UNIT-II

FUNDAMENTAL OF AC
CIRCUITS
 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
➢ Periodic waveforms (i.e., waveforms that repeat at regular intervals), regardless
of their wave shape, may be described by a group of attributes such as:
✓ Frequency, Period, Amplitude, Peak value.
Frequency: The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined

➢ Frequency is denoted by the lower-case letter f.

➢ In the SI system, its unit is the hertz (Hz, named in honor of pioneer researcher Heinrich
Hertz, 1857–1894).

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 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
➢ Period: ➢ The period, T, of a waveform, is the duration of one cycle.

➢ It is the inverse of frequency.

➢ The period of a waveform can be measured between any two corresponding

points ( Often it is measured between zero points because they are easy to
establish on an oscilloscope trace).

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 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
Amplitude , Peak-Value, and Peak-to-Peak Value
Amplitude (Em):
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance
from its average to its peak.

Peak-to-Peak Value (Ep-p):

It is measured between minimum and maximum peaks.
Peak Value

The peak value of a voltage or current is its maximum

value with respect to zero.

In this figure : Peak voltage = E + Em

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 The Basic Sine Wave Equation

The voltage produced by the previously described generator is:

• Em: the maximum coil voltage and

• α : the instantaneous angular position of the coil.

➢ For a given generator and rotational velocity, Em is constant.)

➢ Note that a 0° represents the horizontal position of the coil and that one
complete cycle corresponds to 360°.

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A sine wave has a frequency of 50 Hz. Its angular frequency
is _______radian/second.
1.100 π
2.50 π
3.25 π
4.5 π

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The relation between angular velocity and frequency is given
as
ω = 2πf rad/sec
ω = 2xπx50
= 100π

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 Radian Measure

➢ In practice, q is usually expressed in radians per second,

➢ Radians and degrees are related by :

For Conversion:

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 Relationship between ω, T, and f

➢ Earlier you learned that one cycle of sine wave may be represented as either:

➢ Substituting these into:

Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents as Functions of Time:

➢ We could replace the angle α as:

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 Voltages and Currents with Phase Shifts

➢ If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t =0 s, it has a phase shift.
➢ Waveforms may be shifted to the left or to the right

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 Phasor Difference
➢ Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between different
waveforms of the same frequency.

➢ The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors. If you observe
phasors rotating as in Figure, the one that you see passing first is leading and
the other is lagging.

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 AC Waveforms and Average Value
➢ Since ac quantities constantly change its value, we need one single numerical
value that truly represents a waveform over its complete cycle.

Average Values: ➢ To find the average of a set of marks for example, you add
them, then divide by the number of items summed.
➢ For waveforms, the process is conceptually the same. You
can sum the instantaneous values over a full cycle, then
divide by the number of points used.
➢ The trouble with this approach is that waveforms do not
consist of discrete values.
Average in Terms of the Area Under a Curve:

Or use area

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The Basic Sine Wave Equation
• Voltage produced by a alternator is
e = Em sin 
• Em is maximum (peak) voltage
•  is instantaneous angular position of rotating coil of
the generator

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The Basic Sine Wave Equation
• Voltage at angular position of sine wave generator
• May be found by multiplying Em times the sine of angle at
that position

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Shifted Sine
Waves
• Phasors used to
represent shifted
waveforms
• Angle  is position of
phasor at t = 0 seconds

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Phase Difference

• Phase difference is angular displacement between

waveforms of same frequency
• If angular displacement is 0°
• Waveforms are in phase

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Phase Difference

• If angular displacement is not 0o, they are out of

phase by amount of displacement

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 Phase Difference
• If v1 = 5 sin(100t) and v2 = 3 sin(100t - 30°), v1 leads v2 by 30°
• May be determined by drawing two waves as phasors
• Look to see which one is ahead of the other as they rotate in a
counterclockwise direction

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 Peak Value
• The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one cycle is called its
Peak value. It is also known as the maximum value or amplitude or crest value.
 Average Value
• To find an average value of a waveform
• Divide area under waveform by length of its base
• Areas above axis are positive, areas below axis are negative.
• The average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating voltage and
currents over one complete cycle is called Average Value.

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 Average Value

• Average values also called dc values

• dc meters indicate average values rather than instantaneous values

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 Sine Wave Averages
• Average value of a sine wave over a complete cycle is zero
• Average over a half cycle is not zero

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Average Value
 Average Value
• Divide the positive half cycle into (n) number of equal parts as
shown in the above figure
• Let i1, i2, i3…….. in be the mid ordinates
• The Average value of current Iav = mean of the mid ordinates
Find the average value of current when the current that are
equidistant are 4A, 5A and 6A.

a) 5A
b) 6A
c) 15A
d) 10A

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The average value of current is the sum of all the
currents divided by the number of currents.
Therefore average current = (5+4+6)/3=5A.

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 Sine Wave Averages
• Rectified full-wave average is 0.637 times the maximum value
• Rectified half-wave average is 0.318 times the maximum value

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 Effective Values or RMS Value

• Effective value or RMS value of an ac waveform is an equivalent dc

value
• It tells how many volts or amps of dc that an ac waveform supplies in terms
of its ability to produce the same average power

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The voltage of domestic supply is 230V. This figure represents
1.Mean value
2.R.M.S value
3.Peak value
4.Average value

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The domestic single phase AC supply is 230 V, 50 hertz, where 230 V is the R.M.S
value of alternating voltage

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 R.M.S Value
• Definition: That steady current which, when flows through a resistor of known
resistance for a given period of time than as a result the same quantity of heat is
produced by the alternating current when flows through the same resistor for the same
period of time is called R.M.S or effective value of the alternating current.
RMS value derivation
What is the type of current obtained by finding the square of the currents
and then finding their average and then fining the square root?
a) RMS current
b) Average current
c) Instantaneous current
d) Total current

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RMS stands for Root Mean Square. This value of current is obtained by
squaring all the current values, finding the average and then finding the
square root.

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 Effective Values or RMS Value
• To determine effective power
• Set Power(dc) = Power(ac)
Pdc = pac
I2R = i2R where i = Im sin t
• By applying a trigonometric identity
• Able to solve for I in terms of Im

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 Effective Values

• Ieff = .707Im
• Veff = .707Vm
• Effective value is also known as the RMS value

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RMS value or Effective value
 Find RMS value

11.8 16.2 19.0 20.0 19.0 16.2 11.8

Voltage 6.2V 6.2V 0V
V V V V V V V

Angle 18o 36o 54o 72o 90o 108o 126o 144o 162o 180o
Solution
Find frequency and rms value