Module II

Single phase AC circuits: Single phase emf

generation, Representation of sinusoidal waveforms, average,
effective, peak and rms values, j operators, phasor concept,
Analysis of single-phase ac circuits consisting of R, L, C, RL, RC,
RLC combinations (series and parallel) Instantaneous Power in
AC Circuits, Real power, reactive power, apparent power, Power
Factor, Power triangle, Complex Power.
 Lecture 12 (Date: 03/02/2021)

 Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents

 Important A.C. Terminology:
 Derivation of average value of sinusoidal AC signal
 Derivation of RMS value of sinusoidal AC signal
 A.C. Fundamentals
 A voltage which changes its polarity at regular intervals of time is called an
alternating voltage.
 When an alternating voltage is applied in a circuit, the current flows first in
one direction and then in the opposite direction;
 The direction of current at any instant depends upon the polarity of the
voltage
 Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents
 An AC generator uses the principle of Faraday’s electromagnetic induction law.
 It states that when current carrying conductor cut the magnetic field then emf
induced in the conductor.
 An alternating voltage may be generated :
(i) by rotating a coil at constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field.
or
(ii) by rotating a magnetic field at a constant angular velocity within a stationary
coil.
In either case, the generated voltage will be of sinusoidal waveform.
The first method is used for small a.c. generators while the second method is employed
for large a.c. generators.
 Cont….
 Consider a rectangular coil of N turns rotating in anticlockwise direction with an
angular velocity of w. rad/sec in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig 1.

Where,
N =No. of turns of coil
A = Area of coil (m2 )
ω=Angular velocity(radians/second)
m= Maximum flux (wb)

Fig1
 Cont….
 When coil is along XX’ (perpendicular to the lines of flux),
flux linking with coil= m.
 When coil is along YY’ (parallel to the lines of flux), flux
linking with the coil is zero.
 When coil is making an angle  with respect to XX’ flux
linking with coil,  = m cosωt [ = ωt]. Fig 2
 According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
 Cont….
Similarly, an alternating current can be express as

Thus, both the induced emf and the induced current vary as the sine function of
the phase angle w =  t .
It is clear that e.m.f. induced in the coil is sinusoidal.

or

e or v = Instantaneous value of alternating voltage

Em or Vm = Max. value of alternating voltage
w = Angular velocity of the coil
 Important A.C. Terminology:
 Waveform: It is defined as the graph between magnitude of alternating
quantity (on Y axis) against time (on X axis).

 Cycle: It is defined as one complete set of positive, negative and zero values
of an alternating quantity.
 Instantaneous value: It is defined as the value of an alternating quantity at a
particular instant of given time. Generally denoted by small letters.
e.g. i= Instantaneous value of current v= Instantaneous value of voltage p=
Instantaneous values of power
 Cont…
 Amplitude/ Peak value/ Crest value/ Maximum value: It is defined as the
maximum value (either positive or negative) attained by an alternating quantity in one
cycle. Generally denoted by capital letters.
 e.g. Im= Maximum Value of current Vm= Maximum value of voltage Pm= Maximum
values of power
 Average value: It is defined as the average of all instantaneous value of alternating
quantities over a half cycle. e.g. Vave = Average value of voltage Iave = Average value
of current
 RMS value: It is the equivalent dc current which when flowing through a given
circuit for a given time produces same amount of heat as produced by an alternating
current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
 e.g. Vrms =Root Mean Square value of voltage Irms = Root Mean Square value of
current
 Cont…
 Frequency: It is defined as number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity
per second. S:ymbol is f. Unit is Hertz (Hz).
 Time period It is defined as time taken to complete one cycle. Symbol is T. Unit
is seconds.
 Power factor :It is defined as the cosine of angle between voltage and current.
Power Factor = pf = cos, where  is the angle between voltage and current.
 Active power :It is the actual power consumed in any circuit. It is given by
product of rms voltage and rms current and cosine angle between voltage and
current. (VI cos).
Active Power= P= I2R = VI cos. Unit is Watt (W) or kW.
 Cont…
 Reactive power: The power drawn by the circuit due to reactive component of
current is called as reactive power. It is given by product of rms voltage and rms
current and sine angle between voltage and current (VI sin).
Reactive Power = Q= I2X = VIsin. Unit is VAR or kVAR.
 Apparent power :It is the product of rms value of voltage and rms value of
current. It is total power supplied to the circuit. Apparent Power = S = VI. Unit is
VA or kVA.
 Peak factor/ Crest factor: It is defined as the ratio of peak value (crest value or
maximum value) to rms value of an alternating quantity. Peak factor = Kp = 1.414
for sine wave.
 Form factor: It is defined as the ratio of rms value to average value of an
alternating quantity. Denoted by Kf. Form factor Kf = 1.11 for sine wave.
 Cont…

 Phase: Phase is the fraction of the time period that has elapsed since the
quantity last passed through the zero position of reference.
 Phase Angle: It is the equivalent of phase in radians or degrees.
 Cont…

 Phase Difference: It is the fractional part of a period by which one has

advanced over or lags behind the other.
 To measure phase difference the frequency of the alternating quantities should
be same.

In phase = when each pass through their zero value, maximum

value and minimum value at the same instant of time.

Leading = when one reaches its maximum, minimum or zero

value before than the other quantity.
Lagging = When one reaches the maximum , minimum and
zero values after than the other.
 Phase Difference

eA = Em sinwt
eB = Em sin (wt-β )
eC = Em sin (wt - (α + β) )

Where, β is angle between eA and eB .

α is angle between eB and eC
Here eB is leading w.r.t. eC And lagging w.r.t. eA
 Examples

 1. The maximum current in a sinusoidal a.c. circuit is 10A. What is the

instantaneous current at 45º ?

 2. Write the mathematical expression for a 50 Hz sinusoidal voltage of peak

value 80 V. Sketch the waveform versus time t
 3. An alternating current i is given by ; i = 141·4 sin 314 t . Find (i) the maximum
value (ii) frequency (iii) time period and (iv) the instantaneous value when t is 3
ms.
 Derivation of average value of sinusoidal AC signal

 Graphical Method
Analytical Method
Derivation of RMS value of sinusoidal AC signal
 Graphical Method
Analytical Method
 Lecture 13 (Date: 04/02/2021)

 Form factor and Peak Factor

 Phasor Representation of Alternating Quantities
 Phasor diagram
 Mathematical Representation of Phasor.
 Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform
 Form factor
Form factor (Kf)The ratio of r.m.s. value to the average value of an alternating
quantity is known as form factor i.e
𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
 Kf =
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

 For a sinusoidal voltage or current,Kf= 𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝑽𝒎

𝟎.𝟔𝟑𝟕𝑽𝒎
= 1.11

 The form factor gives a measure of the “peakiness” of the waveform. The peakier
the wave, the greater is its form factor and vice-versa.

 For Example , A sine wave is peakier than a square wave. It has greater form
factor (1·11) than the latter.
 Peak factor
Peak factor (Ka). The ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s. value of an
alternating quantity is known as peak factor i.e.
𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
 Ka =
𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝑽𝒎
 For a sinusoidal voltage or current,Ka= = 1.414
𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝑽𝒎
 Note : Peak factor is also called crest factor or amplitude factor.
 The peak factor is of much greater importance because it indicates the
maximum voltage being applied to the various parts of the apparatus.
 For instance, when an alternating voltage is applied across a cable or capacitor,
the breakdown of insulation will depend upon the maximum voltage. The
insulation must be able to withstand the maximum rather than the r.m.s. value
of voltage.
 Examples
 1. Find the average and r.m.s. values of the voltage
wave shown in below.
2. Determine (i) the average value (ii) r.m.s. value of a symmetrical square
wave. Also find the form factor and peak factor

 Solution :
Phasor Representation of Alternating Quantities
 Sinusoidal expression given as: v = Vm sin (ωt ± Φ) representing the sinusoid in
the time domain form.
 Phasor is a quantity that has both “Magnitude” and “Direction”.
 Phasor diagram
 Phasor diagram : Phasor diagram is one in which different alternating or
sinusoidal quantities of the same frequency are represented by phasor with their
phase relationship.

Wave diagram

Phasor diagram ( Maximum value )

Phasor diagram ( rms value )
Mathematical Representation of Phasor.

Ɵ = tan-1 (b/a)
 Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform
 The generalized mathematical expression to define these two sinusoidal
quantities will be written as:

Fig :1 Fig: 2

As show in the above voltage and current equations, the current, i is lagging the voltage,
v by angle  .
So, the difference between the two sinusoidal quantities representing in waveform
shown in Fig. 1 & phasors representing the two sinusoidal quantities is angle  and the
resulting phasor diagram shown in Fig. 2