AC Circuits

ENGR. ELVIS Y. EYAO JR.

INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION
• This part will be about the analysis of circuits in which the
source voltage or current is time-varying or sinusoidally
time-varying excitation, or simply, excitation by a sinusoid.
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine
function.
• A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating
current (ac). Such a current reverses at regular time
intervals and has alternately positive and negative values.
Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources are
called ac circuits.
 HISTORY
• In late 1800s, the battle of DC vs. AC began. Both had their
own advantages. However, ac generators gradually
replaced Edison’s dc battery system because ac is more
efficient and economical to transmit over long distances. In
ac, instead of applying the magnetism along the wire
steadily, scientist Nikola Tesla used a rotating magnet.
When the magnet’s orientation was flipped, the electrons
turned as well.
 AC VS. DC
DIRECT CURRENT
Electrons move steadily
Flow of Electrons in one direction or
“forward”
Cause of the direction Steady magnetism along
of flow of electrons the
wire.
Current It is the current of
constant magnitude
Amount of energy that
Voltage of D C cannot travel
can be very far until it beg ins to
carried lose energy
The frequency of direct
Frequen current is zero
cy
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Electrons keep switching
directions – forward
and backward.
Rotating magnet along the
wire
It is the current of
magnitude varying with
time
Safe to transfer over longer
city distances and can
provide more power
The frequency of
alternating current is
50Hz or 60Hz
depending upon
the country
 AC VS. DC

Obtained from Cell of Battery AC generator and mains

Resistance Resistance only Impedance

Lies between 0 and

Efficiency It is only
1.
1
 AC WAVEFORM
• A wave is a disturbance. Unlike water waves, electrical
waves cannot be seen directly but they have similar
characteristics. All periodic waves can be constructed from
sine waves, which is why sine waves are fundamental.
While waveform is the resulting graph of an alternating
current plotted to a base of time.
 TYPES OF
WAVEFORM
 TYPES OF WAVEFORM
01. 02. 03.
SINUSOIDAL TRIANGULAR
HALF WAVE
WAVE WAVE

04. 05. 06.

SEMI-CIRCULAR TRAPEZOIDAL
SQUARE WAVE
WAVE WAVE
 Cycle Time Period Frequency
One complete series The time taken in The number of cycles
of values is seconds for an completed per
called cycle. alternating second is called
One complete quantity to frequency, f, of
complete one the supply and is
cycle is
cycle is called measured in hertz,
equivalent to one
the period or Hz. Also, it is the
revolution. reciprocal of time
the periodic
period. The
time, T, of the
ω = the angular standard
waveform. frequency of the
velocity equal to Which can be electricity supply
2πf expressed in the PH is 60 Hz.
P = no. of pole/s mathematically,
𝑷𝑵
N = speed in rev/min
T = time period in 𝟐π
T= ω f
seconds
𝟏𝟐𝟎
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

01 02 03
Determine the Determine the An alternating
periodic time frequencies current
for for periodic completes 5
frequencies of times of (a) cycles in 8
(a) 50 Hz and 4ms, (b) 4μs ms. What is
(b) 20kHz. its
frequency?
 Peak Value or
Maximum Value
Average or Effective Value
or Crest Value or mean value
Amplitude This is the average This is the current
value measured which will produce
This is the largest over a half cycle the same heating
value reached in a (since over a effect as an
half cycle (during complete cycle equivalent direct
positive or the average value current. It is
negative) of the is zero). sometimes called
waveform. M athematically, as root mean
Such values are in general, square (rms) value
represented by and whenever an
Vm, Im, etc. Ave or Mean Value alternating quantity
= Area under the is g iven, it is
curve divided by assumed to be the
the base rms value.
 Form Factor (ff) and Peak Factor

𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
form factor = 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 peak factor =
𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

The values of form and peak factor gives an indication of the shape of
waveforms. For sine wave, form factor is equivalent to 1.11 while 1.41 for
the peak factor.
 WAVE RMS AVE

𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝑚𝑎𝑥
Sinusoidal 2 π

𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Half 2 π

𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Triangular 3 2

3 π𝑚𝑎𝑥
Semi-Circular 𝑚𝑎𝑥 4
5

2
𝑚𝑎𝑥
Trapezoidal 3 0.7max

Square max max

 INSTANTANEOUS VALUES
Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at
any instant of time or angle of rotation. They are represented by
small letter. Consider the sinusoidal voltage

e = 𝑬𝒎sin(ωt ± Ø)

Similarly, the equation of induced alternating current

i = 𝑰𝒎sin(ωt ± Ø)
 INSTANTANEOUS VALUES
Where
𝑬𝒎 = the amplitude or maximum value of the sinusoidal voltage in volt
𝑰𝒎 = the amplitude or maximum value of the sinusoidal current
in
ampere
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid
Ø = the angle of lag or lead in degree
f = frequency of rotation of the coil in hertz
PHASE RELATIONSHIP OF A SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
 SINE AND COSINE WAVEFORM AND PHASOR
RELATIONSHIP
A sinusoidal can be expressed in either sine or cosine form.
The cosine wave has the same shape as its sine wave
counterpart that it is a sinusoidal function, but is shifted by
+90° or one full quarter of a period ahead of it.

cos(ωt) = sin(ωt + 90°)

sin(ωt) = cos(ωt - 90°)

SINE WAVE & COSINE WAVE
 LEADING (𝑹𝑳) AND LAGGING (𝑹𝑪) WAVEFORM
• A leading waveform is defined as one waveform that is
ahead
of another
• A lagging waveform is defined as one waveform that
is
behind of another
 IMPEDANCE
Impedance (Z) is the effective resistance of an electric circuit
or component to alternating current, arising from the
combined effects of ohmic resistance and reactance. It can
be represented by a complex form, either in rectangular or
polar form.

Rectangular form: Z = R ± jX
Polar form: Z = Z m ∟Ø
 IMPEDANCE
Impedance
Triang le

Z Z = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐
X

R
RESISTANCE REACTANCE POWER FACTOR
Reactance is the Power factor is a
Resistance is an
opposition of a measure of the
electrical quantity electrical systems
that measures how circuit element to a
efficiency. It is
the device or chang e in current or
defined as the ratio of
material reduces voltag e, due to
the resistance and
the electric current that element’s impedance or it is the
flow throug h it. The inductance or cosine of the ang le
resistance is capacitance. It is between the
measured in units of the property of impressed voltag e
ohms (Ω) inductor or and the current. Like
capacitor which all ratio
opposes the flow of measurements,
current. power factor (pf) is a
unitless quantity. It
is necessary in AC to
determine if it is
leading or lagging.
TYPES OF SERIES
AC CIRCUITS
 PURELY RESISTIVE AC CIRCUIT
Resistor – it takes a current that is in – phase with the voltage across
it.
● e
●
i ==Im
Emsinωt
sinωt Where:

𝑬𝒎 R – resistance of the resistor (ohm)

● 𝑰𝒎 = 𝑹 L – inductance of the inductor (henry)
● P = ei C - capacitance of the capacitor
● P = (Em sinωt) (Im sinωt) (farad) X L – reactance of the inductor
(ohm)
X C – reactance of the capacitor (ohm)
ω – angular velocity (rad/ s ec)
f – frequency of supply voltage (hertz)
E m – maximum value of the value of the voltage wave
( volt) Im – maximum value of the resulting current wave
(amp)
e or v– rms value of the voltage (volt)
 PURELY INDUCTIVE AC CIRCUIT
Ideal Inductor – it takes a current that lags the voltage across it by
•90o.e = Em sin ωt
• i = Im sin (ωt – π/2) Where:
R – resistance of the resistor (ohm)
• i = Im sin (ωt – 90o) L – inductance of the inductor (henry)
• 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 C - capacitance of the capacitor
(farad) X L – reactance of the inductor
𝑬𝒎
• 𝑰𝒎 = (ohm)
𝑿𝑳
X C – reactance of the capacitor (ohm)
• PL = Em Im (sin ωt) sin (ωt – π/2) ω – angular velocity (rad/ sec)
• PL = Em Im (cos ωt) sin (ωt – π/2) f – frequency of supply voltage
(hertz)
𝑬𝒎 𝑰𝒎
• 𝑷𝑳 = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝑚𝒕 Em – maximum value of the value of the voltage wave
( volt) I m – maximum value of the resulting current wave
(amp)
e or v– rms value of the voltage (volt)
i - rms value of the current (amp)
 PURELY RESISTIVE AC CIRCUIT
Ideal Capacitor – it takes a current that leads the voltage across it by
90o.
•• e
i ==Im
Emsin
sin(ωt
ωt+ 90o) Where:
R – resistance of the resistor (ohm)
𝐸𝑚
• 𝐼𝑚 = L – inductance of the inductor (henry)
𝑋𝐶 C - capacitance of the capacitor
1 1
• 𝑋=
𝐶 = (farad) X L – reactance of the inductor
ωC (ohm)
• PC = Em2𝜋𝑓𝐶
Im
(sin ωt) sin (ωt + 90o) X C – reactance of the capacitor (ohm)
• PC= Em Im (sin ωt) (cos ωt) ω – angular velocity (rad/ s ec)
f – frequency of supply voltage (hertz)
𝑬𝒎 𝑰𝒎
• 𝑷𝑪= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝑚𝒕 Em – maximum value of the value of
𝟐 the voltage wave ( volt)
Im – maximum value of the resulting
current wave (amp)
e or v– rms value of the voltage
(volt) i - rms value of the current
(amp)
 R-L CIRCUIT
• Z =R±
jXL
• Z =Z /θ
• 𝒁𝒕 = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑳𝑿
𝟐
• E 2 = E R 2 +EL 2
Where:
• 𝑬 𝑹 = 𝑰𝒕 𝑹 Zt - total impedance of the circuit
• 𝑬𝑳 = 𝑰𝒕 𝑿𝑳 (ohms) It – total current drawn (ampere)
Et or Vt – total supply voltage
• 𝑬𝒕= 𝑬𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑳
𝟐
E R or V R – voltage drop across the resistor
𝑬 (volt) E L or V L - voltage drop across the
• 𝑰𝒕 𝑬𝒕
= 𝒁𝒕 inductor (volt) R – resistance of the resistor
(ohm)
X L – inductive reactance (ohm)
 R-C CIRCUIT
• Z =R±
jXC
• Z =Z /θ
• 𝒁𝒕 = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑪𝑿
𝟐
• E 2 = E R 2 +E C 2

• 𝑬 𝑹 = 𝑰𝒕 𝑹 Where:
Zt - total impedance of the circuit (ohms)
• 𝑬𝑳 = 𝑰𝒕 𝑿𝑳 It – total current drawn (ampere)
• 𝑬𝒕 = 𝑬𝟐𝑹 + 𝟐 Et or Vt – total supply voltage
𝑬 E R or V R – voltage drop across the resistor (volt)
• 𝑰𝒕𝑪 𝑬𝒕 E C or V C - voltage drop across the capacitor
= 𝒁𝒕
(volt) R – resistance of the resistor (ohm)
X C – capacitive reactance (ohm)
 L-C CIRCUIT
• Z t = (XL - X C )
• E L = It X L
• E C = It X C
• Et = (EL +
E𝑰C𝒕=
)
𝒁𝒕
Case
• 1: if𝑬X𝒕 C > X L
● E = EC – EL
●Z = X C – X L Where:
Case 2: if X C < X L Zt - total impedance of the circuit (ohms)
● E = EL – It – total current drawn (ampere)
EC Et or Vt – total supply voltage (volt)
● Z = XL –
EL or V L –voltage drop across the inductor (volt)
XC E C or V C – voltage drop across the capacitor
(volt)
 R-L-C CIRCUIT
• 𝒁𝒕 = 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝟐 𝑪
• 𝑬𝑹 = 𝑰 𝒕 𝑹 𝑬𝑳 = 𝑰 𝒕 𝑿 𝑳
• 𝑬𝑪 = 𝑰𝒕 𝑿𝑪
𝟐 𝟐
• 𝑬𝒕 = 𝑬𝑹 + 𝑬𝑳
−𝒕 𝑬𝑪 𝑬𝒕
𝒁𝒕
Where:
• 𝑰 = Zt - total impedance of the circuit (ohms)
It – total current drawn (ampere)
Et or Vt – total supply voltage (volt)
EL or V L –voltage drop across the inductor (volt)
E C or V C – voltage drop across the capacitor
(volt)
 Sample
Problems
Basic AC Circuits
 EXAMPLE 1:
A 100 mH inductance is connected in series with a 40 ohm
resistor. The voltage is 220 V, what is the current? Assume ω
=377.

SOLUTION:
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑤𝐿 = 377 100𝑥10−3𝐻 = 37.7Ω
𝑍= 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 = (40Ω) +(37.7Ω) = 54. 9663Ω
2 2

𝐸 220 𝑉
4.0025 𝐴
𝐼= = =
𝑍 54.9663 Ω
 EXAMPLE 2:
A 40 – microfarad capacitor is connected in series with a 40 ohm
resistor. If the voltage is 220 V, what is the current? Assume ω
=377.

SOLUTION:
1 1
𝑋𝑐 = = = 66.313Ω
𝑤𝐶 (377)(40𝑥10−6𝐹)
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 = (40Ω)2 +(66.313Ω)2 = 77.4429701 Ω

𝐸 220 𝑉
𝐼= = = 2.8408 𝐴
𝑍 77.4429701 Ω
 EXAMPLE 3:
A series circuit consisting of a 0.08 henry inductor and a
150
– microfarad capacitor is connected across a 100 V, 60 Hz source.
Determine the current drawn.
SOLUTION:
1 1
𝑋𝑐 = = = 17.6839Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 (2𝜋)(60𝐻𝑧)(150𝑥10−6𝐹)

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋 60𝐻𝑧 0.08𝐻 = 30.1593Ω

𝐸 100 𝑉
𝐼𝑍== 𝑋=
𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 = 30.16Ω − 17.68Ω
= 8.0158 𝐴 = 12.4754Ω
𝑍 12.4754 Ω
 EXAMPLE 4:
A series circuit consisting of a 10 ohm resistor, a 0.04 henry
inductor and a 50 – microfarad capacitor is connected across a
100 V, 60 Hz source. determine the current drawn.
SOLUTION:
1 1
𝑋𝑐 = = = 53.0516Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 (2𝜋)(60𝐻𝑧)(50𝑥10−6𝐹)

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋 60𝐻𝑧 0.04𝐻 = 15.0796Ω

𝑍= 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 𝟐 = (10Ω)2 +(15.0796Ω − 53.0516Ω)2 = 39.2667Ω

𝐸 100 𝑉
𝐼= = = 2.5467 𝐴
𝑍 39.2667 Ω
 EXAMPLE 5:
A 160 – microfarad capacitor is connected in series with a
10 – ohm resistor. Write equation of the current when the voltage
is 220 sin377t volts.
SOLUTION:
1 1
𝑋𝑐 = = = 16.5782Ω
𝑤𝐶 377(160𝑥10−6𝐹)
𝒁 = 𝑹 − 𝒋𝑿𝒄 = 10 − 𝑗16.5782 Ω

𝐸 𝟐𝟐𝟎∟𝟎°
𝐼= = = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟐 + 𝒋𝟗. 𝟕𝟑𝟎𝟏 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟔𝟑𝟐∟𝟓𝟖.
𝑍 10 − 𝑗16.578
𝟗𝟎𝟏𝟔°𝑨
𝐼 = 11.3632 sin 377𝑡 + 58.9016° 𝐴