Principles of

Alternating Current
Terminologies
• Alternating Wave
• A wave that varies in magnitude and direction periodically
Terminologies
• Amplitude
• The maximum value (either positive or negative) which
an alternating quantity attains during 1 complete cycle
• Instantaneous Value
• Magnitude of alternating quantity at any instant time
Instantaneous value
y(θ) = Am sin θ
y(t) = Am sin ωt

Where:
• Am = maximum value
• ω = angular velocity, 2πf
• f = frequency
• t = time
• θ = angle of rotation, (degree or radian)
Instantaneous value
 Generating an Alternating
Voltage
• An ac voltage can be produced by a generator, called an
alternator
 Generating an Alternating
Voltage
• In the simplified generator shown, the conductor loop rotates
through the magnetic field and cuts lines of force to generate an
induced ac voltage across its terminals. One complete
revolution of the loop around the circle is a cycle.
Sine Wave
The voltage waveform is called a sine wave. The
instantaneous value of voltage at any point on the
sine wave is expressed by the equation

v = Vm sin θ
 v = Vm sin θ

v = instantaneous value of voltage, V

Vm = maximum value of voltage, V
θ = angle of rotation, degrees
Frequency and Period
Frequency
• number of cycles per second
• indicated by the symbol f
• expressed in hertz (Hz)

One cycle per second equals one hertz.

Period
• amount of time for the completion of 1 cycle
• indicated by the symbol T
• for time and is expressed in seconds (s).
Frequency and Period
Frequency and period are reciprocals of each other.

The higher the frequency, the shorter the period

Phase Relationships

Waveforms Phasor Diagram

Wave B leads Wave A by a phase angle of 90˚

Phasors
• To compare phase angles or phases of alternating
voltages and currents, it is more convenient to use
phasor diagrams corresponding to the voltage and
current waveforms.

• A phasor is a quantity that has magnitude and

direction.
Phasors
1. The length of the arrow in a phasor diagram
indicates the magnitude of the alternating
voltage.
2. The angle of the arrow with respect to the
horizontal axis indicates the phase angle.
3. One waveform is chosen as the reference.
4. Then the second waveform can be compared
with the reference by means of the angle between
the phasor arrows.
Phasors

Vb leads Va by 90˚ Va lags Vb by 90˚

 Waveforms Phasor Diagram

When two waves are in phase, the phase angle is zero.

Then the amplitudes add
 Waveforms Phasor Diagram

When two waves are exactly out of phase, the phase

angle is 180˚.
Their amplitudes are opposing. Equal values of
opposite phase cancel each other.
Characteristic Values of
Voltage and Current

Since an ac sine wave

voltage or current has
many instantaneous values
throughout the cycle, it is
convenient to specify
magnitudes for comparing
one wave with another.
The peak, average, or
root-mean-square value
can be specified. These
values apply to current or
voltage.
 Characteristic Values of
Voltage and Current
• The peak value is the
maximum value VM or IM. It
applies to either the positive
or negative peak.

• The peak-to-peak (p-p) value

may be specified and is double
the peak value when the
positive and negative peaks
are symmetrical.
 Characteristic Values of
Voltage and Current
• The average value is the
arithmetic average of all
values in a sine wave for 1
half-cycle. The half-cycle is
used for the average because
over a full cycle the average
value is zero.

Average value = 0.637 x peak value

Vave = 0.637 x VP I ave = 0.637 x IP
 Characteristic Values of
Voltage and Current

• The root-mean-square value or

effective value is 0.707 times
the peak value

RMS value = 0.707 x peak value

VRMS = 0.707 x VP I RMS = 0.707 x IP
Single Phase AC
Circuits
Three Basic Elements
• An electrical load is the part of an electrical circuit
in which current is transformed into something
useful.

• Three basic types of loads exist in circuits:

capacitive loads, inductive loads and resistive
loads. These differ in how they consume power in
an alternating current (AC) setup
Resistive Loads
• Loads consisting of any heating element are
classified as resistive loads. These include
incandescent lights, toasters, ovens, space heaters
and coffee makers.
Inductive Loads
• Loads that power electrical motors are inductive
loads. These are found in a variety of household
items and devices with moving parts, including
fans, vacuum cleaners, dishwashers, washing
machines and the compressors in refrigerators and
air conditioners.
Capacitive Loads
• In engineering, capacitive loads do not exist in a
stand-alone format.

• No devices are classified as capacitive in the way

lightbulbs are categorized as resistive, and air
conditioners are labeled inductive.

• Capacitors in large circuits are useful, however, in

controlling power use.
Capacitive Loads
• They are often included at electrical substations to
improve the overall "power factor" of the system.

• Inductive loads increase the cost of a given power

system and reduce the amount of power that is
converted to another form of energy. Capacitors are
installed to offset this drain.
Resistance in AC Circuits

I V

Schematic Diagram Waveforms of i and v Phasor Diagram

Purely Resistive Circuit

 Inductance in AC Circuits

V
I

Schematic DiagramWaveforms of i and v Phasor Diagram

Purely Inductive Circuit

 Capacitance in AC Circuits

Schematic DiagramWaveforms of i and v Phasor Diagram

Purely Inductive Circuit

Inductive Circuit
1. A 120-Hz 20-mA ac current is present in a 10H
inductor. What is the reactance of the inductor and
the voltage drop across the inductor?
2. In the previous problem, what are the maximum
and average values of the voltage developed
across the inductor?
Power in AC

DC Circuits
P = ITVT

In AC,
P = ITVT cos θ

*For inductor, the phase difference between voltage and current

is 90˚
• A 120-Hz 20-mA ac current is present in a 10H
inductor. How much power is absorbed by the
inductor?

In a purely reactive circuit (R = 0), real power (P) is

zero because no energy is dissipated
Power in AC

S
e nt,
par Reactive, Q
Ap

Real, P

S = ITVT Unit: VA
P = ITVT cos θ = S cos θ W
Q = ITVT sin θ = S sin θ VAR
RL Circuit
Example
• A RL series AC circuit has a current of 1 A peak
with R = 500Ω and XL = 50Ω. Calculate VR, VL,
VT, and θ . Draw the phasor diagram of VT and I.
Impedance Triangle

Z
nce,
e da
p Reactance, X
Im

Resistance, R
Example
• If a 50 Ω R and a 70 Ω XL are in series with 120V
applied, find the following: Z, θ, I, VR, and VL.
What is the phase angle of VL, VR, and VT with
respect to I?
Power Factor
• Power factor is a measure of how effectively you
are using electricity

pf=cos θ