Introduction to computer science

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
DEFINITION OF A COMPUTER

Computer Science is a science concerned with information, that is, representation, storage, manipulation
or processing and presentation of information. Like any other science, which uses different devices and
lab equipment, Computer Science uses a special device called COMPUTER.

The word ‘computer’ comes from the word ‘compute’, which means to calculate. So a computer is
considered to be a calculating device that can perform arithmetic operations at enormous speed.

More accurately, a computer may be defined as a device that operates upon data.

a) Computers are large electronic machines that can manipulate data in the desired way by
executing a detailed set of instructions called programs.

b) A computer is an electronic device used to process information.

 Electronic- very fast, operate at electronic speed.
 Processing- calculating numbers, and comparing logics, creating texts, pictures, etc.
 Information – systematically analyzed data uses to make a decision.

c) A computer is a machine which receives an input (data), processes it according to a predefined

program or instruction, stores it, and gives an output, i.e. provides the result in printed or
visual form.

Figure 1.1 the input process, and

output functions of a computer
system.
Beyond calculating numbers, today, computers are used to store and manage large amount of information
in the form of words, numbers, pictures and sounds.

Computer science has different fields of specialization or sub-disciplines like other sciences.
There are seven sub-disciplines of computer science.

1. Software engineering: Concerned with how to use and apply scientific and basic engineering
principles to solve problems faced by programmers and to select the best way so that to produce high
quality software or program.

2. Computer engineering (Architecture): deals with studying, analyzing and designing of computer
hardware (organization and interconnection of computer system components) and its working
principle.

3. Automata theory: concerned with the study of machines, devices or models, which has a certain set
of inputs and outputs (which depends only on the inputs). It is the abstract study of computers and
their efficiency.

4. Formal language theory: concerned with the study of grammars of programming languages, which
helps in understanding and construction of programming languages and compilers.

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 Introduction to computer science

5. Complexity theory: concerned with the study and analysis of algorithms, which helps in measuring
the efficiency of the algorithms.

6. Database Architecture: deals with the study of and design of efficient methods of information storage
and retrieval.

7. Artificial Intelligence: important and recent sub-discipline concerned with how to design and
program machine to solve problems or carried out tasks that appear to require human imagination or
intelligence.

What is Information Technology?

Information Technology
 is the use of modern technology to aid the capture, processing, storage and retrieval, and
communication of information, whether in the form of numerical data, text, sound, or image.
 It refers to a wide variety of items and abilities used in the creation, storage, and dispersal of
information.
 It is the study of information handling and its use in society by means of modern technology.
This includes the acquisition, processing, storage and communication of information in any
form by appropriate means.

Components of IT

Information technology is divided into three primary components. These are

 computers,
 communications networks, and
 Know-how.

What is Computer?

A computer is any calculating device or machine, which is electronic, mechanical or electromechanical.

But that doesn’t mean that computer performs only calculation. The name computer comes from a Latin
word computer, meaning “to reckon” or “to compute” and can be applied to abacus or any adding
machine as to the modern computer. However, the term Computer has come to mean a special electronic
device having certain definite characteristics.

Communications Network
An integral part of IT is the ability to communicate: to send and receive data and information over a
communication network.
A communications network is the connection of stations at different locations through a medium that
enables people to send and receive data and information.
Telephone wires and cables are common communication media.

Know-how
Although computers and data communication are very important parts of IT, an equally critical part of IT
is the ability to draw on the power of IT to solve problems and to take advantages of the opportunities it
creates.
Therefore IT requires or implies know-how, knowing how to do something well.

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 Introduction to computer science

Know- how includes

 familiarity with the tools of IT

 the skills needed to use these tools
 understanding when to use IT to solve a problem

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be described by the following characteristics.

1, Storage

Computes can handle large amount of data. Once recorded, information can never be forgotten and can be
retrieved with a fraction of a second.
Its storage capacity is measured as follows:
Bit = smallest information stored in a computer (0 or 1).
 Byte = character = 8 bits.
 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes.
 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 Kilobytes.
 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 Megabytes.
 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 Gigabytes.

2, Speed

Computers are very fast devices. They work at an incredible speed and perform millions of calculations
and comparisons in a second.
Its speed is measured by:
Millisecond = 1/1000 of a second.
Microsecond = 1/1000,000 of a second.
Nanosecond = 1/1000,000,000 of a second.
Pico second = 1/1000,000,000,000 of a second.

3, Accuracy

Computers are very accurate. They process vast amount of data in a very high speed without committing
errors. However, the computer is capable of doing what is instructed to do. If the input data is correct and
program instructions are reliable, then the output of a computer is accurate.

Errors can occur mainly due to humans’ incorrect input data, and program instructions with a problem.
Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable program is often called garbage-in-
garbage out (GIGO).

4, Diligence

Computers are not bored or become tired of performing many thousands of calculations repeatedly.
Human beings suffer from weakness like tiredness, lack of concentration, become sad, depressed, bored
and negligent; and it will reflect on the work they do. Moreover, humans cannot perform similar tasks
over and over, again and again with the same precision and accuracy.

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 Introduction to computer science

Being a machine, computers are not getting tired or bored, not loose concentration etc. They perform the
tasks given to them irrespective of whether it is interesting, creative, monotonous, boring, irrespective of
whether it is the first time or the millionth time with exactly the same accuracy and speed.

5, Versatility

One of the most wonderful things about the computer is its versatility. A computer is capable of
performing almost any task provided that the task can be reduced to a series of logical steps.

APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS

Today computes can find a role in nearly every aspect of our lives. In our every day activities they can
help us get things done better and faster, making humans’ life simple and easy.

- IN OFFICES: - Type writers are being replaced by computers.

- IN EDUCATION: - Computers are widely used in educational fields; for instruction and
administration /Interactive education/
CAL- Computer Aided Learning
CAI- Computer Assisted Instruction
- IN MEDICINE: - Medical diagnostic technologies and computer-based medical imaging
represents one of the fastest-growing areas in the computer field. E.g. Telemedicine.
- Computers can be used to hold details of patient’s history and to aid diagnosis and treatment
procedures.

- IN LIBRARIES: - Computers has been a powerful tool for libraries, providing users access to
bibliographic information. It provide on-line catalog, information about available books & other
materials, and whether or not they are currently checked out or not.

IN COMMUNICATION: - Computers can be used in different ways for

Communication purpose between users. This can include:
- Fax- hard copy - Usenet
- Electronic mail - Internet
- Teleconferencing - Video conferencing

IN MANUFACTURING
Computers can be used in production process, from the design stage to the manufacturing stage.
CAD- Computer-Aided Design
CAM- Computer-Aided Manufacturing.

IN BUSINESS:-
Computers are used to record sales, maintain information about inventories, payroll records,
generate paychecks, and advertise goods or products.

IN RESEARCH
Computers use to analyze and process data. E.g. EPI, SPSS.

ADVANCED APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS

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 Introduction to computer science

Artificial Intelligence (AI) are computer programs that utilize special programming routines that make
decisions based on available evidence rather than hard and fast rules. The computers have the capability
to learn from past events. These programs are expected to give computers new capabilities for
understanding the human voice and for interpreting users’ natural language responses to programs.

- Natural Language processing and speech recognition.

- Computer vision – ability to understand what they see. E.g. X-ray results read by a
computer.
- Problem solving – computers designed to give solutions by themselves.
- Expert system- AI programs that use the same rules as human experts to make decisions based on
available evidence.
E.g. Robotic system is a science of using a machine (robot) that is programmable, capable
of operating on its own without human intervention. Automatic machines that operate without computer
program control do not qualify as robots.

HISTROY OF COMPUTERS

Computers were invented as a result of man’s search for fast and accurate calculating devices. Some of
the important computing devices that preceded the modern computer are described below.

The earliest device that qualifies as a digital computer is the “Abacus” also known as “Soroban”. Abacus
was invented in ancient Egypt and China around 5000 B. C. and used for calculating numbers. It permits
the users to represent numbers by the position of beads on a rack. Simple addition and subtraction can be
carried out rapidly and efficiently by positioning the beads appropriately. Abacus’s operation is manual
and still used in Far East.

Another manual calculating device was John Napier’s bone or cardboard multiplication calculator. It was
designed in the early 17th century and its upgraded versions were in use even around 1890.

The first mechanical adding machine was invented by a French mathematician called Blasé Pascal in
1642 and is known as Pascaline.

In 1671 Baron Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz of Germany invented the first calculator for multiplication
which was called the Stepped Reckoner. This
Devise used stepped cylinders like a music box rather than gears which was used in the Pascaline.

Charles Babbage, a nineteenth century professor at Cambridge University, is considered to be the

father of modern digital computers.
Babbage designed a “Difference Engine” in 1822, which produce reliable table. The important
contribution of Babbage’s engine was its ability to perform computations and print results automatically,
without human intervention.

In 1842, Babbage comes out with his new idea of Analytical Engine that was intended to be completely
automatic. It was to be capable of performing the basic arithmetic functions for any mathematical
problem.
Even though, he is not successful on his idea, his efforts established a number of principles, which have
been shown to be fundamental to the design of any digital computer.

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 Introduction to computer science

Some of the well known early computers are:-

1. The Mark I computer (1937-44)

Also known as Automatic sequence controlled calculator and it was the first fully automatic calculating
machine designed by Howard A. Aiken of Harvard University in Collaboration with IBM Corporation. Its
design was based on the technique developed for punched card machinery. It is very complex in design
and huge in size, and was basically an electro-mechanical device. Both mechanical and electronic
components were used in its design, and its operations are controlled electronically. It is classified as
computer because its instructions which were entered by means of punched paper tape could be altered.

1. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42)

This electronic machine was developed by Dr. John Atanasoff to solve certain mathematical equations. It
was called the Atanasoff-Berry computer or ABC.It uses 45 vacuum tubes for internal logic and
capacitors for storage.

2. The ENIAC (1943-46) Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator.

ENIAC is commonly accepted as the first successful high- speed electronic digital computer. It was
constructed at Moore School of Engineering in University of Pennsylvania; U.S.A. ENIAC was
developed as a result of military need. It is very huge took 20x40 square feet room and use 1800 vacuum
tubes. But it is faster than Mark I Computer.
4, EDVAC (1946-52) Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer.

Von Neumann contributed a new awareness for how practical, yet fast computers should be organized
and built. These ideas, referred to as the stored – program technique became essential for future
generation of high – speed digital computers. EDVAC was developed by Dr. John Von Neumann.

The basic idea behind the stored program concept is that a sequence of instructions as well as data can be
stored in the memory of the computer for the purpose of automatically directing the flow of operations.
This concept considerably influenced the development of modern digital computer.
Von Neumann has also known for introducing the idea of storing both instructions and data in the binary
form (0 & 1).

5, The EDSAC (1947-49) Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (British)

EDSAC was developed by a group of scientists headed by Professor Maurice Wilkes, at the Cambridge
University mathematical laboratory. It is very fast in operation.
6, Manchester Mark I (1948)
This computer was small experimental machine based on stored program concept. It was designed at
Manchester University by group of scientists headed by Professor M.H.A. Newman. It has small storage
capacity (32 words) and it was not for practical use.

7, The UNIVAC I (1951) Universal Automatic Computer.

UNIVAC was the first digital computer which was not “one of the kind”. Many UNIVAC machines were
produced and one was installed in the Census Bureau of USA in 1951 and used for 10 years.

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 Introduction to computer science

The first business use of a computer started by General Electric Corporation in 1954. In 1952 IBM
introduced the 701 commercial computer. 1953 onwards, the commercially available digital computers
that could be used for business and scientific application had arrived.

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

Generation in computer language is a step in technology. It provides a framework for the growth of the
computer industry. The computer is often described as having gone through five distinct generations.
Each of these generations is based on the type of technology used during the period. The major
characteristics that distinguish the various generations are:
 Dominant type of electronic circuit element used,
 Major secondary storage media used,
 Computer language used,
 Type or characteristic of operating system used,
 Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a word of data from memory).
Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware, typically tenfold
or better increases in speed and reliability.

Over generations, computers have shown:

 Increasing speed
 Reduced size
 Increasing reliability
 Reducing cost

1, First Generation computers (1944-1955)

Early computers i.e., ENIAC, EDIAC, EDSAC & UNIVAC are examples of 1 st generation computers.
These computers used vacuum tubes as the principal electronic components i. e. they are based on
vacuum tube technology. Memory access time was expressed in milliseconds, Punched cards were the
primary medium used as secondary storage devices to store data files and input data to the computer.
Computer languages were primitive consisting of machine language. Computer operating systems were
also primitive, and jobs were processed sequentially under manual control of the computer operator.
They work on the principle of stored program concept storing program instructions and data in memory
of the computer to be executed automatically without human intervention.

In general
 They are fastest calculating device of their time.
 Very large in size, slow in performance and expensive in price.
 Have limited storage capacity.
 Thousands of vacuum tubes are used, hence produce considerable heat. Need special environment
or should be properly air conditioned.
 Vacuum tubes consume much power.
 Prone to frequent hardware failure, due to limited life of vacuum tubes leads to constant
maintenance.
 Difficult to program and use, so limited commercial use.
 Mainly used for scientific computation.

2, Second Generation Computers (1955-1964)

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 Introduction to computer science

Second generation computers replaced vacuum tubes with discrete solid-state devices, principally
transistors. With transistors, the computers are smaller, faster, more energy efficient, and more reliable
than first generation computers. With transistors, memory access times were expressed in microseconds.
Second generation computers replaced machine language with assembly language. Magnetic tape was the
dominant form of secondary storage. High level languages such as COBOL (Common Business Oriented
Language) and FORTRAN (Formula translator) and batch operating systems were introduced during this
generation. New types of carriers or occupation like programmer, analyst, and computer systems expert,
and the entire software industry began here.

 They were produced using transistors instead of vacuum tubes.

 Due to the transistors they are more powerful, more reliable, less expensive, smaller, and cooler
to operate than the first-generation computers.
 Magnetic tape was used as secondary storage medium.
 Emergence of high-level programming languages, like FORTRAN, COBOL, & ALGOL. (Easy
to write).
 Batch operating systems is used.
 Use for business and industry & for commercial data processing like payroll, inventory control,
and marketing.
 New occupation “computer programmers” come into being.
 They are more than 10 times faster than 1st generation computers.
 They are properly air conditioned.
 Consumes less power, more reliable, less prone to hardware failure, has faster and larger primary
and secondary storage capacity than their predecessors.
 Commercial production of these computers was difficult and costly.

3, Third Generation Computers (1964-1975)

In Third generation computers, discrete electronic components such as transistors were replaced with
integrated circuits (IC). With integrated circuits, thousands of transistors can be integrated on a silicon
chip whose size is very small and required a small amount of power.

With IC and LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuits, third generation computers are smaller, faster, and
more reliable than early computers. Access time in these computers was measured in nanoseconds
(billionths of a second). Magnetic disc storage became popular and provided direct access to very large
data files. Structured programming languages were introduced, and with magnetic disk files, interactive
operating system was introduced that allows individual users to access their data files.

 Transistors are replaced by integrated circuits (IC).

 Computers were more powerful, more reliable, less expensive, smaller, and cooler to operate than
the 2nd generation computers.
 Main memory (RAM) and larger capacity magnetic disks and magnetic tapes emerged.
 Standardization of high-level programming languages started.
 Time sharing operating systems are used.
 Unbundling of software from hardware.
 Creation of an independent software industry.
 Other high-level programming languages were introduced,
i.e., PL/1, PASCAL and BASIC.
 They need proper air conditioning.

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 Introduction to computer science

 They were totally general-purpose machines suitable for both scientific and commercial
applications.
 Minicomputers introduced and made computers affordable even by small companies.

Figure 1.2 Electronics devices used for manufacturing computers of different generations.

4, Fourth Generation Computers (1975-1989)

The main distinction of the Forth generation computers is the introduction of very large scale integration
(VLSI). With this technology, hundreds of thousands of components can be squeezed onto a chip. The
ability to fit so much to a very small area helped diminish the size and price of computers. It also
increases their power, efficiency, and reliability.

Access time in fourth generation computers is measured in nanoseconds. A variety of mass storage
devices is being introduced. New user oriented languages are being introduced. Virtual operating systems
are used that permits many users to share the use of the computer while simplifying the programming
task.

 ICs are replaced by Large Scale Integration (LSI) and also Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
 Creation of MICROPROCESSOR. (for PCs)
 The personal computer revolution (introduction of PC), one user at a time.
 Spread of high-speed computer networking. (LAN & WAN).
 Several new operating systems were developed, like MS-DOS, Ms- Windows, and UNIX.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI) provides icons and menus for users.
 Multiprocessing operating systems are used.
 C Programming language, object oriented software, and object oriented programming languages,
C++, etc. emerged.
 Smaller, cheaper, reliable, PCs.
 For mainframe & supercomputers air conditioning is needed.
 Totally general purpose machines.
 Use of GUI for users makes easy the operation of PCs.
 PC based applications, made PCs more powerful for office and home use.

5, Fifth Generation computes (1989- Present)

Fifth generation computer is now being developed and differ from the previous four generations, not only
due to its technology such as new memory organization and new programming languages, but also in its

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 Introduction to computer science

functionality. These computers are expected to be intelligent computers that will be able to understand
speech and process accordingly.

 VLSI technology becomes Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI).

 More compact, more powerful and cheaper computers introduced.
 Portable notebook computers, powerful desktop PCs, and workstations, powerful servers and
supercomputers.
 Larger main memory > = 256 Mb, and hard disk >= 80 GB are common.
 Optical disks emerged named as CD-ROMs.
 Super computers with Parallel Processing technology.
 Tremendous growth of computer networks.
 Emergence and popularity of Internet.
- Electronic mail (e-mail).
- World Wide Web (www).
- Electronic commerce.
- Virtual libraries.
- Distance education emerged.
 Tremendous processing power & massive storage capacity Multimedia applications.
 Distributed operating system for computer network.
 JAVA programming language introduced & become popular.
Types of Computers
There are different types of computers. Their differences depends on different categories of
characteristics.

Classification by the method of operation (processing)

Computers are classified by the type of data they are designed to process. They are classified into three:

Analog, Digital and hybrid Computers

Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues variables, they don’t compute directly
with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure, temperature,
voltage, current etc.

Examples
 Thermometer
 Voltmeter
 Speedometer
 Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of pumped fuel into
two measurements the price of the delivered gas and the quantity of pumped fuel.
They are special purpose computers.
However, analog computers have limited accuracy

Digital Computers

Digital computers deal with discrete variables, they operate by counting rather than measuring. They
operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.

Examples:
 Abacus
 Desk & pocket computers

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 Introduction to computer science

 The general purpose computers

Digital computers have very high accuracy and speed than the analog ones.

Hybrid computers
The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a single device to form a hybrid
computer. A hybrid computer processes the information by collecting input data with analog method,
convert it into digital quantities, processes the digital values and convert the output from digital to analog
form.

Example:
In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patient’s heart function,
temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may then be converted into numbers and
supplied to a digital component in the system. This component is used to monitor the patient’s
vital signs and to send an immediate signal to the nurse’s station if any abnormal readings are
detected.

Classification by purpose of application

Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are classified
as special purpose or general purpose computers.

Special purpose computers

They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and their functions are
uniquely adopted to a specific situation involving specific application.

Example:
 The public telephone box
 Traffic control system
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
 Pocket-calculators etc.
 Counters
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.

General purpose computers

They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program concept”. A program or
set of instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory and then executed by
the computer one by one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of problem using
different program. General computers are more flexible and versatile.

Examples
 Micro computers
 Mini computers
 Super computers etc.

Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance

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 Introduction to computer science

Micro computers: - are the most widely used type of computers. They are single users, can fit on
desktops, are of varying capacity and easy to handle. Microcomputers are sometimes referred as personal
computers. They have video display unit for output purpose. Data is entered through the keyboard and by
the help of floppy disk.
Microcomputers come in a variety of sizes and shapes for a variety of purposes. Basically they can be
grouped into three: Laptop, Palmtop and Desktop computers.

 Laptop computers are smaller versions of microcomputers about the size of a briefcase designed
for portability. People can easily carry these personal computers with them in their car, on
airplane, or when walking from one location to another.
o Unlike desktop PCs that have mostly detachable components, laptops include all their
components (except their printer) in a single unit

 Palmtop computer is the smallest microcomputer that is about the same size as a pocket
calculator. It is the most portable computer and is growing in popularity among the latest entries
in the microcomputer market.
o Palmtops are typically used for a limited number of functions, such as maintaining
personal calendar, name and address files, or electronic worksheets.

 Desktop computer is the most widely used type of personal computer (microcomputers).
o Unlike laptop and personal computers, desktop computers have detachable parts.
However, since its size is larger than the other types of personal computers, it is not
easily portable.

In general, microcomputers are used for

a. Word processing (automated, electronic typing and editing) to prepare letters, reports, memos and
other documents.

b. Computerized worksheet analysis and modeling. This computerizes business planning, budgeting,
and analysis of business performance and assists decision-making activities.

c. Graphics in the generation of charts and other graphic images. This visually enhances both the
analysis and presentation of information in reports and group presentations.

d. Engineering activities. Computer-aided design and analysis can be performed by the use of
powerful microcomputers.

e. Personal and home use. Entertainment, home management, personal finances, education, and
other activities can easily supported by the use of personal computers.

Mini computers:

Minicomputers are midrange computers that are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but
are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer systems.
 The minicomputers' size prevents it from being easily portable although it can be moved more
easily than a mainframe computer.

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 Introduction to computer science

 Minicomputers cost less to buy and maintain than mainframe computers. Most minicomputers
can function in ordinary operating environments, as they do not need special air conditioning or
electrical wiring.
 Minicomputers are being used for a large number of business and scientific applications.
 They are popularly used in scientific laboratories, research centers, universities and colleges,
engineering firms, industrial process monitoring and control, etc.

Mainframe computers

 Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than micros and
minis and usually have processors with faster instruction processing speeds.
 For example, they may be able to process from 10 to 200 million instructions per second
(MIPS).
 A mainframe computer is generally found in a special computer room where environmental
factors such as temperature, humidity, dust and air conditions are closely monitored.
 Because of the computer's cost and the value of the information stored there, the rooms in which
mainframes are located have security systems allowing only authorized personnel to enter.
 Mainframe computers are designed to handle the information processing needs of
organizations with many employees and customers or with complex computational problems.
 To give some examples, mainframes can handle the processing of thousands of customer
inquiries, employee paychecks, student registrations, sales transactions, and inventory changes.
 They are also used as the center of computer networking. These computers are used by
organizations that have enormous and complex data processing assignments.

Supercomputer

 The term supercomputer has been coined to describe a category of extremely powerful computer
designed for high-speed processing. A supercomputer is generally characterized as being the
fastest, most powerful, and most expensive computer.
 As many as sixty miles of wiring are closely packed inside supercomputers, and tremendous
amounts of heat are generated. Because of this, supercomputers demand special cooling
requirements and the room itself should be air-conditioned.
 Some supercomputers require extra floor support to hold the extreme weight of the complete
system that includes storage units.
 In addition, highly trained data processing professionals are required to operate supercomputers.
These computers can take inputs from over 10,000 individual computers and users at the same
time.
 Super computers are largely used by research organizations, military defense systems, national
weather forecasting agencies, large corporations, aircraft manufacturers, etc.

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October 2007 E.C