Lecture notes in Electrical Circuits II

Alternating quantities
A quantity which is continually changing its sign from positive to negative and back again is called an
alternating quantity, usually referred to simply as an a.c. quantity. Examples of alternating quantities are
shown in Fig. 4.1(a) and (b). The quantities shown in Fig. 4.1(c) and (d) are not alternating but are varying
direct quantities. A graph of the quantity to a base of time is called the waveform of the quantity and
when the waveform has completed one complete series of changes and is about to begin to repeat itself
it is said to have completed one cycle. The time for one complete cycle is termed the periodic time (T) or
simply the period. The number of complete cycles completed in one second is called the frequency (f) and
is measured in cycles per second which is called the hertz (Hz) in honor of Heinrich Hertz (1857-94), a
German Scientist.

Figure 4.1

It follows that,
1
𝑓=
𝑇
Where: 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑧
𝑇 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

Instantaneous values
In general, an alternating quantity changes its magnitude from instant to instant over the cycle time and
these values are called the instantaneous values of the quantity. They are represented by lower case
letters, for example i (for current), v (for voltage).

Peak values
The highest value reached by a quantity in the cycle is called the maximum (or peak or crest) value. This
value is usually denoted by a capital letter with a circumflex accent or with a subscript max or m so that a
peak voltage might be written Vmax or Vm.

Sinusoidal AC quantities
The beauty of a.c. is that the voltage and current levels can be easily changed by means of a machine
called a transformer which, having no moving parts, is extremely efficient. Now the emf induced in
transformer windings is proportional to dФ/dt, the rate of change of magnetic flux linking them (i.e.
differentiation is involved). The only a.c. waveform which when differentiated (or integrated) gives the
same waveshape is the sine wave. Others become progressively more distorted with each subsequent
differentiation, leading to harmonics and reduced efficiency and performance. For this reason, the
sinusoidal waveform in the most commonly encountered waveform in electrical engineering.

Figure 4.2

Fig. 4.2 shows a sinusoidal voltage waveform of maximum value Vm. This may be represented
mathematically by

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
Where:

𝑣 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

Phase difference
The second sinusoidal waveform (shown dashed) in Fig. 4.2 shows a current of maximum value 𝐼𝑚 . This
waveform is described mathematically by

𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − Ф)
and is said to lag the voltage waveform by an angle Ф because its peak value occurs Ф/ω seconds after
that of the voltage wave. Alternatively, we could say that the voltage waveform leads the current
waveform by an angle Ф (i.e. by Ф/ω seconds). There is said to be a phase difference between the two
waveforms.

𝛳1 𝛳2
horizontal position OP the line will have reached position 𝑂𝑃1 after seconds. After seconds it will
ω ω
𝜋
have reached position 𝑂𝑃2 and after it will be in position𝑂𝑃3 . Plotting the horizontal projections of the
2ω
line as it moves in a circular path results in the sine wave shown. The line OP is called a phasor which is
defined as a line whose length represents the magnitude of a sinusoidal quantity and whose position
represents its phase with respect to some reference.

Phasor Diagrams
Two sinusoidally alternating quantities 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 (a voltage say) and

𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡, (a current) may be represented by two phasors as shown in

Single Phase AC circuits in the Steady State

Figure 4.6

𝒗
𝑰= , 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑹
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
 or

𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 𝒑𝒇
𝒃𝒖𝒕, 𝒑𝒇 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 Ф

Purely Inductive Circuit

Figure 4.8
Purely Capacitive Circuit

Figure 4.11
Summary

For pure resistor circuit, the current is IN PHASE with the source voltage.
𝑉
𝐼𝑅 =
𝑅
For pure inductive circuit, the current lags the voltage by 90 degrees.
𝑉
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑋𝐿
𝑋𝐿 = 2π𝑓𝐿
Where: 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 (𝛺)
𝑓 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 , 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 (𝐻𝑧)
𝐿 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦 (𝐻)
For pure capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.
 𝑉
𝐼𝐶 =
𝑋𝐶
1
𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
Where: 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 (𝛺)
𝑓 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 (𝐻𝑧)
𝐶 − 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝐹)

References
Powell, R. (1995). Introduction to Electric Circuits. London: J W Arrowsmith Ltd, Bristol.