Lec.

1
Alternating Voltage and Current

v=V m sin ω t
where
v=Instantaneous value of alternating voltage
V m =Max. value of alternating voltage
ω= Angular velocity of the coil
Sinusoidal voltages always produce sinusoidal currents unless the circuit is non-
linear.
i=I m sin ω t .

Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents

An alternating voltage may be generated:
By rotating a coil at constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field.
or
By rotating a magnetic field at a constant angular velocity within a stationary coil.
In either case, the generated voltage will be of sinusoidal waveform. The
magnitude of generated voltage will depend upon the number of turns of coil, the
strength of magnetic field and the speed of rotation. The first method is used for
small AC generators while the second method is employed for large AC generators.
Basic parameters of sinusoidal AC
Waveform. The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous values
of voltage or current as ordinate against time as abscissa is called its waveform or
waveshape.
Instantaneous value. The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called
instantaneous value. The instantaneous values of alternating voltage and current
are represented by V and I respectively. As an example, the instantaneous values of
voltage at 0º, 90º and 270º are 0, + V m ,−V m respectively.
Cycle. One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity
is known as a cycle.

Time period. The time taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating
quantity is called its period. It is generally represented by T.
Frequency. The number of cycles that occur in one second is called the frequency
(f) of the alternating quantity. It is measured in cycles/sec (C/s) or Hertz (Hz). One
Hertz is equal to 1C/s.
The frequency of power system is low; the most common being 50 C/s or 50. The
50 Hz frequency is the most popular because it gives the best results when used for
operating both lights and machinery.
Amplitude. The maximum value (positive or negative) attained by an alternating
quantity is called its amplitude or peak value. The amplitude of an alternating
voltage or current is designated by V m (or Em) or I m.
Values of Alternating Voltage and Current
Instantaneous value
The instantaneous value is “the value of an alternating quantity (it may ac voltage
or ac current or ac power) at a particular instant of time in the cycle.

Instantaneous value of sine voltage is v (t )=V m sin(ω t +ψ V ) .

Peak (amplitude) value

It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity. The peak or maximum
value of an alternating voltage or current is represented by V m ∨I m. The knowledge
of peak value is important in case of testing materials.

Average Value
The average value of a waveform is the average of all its values over a period.

In the case of symmetrical waves (e.g. sinusoidal voltage or current), the average
value over one cycle is zero. It is because the positive half is exactly equal to the
negative half so that net area is zero. However, the average value of positive or
negative half is not zero.
The average value of alternating current (or voltage) over one cycle is zero. It is
because the waveform is symmetrical about time axis and positive area exactly
cancels the negative area. However, the average value over a half-cycle (positive or
negative) is not zero.

Hence, the half-cycle average value of AC is 0·637 times the peak value of AC

R.M.S. or Effective Value

The average value cannot be used to specify a sinusoidal voltage or current. It is
because its value over one-cycle is zero and cannot be used for power calculations.
Therefore, we must search for a more suitable criterion to measure the
effectiveness of an alternating current (or voltage).
2π
Q¿ =∫ Ri 2 dt=RI m2 π
0
.

Q− =RI 2 2 π
Amount of energy per period of DC: .

Q¿ =RI m2 π=Q− =RI 2 2 π I =I m / √ 2 =0. 707 I m

, thus, AC effective value is .

Phase
Waves of alternating voltage and current are continuous. They do not stop after one
cycle is completed but continue to repeat as long as the generator is operating.
Consider an alternating voltage wave of time period T second as shown in Fig.
11.45.
 Phase Difference
Hence, when two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero
points, they are said to have a phase difference.

The equations of voltage and current are

Lec. 2
Mathematical Representation of Phasors
There are four ways of representing a phasor in the mathematical form.
1. Rectangular form
2. Trigonometrical form
3. Polar form
4. Exponential form.

Rectangular form. This method is also known as symbolic notation.

Trigonometrical form. It is like the rectangular form except that in-phase and
quadrature components of the phasor are expressed in trigonometrical form. Thus,
a = V cos θ and b = V sin θ where V is the magnitude of the phasor V. Hence
phasor V can be expressed in the trigonometrical form as:

In general, the phasor V may be represented in trigonometrical form as

Polar form. It is a usual practice to write the trigonometrical form

V =V (cos θ+ jsin θ) in what is called polar form as:

Exponential form. According to Euler’s equation

The trigonometrical form of representing a phasor V is V = V (cos θ ± j sin θ).

Therefore, the phasor V may be represented in the exponential form as:

Misal:
Lec. 3
A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance Only

Substituting the value of v, we get

Phase angle. It is clear from eqs. (i) and (iii) that the applied voltage and the
circuit current are in phase with each other i.e. they pass through their zero values
at the same instant and attain their positive and negative peaks at the same instant.

Power. In any circuit, electric power consumed at any instant is the product of
voltage and current at that instant i.e.
Instantaneous power

Thus, power consists of two parts viz. a constant part (V m I m /2) and a fluctuating
part (V m I m /2) cos2ωt.
Since power is a scalar quantity, average power over a complete cycle is to be
considered

Power curve. Fig. 11.63 shows the power curve for a pure resistive circuit.
Average power,

Conductance. Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance i.e.

Conductance,

The SI unit of conductance is siemen (S).

A.C. Circuit Containing Pure Inductance Only

Let the equation of the applied alternating voltage be :

Integrating both sides, we get

The maximum value of i will be

Substituting the value of I m in equation of instantaneous current we get,

Phase angle. It is clear from eqs. (i) and (iii) that current lags the voltage by π/2
radians or 90º. Hence in a pure inductance, current lags the voltage by 90º. T

Note that r.m.s. values have been used in drawing the phasor diagram. The wave
diagram shown in Fig. 11.67 also depicts that current lags the voltage by 90º.

Inductive reactance. Inductance not only causes the current to lag behind the
voltage, but it also limits the magnitude of current in the circuit. We have seen
above that:
Clearly, the opposition offered by inductance to current flow is ω L. This quantity
ωL is called the inductive reactance XL of the coil. It has the same dimensions as
resistance and is, therefore, measured in Ω.

where inductive reactance

Inductive susceptance,

Like conductance, the unit of inductive susceptance is also siemen (S).

Power
Instantaneous power

Average power

During the first 90º of the cycle, the voltage is positive, and the current is negative.
Therefore, the power supplied is negative. During the next 90º of the cycle, both
voltage and current are positive and the power supplied is positive. An examination
of the power curve over one cycle shows that positive power is equal to the
negative
power. Hence the resultant power over one cycle is zero i.e. a pure inductance
consumes no power. The electric power merely flows from the source to the coil
and back again.

A.C. Circuit Containing Capacitance Only

As a result of this alternating voltage, alternating current will flow through the
circuit. Let at any instant i be the current and q be the charge on the plates.
Charge on capacitor:

Circuit current
The maximum value of i will be

Substituting the value of I m we get

Phase angle. It is clear that current leads the voltage by π/2 radians or 90º. Hence
in a pure capacitance, current leads the voltage by 90º. This is also indicated in the
phasor diagram shown in Fig. 11.70.
Capacitance opposes the change in voltage and serves to delay the increase or
decrease of voltage across the capacitor. This causes the voltage to lag behind the
current.
Capacitive reactance. Capacitance not only causes the voltage to lag behind
current, but it also limits the magnitude of current in the circuit. We have seen
above that,

If VC and I are the r.m.s. values, then,

Clearly, the opposition offered by capacitance to current flow is 1/ωC. This

quantity 1/ωC is called the capacitive reactance XC of the capacitor. It has the
same dimensions as resistance and is, therefore, measured in Ω.

where capacitive reactance is

Capacitive susceptance
Like conductance (G) and inductive susceptance ( b L), the unit of capacitive
susceptance is siemen (S).
Power. Instantaneous power is given by

Average power

(v) Power curve. Fig. 11.72 shows the power curve for a pure capacitive circuit.
The power curve is like that for a pure inductor because now current leads the
voltage by 90º. Positive power is equal to the negative power over one cycle.
Hence net power absorbed in a pure capacitor is zero.