INTRODUCTION

This part will be about the analysis of circuits in which the

source voltage or current is time-varying or sinusoidally time-varying
excitation, or simply, excitation by a sinusoid. A sinusoid is a signal that
has the form of the sine or cosine function.

A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current

(ac). This current reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately
positive and negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or
voltage sources are called ac circuits.
 INTRODUCTION
This section will be divided into:

 Origins of AC and DC current

 Difference between direct current and alternating current system
 Generation of alternating current and voltage
 Waveform and vector representation of voltage and current
 Identifying different types of AC circuits (series), and their
corresponding wave and vector representation
ORIGINS OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND
DIRECT CURRENT

A magnetic field near a wire causes electrons to flow in a single

direction along the wire, because they are repelled by the negative side of a
magnet and attracted toward the positive side. This is how DC power from a
battery was born, primarily attributed to Thomas Edison’s work.
In late 1800s, the battle of direct current versus alternating current
began. Both had their own advantages. However, ac generators gradually
replaced Edison’s dc battery system because ac is more efficient and
economical to transmit over long distances. In ac, instead of applying the
magnetism along the wire steadily, scientist Nikola Tesla used a rotating
magnet.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DC AND
AC SYSTEM
Electricity flows in two ways: either in an alternating current
(AC) or in a direct current (DC). The chart below shows the
comparison between the two.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DC AND
AC SYSTEM

Note: Power factor is the ratio of the real power that is used to do work and
the apparent power that is supplied to the circuit.
GENERATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Alternating voltage may be generated (a) by rotating a coil in
a magnetic field or (b) by rotating a magnetic field within a
stationary coil, as shown in the figure below.
 GENERATION OF ALTERNATING
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Operation principle of generating alternating voltage is based on Electromagnetic Induction,
which is defined by Faraday’s Law, which states:

dΦ
Eemf = −N
dt

The electromotive force, Eemf, induced in a coil is proportional to the number of

turns N, in the coil and the rate of change, dΦ/dt of the number of magnetic flux lines
passing through the surface enclosed by the coil. The emf is the voltage produce when a
conductor winding in a magnetic field or by altering the direction of flux.
The value of the voltage generated depends, in each case, upon the number of turns
in the coil, strength of the field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates. It
changes:
 In magnitude from instant to instant as varying flux are cut per second; and
 In direction as coil sides changes positions under north and south poles, implies
that an alternating emf is generated.
WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

AC Waveform

A wave is a disturbance. Unlike water waves, electrical waves

cannot be seen directly but they have similar characteristics. All periodic
waves can be constructed from sine waves, which is why sine waves are
fundamental. While waveform is the resulting graph of an alternating
current plotted to a base of time.

Therefore, AC waveform is defined as one that varies in both

magnitude and direction in more or less an even manner with respect to
time. It also refers to a time-varying waveform known as a sinusoidal
wave or a generated sine wave.
WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

Types of Waveform

 Sinusoidal wave
 Half wave
 Triangular wave
 Semi-circular wave
 Trapezoidal wave
 Square wave
WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Cycle
One complete series of values is called a cycle. One complete cycle
is equivalent to one revolution.

Time Period
The time taken in seconds for an alternating quantity to complete
one cycle is called the period or the periodic time, T, of the waveform.
Which can be expressed mathematically,

2π
T=
ω
where
ω = the angular velocity in radian/s, which is equal to 2πf
WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

Frequency
The number of cycles completed per second is called the
frequency, f, of the supply and is measured in hertz, Hz. Also, it is the
reciprocal of time period. The standard frequency of the electricity
supply in the Philippines is 60 Hz.

PN 1
f= =
120 T
where
P = the number of pole/s
N = speed in revolution per minute
T = time period in seconds
EXAMPLE 7

1. Determine the periodic time for frequencies of (a) 50

Hz and (b) 20 kHz

2. Determine the frequencies for periodic times of (a)

4 ms, (b) 4 μs

3. An alternating current completes 5 cycles in 8 ms.

What is its frequency?
WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

Peak value or maximum value or crest value or amplitude

This is largest value reached in a half cycle (during positive or
negative) of the waveform. Such values are represented by Vm, Im, etc.

Average or mean value

This is the average value measured over a half cycle (since over a
complete cycle the average value is zero). Mathematically, in general,

area under the curve

Average or mean value =
base
WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

Effective value
This is the current which will produce the same heating effect as
an equivalent direct current. It is sometimes called as root mean square
(rms) value and whenever an alternating quantity is given, it is assumed
to be the rms value.

Form factor (ff) and peak factor (pf),

rms value maximum value

form factor = peak factor =
average value rms value
WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

The values of form and peak factor gives an indication of the shape of
waveforms. For sine wave, form factor is equivalent to 1.11 while 1.41
for the peak factor.
EXAMPLE 8

1. Calculate the rms value of a sinusoidal current of

maximum value of 20 A

2. A supply voltage has a mean value of 150 V.

Determine its maximum value and its rms value.
SOLUTIO
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WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

Instantaneous values
Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating
quantities at any instant of time or angle of rotation. They are
represented by small letter. Consider the sinusoidal voltage

𝐞 = 𝐄𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 ± ∅)

Similarly, the equation of induced alternating current

𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 ± ∅)
WAVEFORM AND VECTOR DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

where
Em = the amplitude or maximum value of the
sinusoidal voltage in volt
Im = the amplitude or maximum value of the
sinusoidal current in ampere
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid
ø = the angle of lag or lead in degree
f = frequency of rotation of the coil in hertz
PHASE RELATIONSHIP OF A SINUSOIDAL
WAVEFORM
Note: Assume that the reference waveform is sine wave at 0 deg.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A SINUSOIDAL
WAVEFORM
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A SINUSOIDAL
WAVEFORM
Two or more sine waves of the same frequency can be shown on the same
vector diagram because the various vectors representing different waves all
rotate counter-clockwise at the same frequency and maintain a fixed
position relative to each other.
SINE AND COSINE WAVEFORM AND
PHASOR RELATIONSHIP

cos 𝜔𝑡 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 90°)

sin 𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 − 90°
EXAMPLE 9

Calculate the phase difference between e1 = -

10 cos(ωt + 50°) and e2 = 12 sin(ωt - 10°).
State which sinusoid is leading. Draw the
waveform and phasor diagram.
SOLUTIO
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SOLUTIO
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EXAMPLE 10

Find the phase angle between i1 = -4 sin(377t +

25°) and i2 = 5 cos(377t - 40°). Does i1 lead or lag
i2? Draw the waveform and phasor diagram.
SOLUTIO
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EXAMPLE 11

Determine the (a) instantaneous current equations and (b)

draw the vector and wave diagram. Assume I1 = I2 = I3 = I4
= 5 A and the reference vector is I1.

I2 leads I1 by 45°
I3 leads I1 by 30°
I4 lags I3 by 60°
ANYONE?
?
 SUMMATION OF IN – PHASE
SINUSOIDAL WAVES
When two or more sinusoidal voltage or current waves are in-phase and
having the same frequency, they may be added to yield a sine wave of the
same frequency. The total value is equal to the arithmetic sum of the
maximum values of the component wave.
EXAMPLE 12

1. Two voltages of 50 volts and 25 volts respectively

are in-phase, determine the total voltage and the
instantaneous voltage.

2. Find the total instantaneous voltage equation of

the given data: v1 = 20 sinωt, v2 = 15 cos(ωt - 90),
v3 = -10 cos(ωt+90) and v4 = -20 sin(ωt+180).
SOLUTIO
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SUMMATION OF OUT – OF – PHASE
SINUSOIDAL WAVES
When two or more sinusoidal voltage or current waves are out-of-phase
and having the same frequency, they maybe added to yield a sine wave of
the same frequency
SUMMATION OF OUT – OF – PHASE
SINUSOIDAL WAVES
Out-of-phase sinusoidal quantities can be added or subtracted in two ways:

 The addition or subtraction of two or more values start with finding

their vector representation, the vertical and horizontal directions, and
from this the calculation of the vertical and horizontal components
can be attained for the resultant “R” vector, which is the total value.

Example, A + B
X – component = A cos(ø) + B cos(ø)
Y – component = A sin(ø) + B sin(ø)
Y
R = X2 + Y2 ∅= tan−
X
EXAMPLE 13

1. Add the following currents: i1 = 7 sin ωt and i2 =

10 sin (ωt + π/3).

2. Two alternating voltages are represented by e1 = 50

sin ωt and e2 = 100 sin (ωt - π/6)V. Draw the
phasor diagram and find, by calculation, a
sinusoidal expression to represent e1 + e2.
SOLUTIO
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SOLUTIO
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EXAMPLE 14

Find the total/resultant effective voltage, given the

following:

e1 = 10 sin ωt
e2 = -15 cos (ωt – π/3)
e3 = 10 cos ωt
e4 = -20 sin (ωt– π/3)
ANYONE?
?
SUMMATION OF OUT – OF – PHASE
SINUSOIDAL WAVES
 Transform the given sinusoid into complex form:

A = Amcos(ø) ± j Am sin(ø)

where ± = depends on the sign of the angle

Then add or subtract the two vectors, A and B using the generalized
expression is as follows:

A = x + jy B = w + jz
A + B = (x + w) + j(y+z)

After adding or subtracting the two vectors, transform the complex form
into sinusoidal expression.
EXAMPLE 15

1. Add the following currents: i1 = 7 sin ωt and i2 =

10 sin (ωt + π/3).

2. Two alternating voltages are represented by e1 =

50 sin ωt and e2 = 100 sin (ωt - π/6)V. Draw the
phasor diagram and find, by calculation, a
sinusoidal expression to represent e1 + e2.
SOLUTIO
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EXAMPLE 16

Find the total/resultant effective voltage, given the

following:

e1 = 10 sin ωt
e2 = -15 cos (ωt – π/3)
e3 = 10 cos ωt
e4 = -20 sin (ωt– π/3)
ANYONE?
?
THANK YOU!