AC signal
 Instantaneous Power is given by 𝑖 2 𝑅
 If 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃), then Power =𝐼𝑚 2 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
 Average power is determined by Integrating the instantaneous power over a
period and dividing by the period
𝐼𝑚 2 𝑅
 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = ,
2
 For a DC source driving the same resistance, 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 2 𝑅
𝐼 𝐼 𝑉
 ∴ 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 𝑚 . Hence 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑚 and it follows that 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑚
2 2 2
 4 – AC Power
In DC, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
In AC therefore, instantaneous power is 𝑃 = 𝑣𝑡 . 𝑖𝑡
Let 𝑣𝑡 =𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 and 𝑖𝑡 =𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽)
It can be shown that average power,
1
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 . 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝛼 − 𝛽
2
1
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉 .𝐼 cos 𝜃 where Ɵ is the phase angle
2 𝑚 𝑚
between voltage and current.
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) where V and I are RMS values
The value 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) is the power factor. It is leading if
Currents leads voltage, and Lagging if current lags
voltage
 5 – Response of Basic Components to AC
5.1. Resistors: Opposition to the flow of AC current through a
component is termed Impedance, 𝑍

• If 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡, then the current can be

𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡
given as 𝑖 = 𝑚 𝑅 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡,
𝑉
Where 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑅𝑚
• Voltage and current through a resistor are in
phase, phase difference =0
• Opposition to flow of AC is referred to as
impedance
• Impedance of a resistor equals its resistance
• Voltage and current through a resistor
are in phase, phase difference =0
𝑉‫ے‬0𝑜
𝑅=
𝐼‫ے‬0𝑜
 5 – Response of Basic Components to AC
5.2. Inductors: Opposition to the flow of AC current through an
inductor is termed Inductive Reactance, 𝑋𝐿

• If 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡, then the voltage across the

𝑑𝑖
inductor is given as 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡𝐿
=𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
=𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 90𝑜
=𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 90𝑜
• Voltage leads current by 90𝑜
𝑉𝐿 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡+90𝑜
• Inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 = =
𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡,
• 𝑋𝐿 =𝜔𝐿‫ے‬90𝑜
 1 – Introduction
Response of Basic Components to AC
ii. Inductors: Opposition to the flow of AC current through an
inductor is termed Inductive Reactance, 𝑋𝐿
• If 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡, then the voltage across the
𝑑𝑖
inductor is given as 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡𝐿
=𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
=𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 90𝑜
=𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 90𝑜
• Voltage leads current by 90𝑜
𝑉𝐿 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡+90𝑜
• Inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 = =
𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡,
• 𝑋𝐿 =𝜔𝐿‫ے‬90𝑜 =𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝐿

 Inductive reactance depends on Inductance and frequency

 At very low frequencies close to DC, an inductor is approximated to a short circuit
 At very high frequencies, an inductor can be approximated to an open circuit
 In general, an inductor passes DC and blocks AC
 5 – Response of Basic Components to AC
5.3. Capacitors: Opposition to the flow of AC current through a
capacitor is termed Capacitive Reactance, 𝑋𝐶
• If 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡, then the current through
𝑑𝑣
the capacitor is given as 𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡𝐶
=𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
=𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 90𝑜
=𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 90𝑜
• Voltage lags current by 90𝑜
• Capacitive reactance, 𝑋𝐶 =
𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
=
𝐼𝐶 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡+90𝑜 ),
1 𝑗 𝑗
• 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 ‫ ے‬− 90𝑜 =− 𝜔𝐶 = − 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
 Capacitive reactance depends on capacitance and frequency
 At very low frequencies close to DC, a capacitor is approximated to an open
circuit
 At very high frequencies, a capacitor can be approximated to a short circuit
 In general, a capacitor passes AC and blocks DC
 Conclusion
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