Computer technologies and programming

By Author: associate professor Aygun Safarova,

Lecture 1
Basic aspects of information technology

Computer science is the study of computers, includes their design, operation,

and use in processing information.
Computer science combines both theoretical and practical aspects of
engineering, electronics, information, theory mathematics, logic and human
behaviour. Aspects of computer science range from programming and computer
architecture to artificial intelligence and robotics.
Computer science is a combination of theory, engineering and experimentation.
In some cases, computer scientists develop a theory, then engineer a combination
of computer hardware and software based on that theory, and experimentally tests
it. A theory- driven approach is the development of new software engineering tools
that are then evaluated in actual use.
In other cases, experimentation may result in new theory, such as the discovery
that an artificial neural network exhibits behaviour similar to neurons in the brain,
leading to a new theory in neurophysiology.
Computer science can be divided into four main fields: software development,
computer architecture (hardware), human- computer interacting (the design of the
most efficient ways for humans to use computers), and artificial intelligence (the
attempt to make computers be have intelligently).
Software development is concerned with creating computer programs that perform
efficiently.
Computer architecture is concerned with developing optimal hardware for
specific computational needs.
The areas of artificial intelligence (AL) and human- computer interacting often
involve the development of both software and hardware to solve specific problems.
Automation of information processes
Information is information about certain objects, phenomena or processes in
the environment. Any form of human activity involves the transmission and
processing of information. It is necessary for the correct management of the
surrounding reality, the attainment of the goals set and, ultimately, for the
existence of man. Any system: socio-economic, technical, or a system in animate
nature operates in a constant relationship with the external environment - other
systems of higher and lower levels. The relationship is carried out through
information that conveys both management commands and the information needed
to make the right decisions. The concept of information as the most important
element of a system embracing all aspects of its life activity can be considered
universal, applicable to any system.
A single scientific opinion about the quantitative meaning of the concept of
"information" does not exist. Different scientific directions give different
definitions based on those objects and phenomena that they study. Some of them
believe that information can be expressed quantitatively, giving definitions of the
amount and volume of information (information measures), others are limited to
qualitative interpretations.
The syntactic measure of information is used for the quantitative expression of
impersonal information that does not express a semantic relation to objects.
The semantic (semantic) amount of information is measured by the thesaurus
measure. It expresses the ability of the observer (user) to receive the incoming
message.
Information processes (collection, processing and transmission of
information) have always played an important role in science, technology and the
life of society. In the course of the evolution of mankind, there is a steady tendency
towards automation of these processes, although their internal content has
essentially remained unchanged.
The collection of information is the activity of the subject, in the course of which
he receives information about the object of interest to him. Information can be
collected either by humans, or by means of technical means and systems -
hardware. For example, a user can obtain information about the movement of
trains or aircraft himself, having studied the schedule, or from another person
directly, or through some documents compiled by this person, or by means of
technical means (automatic help, telephone and etc.).
The task of gathering information can not be solved in isolation from other tasks,
in particular, the tasks of information exchange (transfer).
Exchange of information is a process in which the source of information transfers
it, and the recipient accepts it. If errors are detected in transmitted messages, then
this information is retransmitted. As a result of the exchange of information
between the source and the recipient, an "information balance" is established, in
which, ideally, the recipient will have the same information as the source.
Information is exchanged with the help of signals that are its material carrier. The
sources of information can be any objects of the real world, which have certain
properties and abilities. If an object belongs to an inanimate nature, then it
produces signals that directly reflect its properties. If the source object is a person,
the signals it generates can not only directly reflect its properties, but also
correspond to the signs that a person develops for the purpose of information
exchange.
The recipient can use the received information more than once. With this goal, he
must fix it on the material carrier (magnetic, photo, cinema, etc.). The process of
forming the initial, non-systematized array of information is called the
accumulation of information. Among the recorded signals there may be those that
reflect valuable or frequently used information. Part of the information at a given
time of special value may not represent, although, possibly, as required in the
future.
Storage of information is the process of maintaining the original information in a
form
COMPUTER CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS
Like all machines, a computer needs to be directed and controlled to perform a
task successfully.
Let’s discuss the capabilities and the limitations of a computer system.
First of all computers are capable of doing repetitive operations. A computer can
perform similar operation thousands of times without becoming tired.
Secondly, computers can process information extremely fast. Modern computer
can solve a problem millions of times faster than a mathematician.
Thirdly, computers are very accurate and reliable, especially when they perform
a number of operations per second. Sometimes computers break down and have to
be repaired.
In the fourth place, general- purpose computers can solve various kinds of
problems. Every big problem can be solved by solving a number of little problems
one after another.
Finally, a computer unlike a human being has no intuition. A person may
suddenly find the answer to a problem without working out the details, but a
computer can only proceed because it has been programmed. Using the very
limited computer capabilities, the task can be done quite easily.

CATEGORIES OF COMPUTER
Computer traditionally has been divided into four categories, based on their
function, physically size, cost and performance.

Modern digital computers are all conceptually similar, regardless of size. They
can be divided into several categories on the basis of cost and performance: the
personal computer or microcomputer is a relatively low- cost machine, usually of
desk- top size. The workstation is a microcomputer with enhanced graphics and
communication capabilities which makes it useful for office work.
The minicomputer is generally too expensive for personal use, with capabilities
suited to a business, school or laboratory.
The mainframe computer is a large, expensive machine with the capability of
serving the needs of major business enterprises, government departments, scientific
research establishments. The largest and fastest of these are called supercomputers.
Minicomputers are larger than microcomputers and are generally used in
business and industry for specific tasks, such as processing payroll. Minicomputer
is a computer intermediate in size between a mainframe computer and a
microcomputer. The Digital Equipment Corporation VAX and the IBM AS/400 are
the examples for it.
A minicomputer occupies a large area within a room and supports 10 to 100
users at a time. Minicomputers are used by medium- sized businesses and
academic institution. They are rapidly being replaced by microcomputers.
Minicomputer is a mid- level computer built to perform complex computations.
Minicomputers are also connected to other minicomputers on a network and
distribute processing among all the attached machines. They are used heavily in
transaction processing applications and as interfaces between mainframe computer
systems and wide area networks.
Mainframes are large, fast and expensive computers. They are generally used in
business by government to provide centralized storage, processing and
management for large amounts of data. Mainframe computer is a large computer. It
occupies a specially air- conditioned room and supports typically 100 to 500 users
at one time. The IBM 370 and IBM 3090 are examples of mainframe computers.
Mainframe computer is a high- level computer designed for the most intensive
computational tasks. The most powerful mainframes are called supercomputers.
They perform highly complex and time- consuming computations. These
computers are used in both pure and applied research by scientists, large businesses
and the military.

Generation of computers

The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The computers of first
generation used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry
for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot
of heat and the installations used to fuse frequently. Therefore, they were very
expensive and only large organizations were able to afford it.
In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch
cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The
computers in this generation used machine code as the programming language.
The main features of the first generation are −
● Vacuum tube technology
● Unreliable
● Supported machine language only
 ● Very costly
● Generated a lot of heat
● Slow input and output devices
● Huge size
● Need of AC
● Non-portable
● Consumed a lot of electricity

The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation,

transistors were used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in
size, more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum
tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and
magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.
● In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming
languages like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch
processing and multiprogramming operating system.
The main features of second generation are −
● Use of transistors
 ● Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
● Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
● Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
● Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
● Faster than first generation computers
● Still very costly
● AC required
● Supported machine and assembly languages

The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third
generation used Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has
many transistors, resistors, and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in
size, reliable, and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing,
multiprogramming operating system were used. High-level languages
(FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were
used during this generation.
The main features of third generation are −
● IC used
● More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
● Smaller size
● Generated less heat
● Faster
● Lesser maintenance
● Costly
● AC required
● Consumed lesser electricity
 ● Supported high-level language
The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth
generation used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having
about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements with their associated circuits on a
single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation.
Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and
affordable. As a result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this
generation, time sharing, real time networks, distributed operating system were
used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this
generation.
The main features of fourth generation are −
● VLSI technology used
● Very cheap
● Portable and reliable
● Use of PCs
● Very small size
● Pipeline processing
● No AC required
● Concept of internet was introduced
● Great developments in the fields of networks
● Computers became easily available
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI
technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in
the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial
Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which
interprets the means and method of making computers think like human beings. All
the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this
generation.
AI includes −
● Robotics
● Neural Networks
● Game Playing
● Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life situations
● Natural language understanding and generation
The main features of fifth generation are −
● ULSI technology
● Development of true artificial intelligence
● Development of Natural language processing
● Advancement in Parallel Processing
● Advancement in Superconductor technology
● More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
● Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Lecture 2
Technical means of information processing
Computer architecture . The main components of the computer
What is hardware? Webster’s dictionary gives us the following definition
of the hardware – the mechanical, magnetic, electronic, and electrical
devices composing a computer system.
Computer hardware can be divided into four categories:
1)input hardware
2)processing hardware
3)storage hardware
 4)output hardware
The purpose of the input hardware is to collect data and convert them
into a form suitable for computer processing. The most common input
device is a keyboard. It looks very much like a typewriter. The mouse is a
hand held device connected to the computer by small cable. As the mouse is
rolled across the mouse pad, the cursor moves across the screen. When the
cursor reaches the desired location, the user usually pushes a button on the
mouse once or twice to signal a menu selection or a command to the
computer.
The light pen uses a light sensitive photoelectric cell to signal screen
position to the computer. Another type of input hardware is optic-electronic
scanner that is used to input graphics as well as typeset characters.
Microphone and video camera can be also used to input data into the
computer.
The purpose of processing hardware is retrieve, interpret and direct the
execution of software instructions provided to the computer. The most
common components of processing hardware are the Central Processing
Unit and main memory.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It reads
and interprets software instructions and coordinates the processing activities
that must take place. The design of the CPU affects the processing power
and the speed of the CPU affects the processing power and the speed of the
computer. With a well-designed CPU in your computer, you can perform
highly sophisticated tasks in a very short time.
Memory is the system of component of the computer in which
information is stored. There are two types of computer memory: RAM and
ROM.
RAM (random access memory) is the volatile computer memory, used for
creating loading, and running programs and for manipulating and
temporarily storing data.
ROM (read only memory) is nonvolatile, nonmodifiable computer
memory, used to hold programmed instructions to the system.
The more memory you have in your computer, the more operations you
can perform.
 The purpose of storage hardware is to store computer instructions and
data in a form that is relatively permanent and retrieve when needed for
processing. The most common ways of storing data are Hard disk, floppy
disk and CD-ROM.
Hard disk is a rigid disk coated with magnetic material, for storing
programs and relatively large amounts of data.
Floppy disk (diskette)–thin, usually flexible plastic disk coated with
magnetic material, for storing computer data and programs. There are two
formats for floppy disks: 5.25 and 3.5. 5.25 is not used in modern computer
systems because it has relatively large size, flexibility and small capacity.
3.5 disks are formatted 1.4 megabytes and are widely used.
CD-ROM (compact disk read only memory) is a compact disc on which
a large amount of digitized read-only data can be stored.
The purpose of output hardware is to provide the user with the means to
view information produced by the computer system. Information is output in
either hardcopy or softcopy form. Hardcopy output can be held in your hand,
such as paper with text (word or numbers) or graphics printed on it.
Softcopy output is displayed on a monitor.
Monitor is a component with a display screen for viewing computer data,
television programs, etc.
Printer is a computer output device that produces a paper copy of data or
graphics.
Modem is an example of communication hardware – an electronic device
that makes possible the transmission of data to or from computer via
telephone or other communication lines.
MICROPROCESSOR–A BRAIN TO THE
The microprocessor forms the heart of a microcomputer. The first
microprocessors were developed in 1971 as a branch of pocket calculator
development. Since then there has been a tremendous raise of work in this
field and there appeared dozens of different microprocessors.
Microprocessors are used primarily to replace or increase random logic
design.
As it is known computer actually refers to a computing system including
hardware and software. Processor refers to the processing circuits; control
processing unit, memory, interrupt unit, clock and timing. Most processors
also include computer software.
Central processing unit-heart of the processor consists of the register
array, arithmetic and logical unit, control unit (including micro ROM) and
bus control circuits. Microsoftware may also include microinstruction
manual, microassembler, etc.

CONTROL UNIT
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller)
manages the computer’s various components; it reads and interprets the
program instructions, transforming them into a series of control signals
which activate other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced
computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve
performance.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special
memory cell that keeps track of which location in memory the next
instruction is to be read from.
The control system’s functions are as follows- note that this is a simplified
description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a
different order depending on the type of CPU:
1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the
program counter.
2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or
signals for each of the other systems.
3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or
perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically
stored within the instruction code.
5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
6.If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete,
instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
 7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register
or perhaps an output device.
8. Jump back to step (1).
Since the program counter is conceptually just another set of memory cell,
it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the
program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place
100 locations further down the program.
Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as “jumps”
and allow for loops and often conditional instruction execution.
It is noticeable that the sequence of operations that the control unit goes
through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program-
and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller
computer called a micro sequencer that runs a microcode program that
causes all of these events to happen

Lecture 3
Development models of Information Systems
An information system (IS) is a formal, sociotechnical, organizational
system designed to collect, process, store, and distribute information. In a
sociotechnical perspective, information systems are composed by four
components: task, people, structure (or roles), and technology.
A computer information system is a system composed of people and computers
that processes or interprets information. The term is also sometimes used to simply
refer to a computer system with software installed.
Information Systems is an academic study of systems with a specific
reference to information and the complementary networks of hardware and
software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create and also
distribute data. An emphasis is placed on an information system having a definitive
boundary, users, processors, storage, inputs, outputs and the aforementioned
communication networks.
Any specific information system aims to support operations, management and
decision-making. An information system is the information and communication
technology that an organization uses, and also the way in which people interact
with this technology in support of business processes.
Some authors make a clear distinction between information systems,
computer systems, and business processes. Information systems typically include
an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT, focusing instead on the
end use of information technology. Information systems are also different from
business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of
business processes.
Alter argues for advantages of viewing an information system as a special type of
work system. A work system is a system in which humans or machines perform
processes and activities using resources to produce specific products or services for
customers. An information system is a work system whose activities are devoted to
capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying
information.
As such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand
and activity systems on the other. An information system is a form of
communication system in which data represent and are processed as a form of
social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-formal
language which supports human decision making and action.
Information systems are the primary focus of study for organizational informatics.
The six components that must come together in order to produce an information
system are: (Information systems are organizational procedures and do not need a
computer or software, this data is erroneous, i.e., an accounting system in the
1400s using a ledger and ink utilizes an information system)
1. Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery. This category includes
the computer itself, which is often referred to as the central processing unit
(CPU), and all of its support equipment. Among the support, equipment are
input and output devices, storage devices and communications devices.
2. Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals
(if any) that support them. Computer programs are machine-readable
instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware parts of the system
to function in ways that produce useful information from data. Programs are
generally stored on some input/output medium, often a disk or tape.
 3. Data: Data are facts that are used by programs to produce useful
information. Like programs, data are generally stored in machine-readable
form on disk or tape until the computer needs them.
4. Procedures: Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of a
computer system. "Procedures are to people what software is to hardware" is
a common analogy that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a
system.
5. People: Every system needs people if it is to be useful. Often the most
overlooked element of the system are the people, probably the component
that most influence the success or failure of information systems. This
includes "not only the users, but those who operate and service the
computers, those who maintain the data, and those who support the network
of computers." 
6. Feedback: it is another component of the IS, that defines that an IS may be
provided with a feedback (Although this component isn't necessary to
function).
Data is the bridge between hardware and people. This means that the data we
collect is only data until we involve people. At that point, data is now information.
Types of information system

A four level hierarchy

The "classic" view of Information systems found in textbooks in the 1980s was a
pyramid of systems that reflected the hierarchy of the organization,
usually transaction processing systems at the bottom of the pyramid, followed
by management information systems, decision support systems, and ending
with executive information systems at the top. Although the pyramid model
remains useful since it was first formulated, a number of new technologies have
been developed and new categories of information systems have emerged, some of
which no longer fit easily into the original pyramid model.
Some examples of such systems are:
● data warehouses
● enterprise resource planning
● enterprise systems
● expert systems
● search engines
● geographic information system
● global information system
● office automation.
A computer(-based) information system is essentially an IS using computer
technology to carry out some or all of its planned tasks. The basic components of
computer-based information systems are:
● Hardware- these are the devices like the monitor, processor, printer and
keyboard, all of which work together to accept, process, show data and
information.
● Software- are the programs that allow the hardware to process the data.
● Databases- are the gathering of associated files or tables containing related
data.
● Networks- are a connecting system that allows diverse computers to
distribute resources.
● Procedures- are the commands for combining the components above to
process information and produce the preferred output.
The first four components (hardware, software, database, and network) make up
what is known as the information technology platform. Information technology
workers could then use these components to create information systems that watch
over safety measures, risk and the management of data. These actions are known as
information technology services
Certain information systems support parts of organizations, others support entire
organizations, and still others, support groups of organizations. Recall that each
department or functional area within an organization has its own collection of
application programs or information systems. These functional area information
systems (FAIS) are supporting pillars for more general IS namely, business
intelligence systems and dashboards. As the name suggests, each FAIS support a
particular function within the organization, e.g.: accounting IS, finance IS,
production-operation management (POM) IS, marketing IS, and human resources
IS. In finance and accounting, managers use IT systems to forecast revenues and
business activity, to determine the best sources and uses of funds, and to perform
audits to ensure that the organization is fundamentally sound and that all financial
reports and documents are accurate. Other types of organizational information
systems are FAIS, Transaction processing systems, enterprise resource
planning, office automation system, management information system, decision
support system, expert system, executive dashboard, supply chain management
system, and electronic commerce system. Dashboards are a special form of IS that
support all managers of the organization. They provide rapid access to timely
information and direct access to structured information in the form of reports.
Expert systems attempt to duplicate the work of human experts by applying
reasoning capabilities, knowledge, and expertise within a specific domain.
Information system development
Information technology departments in larger organizations tend to strongly
influence the development, use, and application of information technology in the
business. A series of methodologies and processes can be used to develop and use
an information system. Many developers use a systems engineering approach such
as the system development life cycle (SDLC), to systematically develop an
information system in stages. The stages of the system development lifecycle are
planning, system analysis and requirements, system design, development,
integration and testing, implementation and operations and maintenance. Recent
research aims at enabling and measuring the ongoing, collective development of
such systems within an organization by the entirety of human actors themselves.
An information system can be developed in house (within the organization) or
outsourced. This can be accomplished by outsourcing certain components or the
entire system. A specific case is the geographical distribution of the development
team (offshoring, global information system).
A computer-based information system, following a definition of Langefors,[25] is a
technologically implemented medium for:
 ● recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic expressions,
● as well as for drawing conclusions from such expressions.
Geographic information systems, land information systems, and disaster
information systems are examples of emerging information systems, but they can
be broadly considered as spatial information systems. System development is done
in stages which include:
● Problem recognition and specification
● Information gathering
● Requirements specification for the new system
● System design
● System construction
● System implementation
The most commonly used modes of information processing include dialog, packet,
and telecast modes.
Modes of organization of information processing
The solution of economic problems in the form of information exchange between
the user and the computer is called a dialogue mode. The following is provided
during the implementation of the relevant technology:
- human and computing via local or remote terminals
providing information reception between systems;
- search for information (data) programs needed by the user;
- Rapid processing of received information on a computer and results
is delivery to the user without delay;
There are two types of dialogue mode: passive dialogue and active dialogue.
During the passive dialog, the user sends a message-request. In return, the
computer responds. In the passive dialogue mode of information processing, news
and responses can also be sent at the initiative of the computing system.
In the active dialogue mode of information processing, information is sent by the
user and the machine, in other words, there is an active exchange.
In the passive dialogue mode, the form of "question-answer" is more developed. In
this case, the search, processing (processing) of the necessary information for the
user on the finished programs is provided.
In the active dialogue mode, a number of learning systems are involved in the
exchange of information. It is also planned to use programming systems in this
mode.
The current dialog modes are characterized by the fact that the news is presented in
a formal language. Therefore, natural human language is not yet used in dialogue
mode.
During the organization of the dialogue mode of information processing, a
dialogue program of information processing is created. This program reads the
information sent from the terminal and sends a message to the primary terminal.
Note that the terminals can be connected to the computer system locally or can be
an element of the computer system.
The reaction of the system is considered as an important indicator when
applying the dialogue mode of information processing. As a rule, the reaction is
measured by the time interval between the moment the request is made and the
moment the answer is received. Issues resolved in the dialogue mode should differ
in terms of the intensity of the appeal. In the process of "question and answer"
exchange, the limit set for specific conditions must be taken into account. Thus, the
limit of the effectiveness of the feedback is currently equal to two seconds in time.

Lecture 4
Computer networks
A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the
purpose of sharing resources. The most common resource shared today is
connection to the Internet. Other shared resources can include a printer or a file
server. A network is a collection of computers connected to each other by means of
data transmission. Data transmission means can consist of the following elements:
computers connected to each other by cable, satellite, telephone, fiber-optic, radio,
etc. various types of transducers based on transmitters, as well as other elements
and devices.
The architecture of a computer network defines the principles of operation
and installation of hardware and software of network elements.
Modern networks can be classified according to a number of characteristics:
the distance between computers; topology, purpose; the number of services
provided; principles of centralized or decentralized management; non-switching,
telephone switching, circuit switching, data, packet and datagram switching
methods; according to the types of transmission medium, etc.
Depending on the distance between computers, networks are divided into
two classes: local and global networks.
Any global network can be connected to other global networks, local area
networks, as well as computers that are connected to it separately and remotely, or
separate I / O devices.
There are four main types of global networks: urban, regional, national and
transnational. Printing or copying devices, cash registers and bank machines,
displays and fax machines located at certain distances from each other may be used
as input and output devices. Global networks will expand the scope of local
networks, including networks located in different buildings, cities, regions and
countries. Typically, global networks limit their reach to the range of services
provided by a regional company. These companies include Bell, Pacific Bell,
AT&T, Sprint, MCI and others. an example can be given.
Global networks are connected by serial lines, which also have lower data
rates than local networks. Typically, global networks include the following
devices:
Routing. These provide connectivity between local area networks
and manages the global network through the interface.
ATM switches. Cells between local and global networks
Used for high speed switching.
X.25 Switches and Frame Relay. Number signals are sent
connects personal and public data transmission channels.
Modems. Personal and public data to which analog signals are sent
 connects transmission channels to each other.
Channels, data service modules (CSU, DSU - Channel Service
Unit, Data Service Unit). Whether the equipment is located in the client area
(CPE - Customer Processing Equipment), it is used by the client as the final
equipment of the digital channel. These devices are connected to a central
telephone exchange (CO - Central Office), ie the switching node of the telephone
company closest to the customer.
Switching servers. These are usually calling servers (dual in, out
server), which allows remote users to communicate with the required client
and connect to its local network. An example of this is the AS5200 Cisco series
communication server.
Multiplexers. Several at once through one physical channel
allows you to send signals.
The centralized management scheme of computing processes on the basis of
medium and large computers (Main frame) has recently been replaced by "client-
server" technology.
In a centralized management scheme, all computing resources, data and their
processing programs are concentrated in one computer. Users access machine
resources through terminals (displays). The terminals are connected to the
computer either via an interface or through telephone lines (if the terminals are
located at a distance). The main function of the terminal is to describe the
information provided to the user. The advantages of such a scheme are ease of
management, the possibility of software improvements and information security.
The disadvantages are low reliability (computer failure means the collapse of the
entire computing process), the difficulty of increasing hardware and software, and,
as a rule, a decrease in efficiency as the number of network users increases, and so
on.
In the client-server architecture, the terminal is replaced by one or more
powerful computers (computer-servers), which are owned by the client, and the
mainframe, which is allocated to solve common information processing problems.
The advantages of such a model are its more vividness and reliability of the
computing system, the ability of the user to work with several applications
simultaneously, high efficiency of information processing, providing the user with
a high-quality interface, etc.
 Because LCNs operate within an organization (corporation, enterprise), such
networks are often referred to as corporate systems or networks. In this case
Computers are usually located inside a room, building or adjacent buildings.
Regardless of the network on which a computer operates, the function of the
software installed on that computer can be divided into two groups: those that
manage the computer's own resources and those that manage the exchange with
other computers.
Usually the computer's own resources are managed by the operating system.
Network resources are managed by network software, which is implemented either
as a separate package in the form of a network program or through a network
operating system.
A hierarchical approach is used in network software. Here, the free levels
and the interfaces between them must be predefined. As a result, it is possible to
improve the program of any level, provided that other levels are not touched. In
general, the function of any level can be simplified and, if necessary, completely
eliminated.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has proposed the
Open System Interconnection (OSI) model, which provides for the interconnection
of open systems in order to regulate the operation of network software and to
organize the interaction of any computer system.
The OSI benchmark model defines the following seven levels:
Physical layer;
Network layer;
Transport layer;
Session layer;
Presentation layer;
Application layer
 Local computer networks
The following are used as the main hardware components of local computer
networks (LCN):
Workstations;
Servers;
Interface cards;
Cables.
Workstations (WS) - used as a network user's workplace are personal
computers. The demand for WS is determined by the characteristics of the
problems solved in the network, the principle of organization of computational
processes, the OS used and a number of other factors. For example, if the network
uses MS Windows for Workgroup OS, then it is necessary to use Pentium-type
processors as the processor of WS.
In some cases, if the WS is connected directly to the network cable, in this
case
There is no need for memory on magnetic disks. Such WS s are called WS s
without disks. However, in this case, when the OS is downloaded from the file-
server to the WS, the network adapter must have a suitable chip that allows remote
download. This chip is used as an extension of the input-output base system
(BIOS). This chip writes the OS loading program to the WS's RAM. The main
advantage of such diskless WS s is that they are cheap and do not allow
unauthorized access to the user's program and computer viruses. The disadvantage
is that it does not work autonomously (provided it is not connected to the server),
as well as does not have its own data and software archive.
In LCN, servers perform the function of distributing network resources.
Usually the server function can be performed by a personal computer, mainframe
or special computer, which is quite powerful. Each server can be both separate and
part of the WS. In the latter case, the server is not complete, only part of the
resources can be shared.
If there are several servers in the PC, then each server serves the WS
connected to it. The domain is called the server's set of computers and the WS
connected to them. In some cases, a domain has multiple servers. One of these
servers is the main server, and the rest are the backup server or the logical
extension of the main server.

Lecture 5

Technological aspects of the Internet

General Information. Internet network architecture Types of Internet

connection. Telecommunications

The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks

that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks
and devices. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic,
business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad
array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet
carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked
hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic
mail, telephony, and file sharing.

The origins of the Internet date back to the development of packet

switching and research commissioned by the United States Department of Defense
in the 1960s to enable time-sharing of computers. The primary precursor network,
the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional
academic and military networks in the 1970s. The funding of the National Science
Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for
other commercial extensions, led to worldwide participation in the development of
new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. The linking of
commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s marked the beginning of
the transition to the modern Internet, and generated a sustained exponential growth
as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers were connected to
the network. Although the Internet was widely used by academia in the 1980s,
commercialization incorporated its services and technologies into virtually every
aspect of modern life.

It is defined as the arrangement of different types of parts of computer or

the network hardware to configure or setup the internet technology is known as
internet network architecture. Different types of devices or the hardware is
required to setup up the internet network architecture. The architecture of the
Internet was commonly described as having four layers above the physical media,
each providing a distinct function: a “link” layer providing local packet delivery
over heterogeneous physical networks, a “network” layer providing best-effort
global packet delivery

Most traditional communication media, including telephony, radio,

television, paper mail and newspapers are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed
by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as email, Internet telephony,
Internet television, online music, digital newspapers, and video streaming websites.
Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or
are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The Internet
has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant
messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has grown
exponentially both for major retailers and small businesses and entrepreneurs, as it
enables firms to extend their "brick and mortar" presence to serve a larger market
or even sell goods and services entirely online. Business-to-business and financial
services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries.

Information on the Internet is stored on servers. Servers have their own addresses
and are managed by specialized programs. With their help you can send mail and
files, search for information in the database, etc. it is possible to carry out.
Information exchange between servers is carried out through high-speed
communication channels. Individual users have access to Internet information
resources, usually through telephone network providers or corporate networks.
Any organization that can communicate with customers as a provider and have
access to the World Wide Web can participate.

Working on the Internet means using a family of communication

protocols. This family of protocols is called TCP / IP (Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet Protocol), used to transmit data over global networks and many
local area networks.

Types of Internet connection

Initially, the Internet (then called ARPANET) consisted of computers connected to

a permanent network, each of which had a specified address (domain name).

Then there is the idea of accessing the network via a telephone line with the help of
connecting sessions. With the help of the phone, you can already connect to a
computer, which is a permanent "citizen" of the network, connect to it, and thus
become part of the Internet. Naturally, in this case, there are many organizations
that provide paid services to all users. Thus, the first providers are formed.

The role of providers can be played by anyone with a strong server, a large number
of incoming telephone lines, or rather a certain amount of money to buy a
dedicated communication channel. This channel is the main factor that
distinguishes the provider from the end user. Providers use special high-speed
communication channels, such as fiber-optic cable or satellite, to transmit
information over the Internet. Thanks to these communication channels, hundreds
and thousands of users can work on the Internet at the same time in a very
comfortable environment. Of course, at certain moments the capacity of the
channel is not enough, in which case they either improve it and increase the
capacity, or the communication connection deteriorates significantly .... Depending
on the type of connection and the bandwidth of the communication channel
between user and provider Types of stay are divided into 2 major groups:

Joining a session. In this type of connection, the user is not permanently connected
to the network, but communicates with the network for a short time via a telephone
line. In this case, the appropriate amount of money is paid for each hour of
connection to the network, and the data in the network is transmitted in analog
form.

Permanent connection. In this case, the computer is connected to a permanent and

fast channel, and the data is transmitted digitally in the network. Traffic is paid
only for the amount of data received and sent by the computer.

Lecture 6

Introduction to programming

Stages of execution of the task on the computer. Algorithm and its types.

Rules of algorithmization of issues.

The process of solving a problem on a computer is a joint activity of a

person and a computer. This process can be represented in several sequential
stages. On the share of a person are the stages associated with creative activity -
setting, algorithmizing, programming tasks and analyzing the results, and on the
computer share - the stages of processing information in accordance with the
developed algorithm:
1. Statement of the problem;
2. Analysis and research of the problem, model;
3. Development of the algorithm;
4. Programming;
5. Testing and debugging;
 6. Analysis of the results of the solution of the problem and refinement, if
necessary, of a mathematical model with the repetition of steps 2-5;
7. Maintenance of the program
An algorithm (pronounced AL-go-rith-um) is a procedure or formula for
solving a problem, based on conducting a sequence of specified actions. A
computer program can be viewed as an elaborate algorithm. In mathematics and
computer science, an algorithm usually means a small procedure that solves a
recurrent problem.Algorithm-a precise prescription that determines the order of the
actions of an agent to solve the problem for a finite time.
Algorithm-a precise prescription that defines the order of the actions of the
executor to solve the problem for the finite time. The word "algorithm" is derived
from the great median Asian scholar of the 8th-9th centuries Al-Khorezmi, the
autocrack "Book Restoration and Opposing," the elimination of linear and
quadratic equations
The algorithm for solving the problem has a number of mandatory
properties:
- Discreteness - a breakdown of the process of processing information into simpler
steps (steps of execution), the performance of which by computer or person does
not cause difficulties. Algorithm of the consistency of the execution of some of the
individual steps. To complete each algorithm, you need a finite number of times in
the interval of time
- Determination of the algorithm - uniqueness of the execution of each individual
step of information transformation. Determination (determinism) for each step in
the selection of the available data can be uniquely calculated results of the
execution of the algorithm. Results are not dependent on random factors. The
algorithm produces one result for the results of the technical data.
- Mass - the suitability of the algorithm for solving a certain class of problems. The
input data for the algorithm can be selected from a number of functions. This
property assumes that the algorithm should be used for some of the problems of the
problems that differ from the original data. Example: Algorithms for applying the
pair of natural numbers.
Not all of the objectives of the algorithmic control? The problem canmeet
several different algorithmical solutions.
 he algorithm is an exact instruction, and instructions are found in all areas of
human activity. However, not every instruction can be called an algorithm. Solving
the problem, a person often does not think about how he does it, and sometimes, it
is difficult to write down the sequence of actions performed. But in order to assign
the solution of the problem to the automatic device, it is necessary to make an
algorithm with a clear indication of the sequence of actions. For an automatic
device to solve a task in accordance with the algorithm, it must understand every
indication of the algorithm. The algorithm is applied to the desired set of initial
values, called arguments. The goal of the algorithm execution is to obtain a certain
result, if as a result of the algorithm execution a certain goal is not achieved, then
the algorithm is either incorrect or incomplete.
The types of the description of the algorithm
A write algorithms use a variety of means. The choice of the tool is determined by
the type of the executable algorithm. There are the following main ways of
recording algorithms:

- verbal, when the algorithm is described in human language;

- symbolic, when the algorithm is described using a set of symbols;

- graphic, when the algorithm is described with a set of graphic images.

Common methods of recording are graphical recording using block diagrams

and character recording using some algorithmic language.

The description of the algorithm using the block diagrams is done by

drawing a sequence of geometric shapes, each of which implies the execution of a
certain algorithm action. The order of the actions is indicated by arrows.
Depending on the sequence of actions in the algorithm, algorithms of linear,
branched and cyclic structure are distinguished. In linear structure algorithms, the
actions are performed sequentially one by one:
 In the algorithms of the branched structure, depending on the fulfillment or
non-fulfillment of any condition, different sequences of actions are performed.
Each such sequence of actions is called the branch of the algorithm.

In the algorithms of a cyclic structure, depending on whether a condition is

fulfilled or not, a repetitive sequence of actions is performed, called the cycle
body. A nested is a cycle that is inside the body of another cycle. Distinguish
between cycles with precondition and post-conditions:
 Elements of block diagram and examples
he task of algorithms with the help of block diagrams turned out to be a very
convenient means of depicting algorithms and was widely used.
Block diagram of the algorithm is a graphic representation of the algorithm
in the form of linked with each other by arrows (transition lines) and blocks -
graphic symbols, each of which corresponds to one step of the algorithm. Inside
the block, a description of the corresponding action is given.
The table shows the most commonly used symbols
 Lecture 7

Basic elements of programming

Visual Basic programming language. Language symbols and

operators.

Like the BASIC programming language, Visual Basic was designed for an

easy learning curve. Programmers can create both simple and
complex GUI applications. Programming in VB is a combination of visually
arranging components or controls on a form, specifying attributes and actions for
those components, and writing additional lines of code for more functionality.
Since VB defines default attributes and actions for the components, a programmer
can develop a simple program without writing much code. Programs built with
earlier versions suffered performance problems, but faster computers and native
code compilation has made this less of an issue.  Though VB programs can be
compiled into native code executables from version 5 on, they still require the
presence of around 1 MB of runtime libraries. Core runtime libraries are included
by default in Windows and later, but extended runtime components still have to be
installed. Earlier versions of Windows require that the runtime libraries be
distributed with the executable.

An empty form in Visual Basic 6

Forms are created using drag-and-drop techniques. A tool is used to place

controls (e.g., text boxes, buttons, etc.) on the form (window). Controls
have attributes and event handlers associated with them. Default values are
provided when the control is created, but may be changed by the programmer.
Many attribute values can be modified during run time based on user actions or
changes in the environment, providing a dynamic application. For example, code
can be inserted into the form resize event handler to reposition a control so that it
remains centered on the form, expands to fill up the form, etc. By inserting code
into the event handler for a keypress in a text box, the program can automatically
translate the case of the text being entered, or even prevent certain characters from
being inserted.

Visual Basic can create executables (EXE files), ActiveX controls, or DLL

files, but is primarily used to develop Windows applications and to interface
database systems. Dialog boxes with less functionality can be used to provide pop-
up capabilities. Controls provide the basic functionality of the application, while
programmers can insert additional logic within the appropriate event handlers. For
example, a drop-down combination box automatically displays a list. When the
user selects an element, an event handler is called that executes code that the
programmer created to perform the action for that list item. Alternatively, a Visual
Basic component can have no user interface, and instead provide ActiveX objects
to other programs via Component Object Model (COM). This allows for server-
side processing or an add-in module.

The runtime recovers unused memory using reference counting, which

depends on variables passing out of scope or being set to Nothing, avoiding the
problem of memory leaks that are possible in other languages. There is a large
library of utility objects, and the language provides basic support for object-
oriented programming. Unlike many other programming languages, Visual Basic is
generally not case-sensitive—though it transforms keywords into a standard case
configuration and forces the case of variable names to conform to the case of the
entry in the symbol table. String comparisons are case sensitive by default. The
Visual Basic compiler is shared with other Visual Studio languages (C, C++).
Nevertheless, by default the restrictions in the IDE do not allow creation of some
targets (Windows model DLLs) and threading models, but over the years,
developers have bypassed these restrictions.

Characteristic
 The code windows in Visual Basic, showing a function using the If, Then,
Else and Dim statements.

Visual Basic builds upon the characteristics of BASIC.

● There are no line numbers as in earlier BASIC, code is grouped into

subroutines or methods: Sub...End Sub .

● Code Statements have no terminating character other than a line ending

(carriage return/line feed). Versions since at least VB 3.0 allowed that
statements can be implicitly multi-line with concatenation of strings or
explicitly using the underscore character (_) at the end of lines.[18][19]

● Code comments are done with a single apostrophe (') character. ' This is a
comment

● Looping statement blocks begin and end with keywords: Do...Loop,

While...End While, For...Next .[20]

● Multiple variable assignment is not possible. A = B = C does not imply that

the values of A, B and C are equal. The Boolean result of "Is B = C?" is
stored in A. The result stored in A would therefore be either false or true.

● Boolean constant True has numeric value −1.[21] This is because the Boolean

data type is stored as a two's complement signed integer. In this construct −1
evaluates to all-1s in binary (the Boolean value True), and 0 as all-0s (the
Boolean value False). This is apparent when performing a
(bitwise) Not operation on the two's complement value 0, which returns the
two's complement value −1, in other words True = Not False. This inherent
functionality becomes especially useful when performing logical operations
on the individual bits of an integer such as And, Or, Xor and Not.[22] This
definition of True is also consistent with BASIC since the early 1970s
Microsoft BASIC implementation and is also related to the characteristics of
CPU instructions at the time.
Programming algorithms with different structures.
VB Statements
H Assignments are the Same as in C
H Case is not significant
– Case will be adjusted for you on keywords
– For Variable Names, Case is ignored
H The Usual Operators can be used
– AND is the same as both & and && depending
on context
– OR = | and ||
– NOT = !
VB IF Statements :

If Then
<List of Statements> Else
<List of Statements> EndIf If

DON’T FORGET THE ENDIF!

Comparators: =,, <=, >=, < > (not equal) Connectives: And, Or, Not

VB While Statements
 While <condition> do
<List of Statements>
Wend

VB For Statements

For <Variable> = <start> to <finish>

<List of Statements>
Next <Variable>
For <Variable> = <start> to <finish> Step <increment>
<List of Statements>
Next <Variable>
Example:
The following code snippet displays a message box saying "Hello, World!"
as the window loads:
Private Sub Form_Load()
' Execute a simple message box that says "Hello, World!"
MsgBox "Hello, World!"
End Sub
This snippet makes a counter that moves up 1 every second (a label and a
timer control need to be added to the form for this to work) until the form is closed
or an integer overflow occurs:
Option Explicit
Dim Count As Integer
 Private Sub Form_Load()
Count = 0
Timer1.Interval = 1000 ' units of milliseconds
End Sub
Private Sub Timer1_Timer()
Count = Count + 1
Label1.Caption = Count
End Sub

Lecture 8
Software for information processing
SOFTWARE AND FIRMWARE
A computer requires more than just the actual equipment or hardware we see and touch. It
requires Software- programs for directing the operation of a computer or electronic data.
PROGRAMS
What is a computer program (or just a program)?
It is a set of instructions arranged in sequence. Computer program is an algorithm.
It directs the computer to perform necessary operations for the solution of a problem or the
completion of a task. The instructions in the program must be written in a language the computer
can understand in a particular computer language. The computer follows the instructions one at a
time in order.
Computer programs handle data, which is held in the computer’s memory. Data can be of two
types:
1.Variable data which may change during the execution of program.
2.Constant data which cannot change during the execution of the program.
The program and the data are stored in a binary code in the memory of the computer (as a
sequence of bits). A bit is a single cell holding a value of 0 or 1. As the computer is an electronic
machine, the bit is an electrical potential which is off (for 0) or on (for 1).
 Computer’s memory is organized in such a way that each 8 bits compose a byte, which is
taken as a unit of computer’s information and memory.
A byte can have address which allows us to refer to a particular collection of bits. The
address of a byte is its decimal number converted to 16-base system.
The compiler needs to know how many bytes must be given to store the data. This is done
when constants and variables are declared within the program.
Software is the final computer system component. These computer programs instruct the
hardware how to conduct processing. The computer is merely a general –purpose machine which
requires specific software to perform a given task. Computers can input, calculate, compare, and
output data as information. Software determines the order in which these operations are
performed. Programs usually fall in one of two categories: system software and applications
software.
System software controls standard internal computer activities. An operating system, for
example, is a collection of system programs that aid in the operation of a computer regardless of
the application software being used. When a computer is first turned on, one of system programs
is booted or loaded into the computers memory. This software contains information about
memory capacity, the model of the processor, the disk drivers to be used. Once the system
software is loaded, the applications software can be brought in.
System programs are designed for the specific pieces of hardware. These programs are called
drivers and coordinate peripheral hardware and computer activities. User needs to install a
specific driver in order to activate a peripheral device. For example, if you intend to buy a printer
or a scanner you need to worry in advance about the driver program. By installing the driver you
‘teach’ your mainboard to ‘understand’ the newly attached part.
Applications software satisfies your specific need. The developers of applications software
rely mostly on marketing research strategies trying to do their best to attract more users (buyers)
to their software. As the productivity of the hardware has increased greatly in recent years, the
programmers nowadays tend to include as much as possible in one program to make software
interface look more attractive to the user. This class of programs is the most numerous and
perspective from the marketing point of view.
Data communication within and between computer systems is handled by system software.
Communication software transfers data from one computer system to another. These programs
usually provide users with data security and error checking along with physically transferring
data between the two computer’s memories. During the past five years the developing electronic
network communication has stimulated more and more companies to produce various
communications software, such as Web-Browsers for Internet.
Firmware is a term that is commonly used to describe certain programs that stored in ROM.
Firmware often refers to a sequence of instructions (software) that is substituted to hardware. For
example, in an instance where cost is more important than performance, the computer system
architect might decide not to use special electronic circuits (hardware) to multiply two numbers,
but instead write instructions (software) to cause the machine to accomplish the same function by
repeated use of circuits already designed to perform addition.
Often programs, particularly systems software, are stored in an area of memory not used for
applications software. These protected programs are stored in an area of memory called – read –
only memory (ROM), which can be read from but not written on.
OPERATING SYSTEM.
An operating system (OS) is a program that runs a computer, manages all the other
programs in it. DOS, (the Disk Operating System), Windows 98, Windows 2000, Windows 8, 10
are all examples of operating systems.
All operating systems perform the same basic tasks: control to the computer hardware,
files and folders management, applications management, built-in utility programs support.
When programs need some hardware resources, they address to the operating
system(OS), which in its turn, accesses the hardware through the BIOS or through the device
drivers(OS “sit” between the programs and the Basic Input Output System(BIOS)) and after that
the BIOS controls the hardware. The Windows 2000 NOS bypasses the system BIOS and
controls the hardware directly.
To organize and manage files the operating system uses the file management system. A
file is a collection of data that is given a single name and treated as a single unit. In fact all of the
information that a computer stores is in the form of a file.
There are many types of files, including program files, data files, and text files. The
way an operating system organizes information into files is called the file system. Most operating
systems use a hierarchical file system, which organizes files into directories under a tree
structure.
 The beginning of the directory system is called the root directory. An operating system
creates a file structure on the computer hard drive where user data can be stored and retrieved.
When a file is saved, the operating system saves it, attaches a name to it, and remembers where it
put the file for future use.
When a user requests a program, the operating system locates the application and loads
it into RAM (Random-Access Memory, or main memory) of the computer.
COMPUTER VIRUS
Do you know what a computer virus is? You think it is a microbe. No, it is not. A
computer virus is a program, which is capable to create copies of itself and “inject” them into
different objects of a computer system (files, system sectors). The copies of a virus can be
different from the ‘master’. These usually fully functional copies allow a virus to spread very
quickly.
Viruses are usually classified by the place where they reside on a computer (e.g. file
viruses, boot viruses, boot-sector viruses, network viruses), the infection method (e.g. memory
resident/non-resident, slow/fast etc), their destruction capabilities (“harmless”, not dangerous,
very dangerous) and any special features of the virus algorithm (e.g. polymorphic, stealth, etc).
A “harmless” virus is a virus which does not affect a computer’s operation. This
should not lead to a conclusion that some viruses are to be considered as being “good”. Even if
such viruses may not cause direct damage, they at least cause “economic” damage in a sense that
you have to spend time to get rid of them.
A virus is called “not dangerous” if it only manifests itself by using e.g. disk-space
and performing some “entertaining” graphics, sounds or other effects.
A dangerous virus affects a computer’s operation, for example, by slowing it down
more and more.
Very dangerous viruses usually perform destructive actions, such as corrupting data,
deleting data and or messing up settings that are vital for proper computer operations.
Polymorphic viruses (self-encrypting viruses or ghost viruses) are able to change their
main body from copy to copy by making use of encryption algorithms and modifications of the
decryption routine. Through these code variations the virus hopes, that virus-scanners
(antiviruses) will not be able to detect all instances of the virus.
 Stealth viruses are capable, while being active, to hide their presence modifications
they have done to files or system sectors. This is usually achieved by the virus through
intercepting DOS calls to access files or sectors and “giving back” the “clean” information.
To fight with computer viruses there were created programs called antiviruses
programs (AVP) or virus-scanners. AVP Scanner can test your system for virus presence in:
System memory; Files, including archive and packed files; System sectors, e.g. Master Boot
Record (MBR) of harddisks and Boot sectors of floppy and harddisks.
Virus-scanner can detect and remove thousands of viruses (it also handles highly
polymorphic viruses). AVP recursively scans in packed and archive files, tests and disinfects
resident viruses in system memory, checks files and system sectors discover changes in them.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Programming - theoretical and practical activities related to the creation of programs.
Programming is a collective concept and can be regarded both as a science and as an art,
on this a scientific and practical approach to program development is based. The program is the
result of intellectual work, for which creativity is characteristic, and it, as is known, has no clear
boundaries. In any program there is an individuality of its developer, the program reflects a
certain degree of art of the programmer. At the same time, programming also involves routine
work that can and must have strict execution rules and standards.
A programming language is a formal sign system designed to describe algorithms in a
form that is convenient for the executor (for example, a computer). The programming language
defines a set of lexical, syntactic and semantic rules used in the compilation of a computer
program. It allows the programmer to accurately determine what events the computer will
respond to, how data will be stored and transmitted, and what actions should be performed on
these data under different circumstances
A programming language is an artificial language designed to express computations
that can be performed by a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be
used to create programs that control the behaviour of a machine, to express algorithms precisely,
or as a mode of human communication.
A programming language is a very concise language with strict rules in which a
computer program must be written. There are two kinds of programming languages:
1) low-level languages and high-level languages.
 Low-level languages (assembly language) are similar to the binary codes that the
computer uses itself. Both assembly language and machine code are complex to use and are often
designed for a particular processor and can’t be easily transferred to another. The advantages of
low-level languages are their speed as they need little or no translation.
High-level languages use English-like words what made programming very much
easier. They are BASIC, PASCAL, FORTRAN, C, C++, ADA, and COBAL. Each language has
a unique set of keywords and a special syntax for organizing program instructions. A vocabulary
is a set of grammatical rules for instructing a computer to perform specific tasks.
High-level programming languages are more complex than the languages the computer
actually understands, called machine languages. Each different type of CPU has its own unique
machine language.
Lying between machine languages and high-level languages are languages called
assembly languages. Assembly languages are similar to machine languages, but they are much
easier to program in because they allow a programmer to substitute names for numbers. Machine
languages only consist of numbers.
Lying above high-level languages are languages called fourth-generation languages
(usually abbreviated 4GL). 4GLs are far removed from machine languages and represent the
class of computer languages closest to human languages.
Regardless of that language you use, you need to convert your program into machine
language so that the computer can understand it. There are two ways to do this: 1) interpret the
program, 2) compile the program
An interpreter takes a single line of source code, translates it and carries out the
instruction immediately. This process is repeated line by line until the whole program is
translated and run.
A compiler translates the whole program before the program is run and turns it into a
self- contained program which can be run independently.