VELLORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AMARAVATI ANDHRA PRADESH

AC Circuit Analysis (Single Phase Systems)

Presented

by
Dr. Arvind Kumar Prajapati

(Assistant Professor Sr. Grade-1)

School of Electronics Engineering

Single Phase Systems

AC Terminology & Phasor Representation

2
Introduction

1. A sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and transmit.

2. Now days electricity is generated in the form of ac (alternating current).

3. It is the form of voltage generated throughout the world and supplied to homes, factories,
laboratories, and so on.

4. It is the dominant form of signal in the communications and electric power industries.

5. Alternating current circuits improves the versatility and usefulness of electrical

power system.

6. Alternating current plays a vital role in today’s energy generation.

7. The derivative and integral of a sinusoid are themselves sinusoids.

8. The sinusoid is an extremely important function in circuit analysis.

9. A sinusoidal forcing function produces both a transient response and a steady-state

response 3
Sinusoid
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function

A general expression for the sinusoid is,

v(t )  Vm sin(t   )

Where,
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid

 = the angular frequency in radian/sec

t = the argument of the sinusoid 4
Phase difference
Consider two sinusoidal waveforms, voltage and current

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼)
(1)
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽)

It is assumed that 𝛽 < 𝛼. From this sketch, it is observed that, waveform of i is displaced in time
(or angle) from that of v, i.e. v and i differ in phase.
Positive peaks (or other corresponding instantaneous values) of i occur later than those of v by an
angle⁡𝜃 = ⁡𝛼 − 𝛽. This fact is expressed by stating that i lags v by angle 𝜃, or v leads i by angle
𝜃.
In terms 𝜃, Eq. (1) can also be written as
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡)
(2)
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)

 which also indicate the fact that i lags v by angle 𝜃 with the difference that v has a phase
angle of zero. Such a waveform is known as a reference.
 It is convenient to use a reference waveform (voltage/current) with respect to which the phases
of other voltages/currents in the circuit are expressed. 5
Periodic Function

A periodic function is one that satisfies v(t) = v(t + nT), for all t and for all integers n.

2
T 

1
f  Hz   2f
T

 Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be compared by their
amplitude and phase difference.
 If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase difference is not zero, they
are out of phase. 6
AC Terminology
Cycle
One set of positive values and the subsequent one set of negative values of an alternating quantity constitute
a cycle.

Time Period
 The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called its time period T. For example,
a 50-Hz alternating current has a time period of 1/50 second.
 The time taken for the generation of one cycle of EMF is called the time period, T.

Frequency
 The number of cycles/second is called the frequency of the alternating quantity. Its unit is hertz (Hz).
 The total number of cycles of EMF or current produced per second is called the frequency, f.

Amplitude
 The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity is known as its amplitude.

Instantaneous value
The value of an alternating quantity at any instant of time is called its instantaneous value.
7
AC Terminology
Example 1: Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the following sinusoid signal.

𝑣 𝑡 = 12cos⁡(50𝑡 + 10° )

Example 2: Given the sinusoid 𝑖 𝑡 = 30sin⁡(4𝜋𝑡 − 75° ), calculate its amplitude, phase,
angular frequency, period and frequency.

8
AC Terminology
Answer 1:
a) Amplitude = 12 V
b) Phase = 100
c) Angular frequency = 50 rad/sec
d) Period T = 0.1257 sec
e) Frequency = 7.958 Hz

Answer 2:
a) Amplitude = 30 A
b) Phase = −75°
c) Angular frequency = 12.57 rad/sec
d) Period T = 0.5 sec
e) Frequency = 2 Hz

9
Average Value
Average Value
 Average value of an alternating quantity is the sum of all its values divided by the total
number of values.
1 𝑇 1 𝑇
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 𝑣(𝜔𝑡)𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑣(𝜃)𝑑(𝜃)
𝑇 0 𝑇 0
 A symmetrical wave is one where the positive half cycle is exactly the same as the negative
half cycle.
 If we integrate the values for a complete cycle and take its average over one cycle, the
quantity becomes equal to zero.

 Average value of a sinewave or any other symmetrical wave over a complete cycle is zero.
For half-wave or full-wave rectified waves we need to calculate the average value by using
above formula. 10
 Effective or RMS value
RMS Value

 If the average value of an alternating quantity is zero, why then was it producing heat. The
concept of effective value was then brought in from the point of view of heat equivalence.

 The effective value is equal to the square root of the mean of the squares of instantaneous
values of the alternating quantities.

 It is customary to express the magnitude of alternating current/voltage in terms of rms value.

An ac ammeter and voltmeter would read rms value.

 The effective value of an alternating quantity (say current) is that the value of dc current which
when flowing through a given circuit element (say a resistance element) for a given time will
produce the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through
the same circuit element for the same time.

 The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the same average power
to a resistor as the periodic current. 11
Effective or RMS value
RMS value is also called the effective or virtual value of the alternating quantity.

12
Effective or RMS value

13
Effective or RMS value of RMS Values of Several
Components
RMS Value of a Complex Wave

The rms value of a complex current wave is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares
of the rms values of its individual components.

2 2 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠1 + 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠2 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠𝑛 + 𝑖𝑑𝑐1 + 𝑖𝑑𝑐2 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑑𝑐𝑛

14
AC Terminolgy

Form Factor

1. Indicative of any periodic waveform

2. It is the ratio of the RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity.

3.

4. In the above formula, the average value is taken for the one-half cycle.

5. The sharper the wave shape, the more will be the value of the form factor. For example,

 A triangular wave, form factor will be more than 1.11

 A rectangular wave form factor will be less than 1.11 (in fact, its value will be 1).

15
AC Terminology

Peak Factor

1. Indicative of any periodic waveform

2. This is also called crest factor or amplitude factor.

3. The peak or crest factor is the ratio of peak or maximum value to its rms value.

4. Knowledge of this factor is of importance in dielectric insulation testing, because the

dielectric stress to which the insulation is subjected, is proportional to the maximum or
peak value of the applied voltage.

5. The knowledge is also necessary when measuring iron losses, because the iron loss
depends on the value of maximum flux.

6. 16
AC Terminolgy

Example 1: An alternating voltage of 𝑣(𝑡) = 100sin314𝑡 is applied to a half-wave diode

rectifier which is in series with a resistance of 20 . What is the RMS value of the current
drawn from the supply source?

Example 2: Calculate the RMS value, average value and form factor of a half-rectified square
voltage shown in following figure.

Example 3: If i = 12 sin ωt + 6 sin (3ωt -π/6) + 4 sin (5ωt + π/3). Find the RMS value.

Example 4: If i = 12 sin ωt + 6 sin (3ωt -π/6) + 4 sin (5ωt + π/3)+5(dc) . Find the RMS value.

17
AC Terminolgy

Example 5: Controlled rectifiers are employed to convert ac to dc. The output of a controlled
rectifier has waveform as shown in below figure. Find (a) the average value, and (b) the rms
value.

Example 6: Determine the rms value of the current waveform shown in Figure. If the current is
passed through a 9 Ω resistor, find the average power absorbed by the resistor.

18
AC Terminolgy

Solution 1:

19
AC Terminolgy

Solution 2:

20
AC Terminolgy

Solution 3:

Solution 4:

21
AC Terminolgy

Solution 5:

22
AC Terminolgy

Solution 6: I = 9.238 A, P = 768 W

23
Phasors
 Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to
work with sine and cosine functions
 A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a
sinusoid
 Phasors provide a simple means of analyzing linear circuits excited by sinusoidal
sources

a. Rectangular z  x  jy  r (cos   j sin  )

r x2  y2
where b. Polar z  r 
y
  tan 1 j
x c. Exponential z  re
24
Phasors (Concept of J operator)
Mathematical operation of complex number

1. Addition z1  z 2  ( x1  x 2 )  j ( y1  y 2 )

z1  z 2  ( x1  x2 )  j ( y1  y2 )
2. Subtraction

3. Multiplication z1 z 2  r1r2  1  2

z1 r1
4. Division  1  2
z 2 r2
1 1
5. Reciprocal   
z r

6. Square root z  r  2

7. Complex conjugate z   x  jy  r     re  j

8. Euler’s identity e  j  cos   j sin 

25
Phasors

A phasor may be regarded as a mathematical equivalent of a sinusoid

with the time dependence dropped

Transform a sinusoid to and from the time domain to the phasor

domain:

v(t )  Vm cos(t   ) V  Vm 
(time domain) (phasor domain)

• Amplitude and phase difference are two principal concerns in the

study of voltage and current sinusoids.

• Phasor will be defined from the cosine function in all our

proceeding study. If a voltage or current expression is in the form
of a sine, it will be changed to a cosine by subtracting from the
phase. 26
Phasors

Phasor Diagram

Figure: A phasor diagram showing V  Vm  and I  I m   27

Phasors

28
Phasors
Converting Sines to Cosines and Vice Versa

29
Phasors
Converting Sines to Cosines and Vice Versa

30
Phasors
Addition of Sine and Cosine

31
Phasors
Converting Sines to Cosines and Vice Versa

32
Phasors

33
AC Terminolgy

Example 1

Evaluate the expression below using the phasor method

Example 2

Example 3

34
AC Terminolgy

Solution 1:

35
AC Terminolgy
Solution 2:

Also obtain by sin cosine

graph as given in Alexan.
is very simple.

36
AC Terminolgy
Solution 3:

37
Single Phase Systems

Steady State Analysis of RLC Circuits

38
Capacitive Reactance

39
Inductive Reactance

40
Impedance and Admittance

The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the

phasor current I, measured in ohms Ω
V
Z   R  jX
I
where R = Re Z is the resistance and X = Im Z is the reactance.

Positive X is for L and negative X is for C

The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S)

1 I
Y 
Z V
41
Phasors
Phasor Transformation

Time domain representation Frequency domain representation

Vm cos(t   ) V m

Vm sin(t   ) V m  90 0

I m cos(t   ) I m 
I m sin(t   ) I m  90 0

v(t ) V  V

dv j V
dt

 Vdt
V
j 42
Phasors

Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements

Resistor Inductor Capacitor

43
Phasors

Voltage-current relationships in time and frequency domains

44
Impedance and Admittance

Impedances and admittances of passive elements

Element Impedance Admittance

R 1
ZR Y
R
L 1
Z  j L Y
j L
C 1
Z  Y  jC
jC

45
Impedance and Admittance

  0; Z  0
Z  j L
  ; Z  

  0; Z  
1
Z
jC
  ; Z  0

46
Impedance and Admittance

Example 1: For the following circuit, 𝐼 = 5 ∠0°

Example 2: For the following parallel circuit, 𝐼 = 2 ∠40°. Find 𝐼𝑅 and applied voltage

47
Impedance and Admittance
Solution 1:

48
Impedance and Admittance
Solution 2:

49
Steady State Analysis
The forced or steady-state response of circuits to sinusoidal inputs can
be obtained by using phasors. The Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws are
applicable to ac circuits.

The nodal analysis, mesh analysis, Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s

theorem, superposition, and source transformations can be applied in
analyzing ac circuits.
Steps to Analyze AC Circuits

a) Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain

b) Solve the problem using circuit techniques
c) Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain
50
Steady State Analysis

Nodal Analysis

The basis of nodal analysis is Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL). The ac

circuits can be analyzed using nodal analysis

Mesh Analysis

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) forms the basis of the mesh analysis.
The mesh analysis is to be applied to planar circuits

51
Steady State Analysis
Superposition Theorem

When a circuit has sources operating at different frequencies,

• The separate phasor circuit for each frequency must be solved
independently, and
• The total response is the sum of time-domain responses of all
the individual phasor circuits.

Source Transformation

52
Steady State Analysis

Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits

53
Steady State Analysis

Example 1: Obtain the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b of the following circuit

Example 2: Compute 𝑉1 ⁡and 𝑉2 ⁡in the following circuit

54
Steady State Analysis

Example 3: Using the superposition principle, find 𝑖𝑥 in the following circuit

Example 4: Using superposition theorem to compute 𝑣𝑥 ⁡in the following circuit. Let

𝑣𝑠 = 50sin⁡(2𝑡)⁡𝑉 and 𝑖𝑠 = 12𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(6𝑡 + 10° )⁡𝐴

55
Steady State Analysis
Solution 1:

56
Steady State Analysis

57
Steady State Analysis
Solution 2:

58
Steady State Analysis
Solution 2:

59
Steady State Analysis
Solution 3:

60
Steady State Analysis

61
Steady State Analysis
Solution 4:

62
Steady State Analysis

63
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
 Maximum power is transferred from an ac network to a load if the load impedance
is equal to the complex conjugate of the Thevenin equivalent impedance of the
network.
 For maximum power transfer the load impedance must be equal to the complex
conjugate of the Thevenin impedance

For maximum power transfer,

And,
The maximum average power can be transferred to the
load if
XL = –XTH Hence RL = RTH
2
VTH
PL max  I 2L RL 
4 R TH
2 2
1 2 1 Vm TH Vm TH
PL max  I mL RL  
2 2 4 R TH 8 R TH
If the load is purely real, then
RL  2
R TH  X TH
2
 ZTH 64
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
If the load is purely real, then

RL  2
R TH  X TH
2
 ZTH

2
VTH
PL max  I RL 
2
RL
(R L  R TH )  X
L 2 2
TH

2
1 2 1 VmTH
PL max  I mL RL  RL
2 2 (R L  R TH )  X TH
2 2

65
Steady State Analysis

Example 1: A source of 100 V feeds a load impedance 𝑍𝐿 ⁡through a series impedance

𝑍𝑠 = 25 + 𝑗40⁡ohm.
1) Determine the load impedance for maximum power transfer and the value of
maximum power.
2) If the load consists of a pure resistance 𝑅𝐿 ⁡find the value of 𝑅𝐿 for which maximum
power is transferred to the load. Determine the value of the maximum power.

66
Steady State Analysis

Answer 1:
∗
1) 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑇𝐻 = (25 + 𝑗40)∗ = 25 − 𝑗40⁡ .
2
VTH 1002
PL max  I RL  2 * 25 
2
L
2
  100
4 R TH 4* 25

2) 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑍𝑇𝐻 = (25 + 𝑗40) = 47

PL max  I 2L RL  (1.214) 2 * 47  69.3

67