Sinusoidal Voltage And Current

Module 5
Engr. RODEL A. TEJADA
 Intended Learning Outcomes:
1. Appreciate why a.c. is used in preference to d.c.
2. Distinguish between unidirectional and alternating
waveforms
3. Define cycle, period or periodic time T and frequency f of a
waveform
4. Perform calculations involving T = 1 / f
5. Define instantaneous, peak, mean and r.m.s. values, and form
and peak factors for a sine wave
 Sinusoidal Voltage And Current
Historically, dc sources were the main means of providing electric
power up until the late 1800s. At the end of that country, the battle of
direct current versus alternating current began. Both had their advocates
among the electrical engineer s of that time. Because ac is more
efficient and economical to transmit over long distances, ac systems
ended up the winner. Thus, it is in keeping with the historical sequence
of events that we considered dc sources first, we now begin the analysis
of circuits in which the source voltage and current is time-varying. In
this discussion, we are particularly interested in sinusoidally time-
varying excitation, or simply, excitation by a sinusoid. A sinusoid is a
signal that has the form of sine or cosine function.
 Sinusoidal Voltage And Current
A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current
(ac). Such a current reverses at regular time intervals and has
alternately positive and negative values. Circuits driven by
sinusoidal current or voltage are called ac circuits. We are interested
in sinusoids for a number of reasons. First, nature itself is
characteristically sinusoidal. Second, a sinusoidal signal is easy to
generate and transmit. Third, through Fourier analysis, any practical
periodic signal can be represented by a sum of sinusoids. Sinusoids,
therefore, play an important role in the analysis of periodic signals.
Lastly, a sinusoid is easy to handle mathematically.
 General Aspects Of Direct-and
Alternatingcurrent Systems
• Almost 90% of electric energy is generated by AC Machines.
• A great portion of AC Energy is converted to DIRECT
CURRENT for us in many types of Industry Electromechanical
Industry Production of Aluminum Manufacture of Fertilizers,
 Advantages Of AC Generation
• Accomplished economically in large power plant that may be
located where fuel and water are abundant.
• Transmission over network of high-voltage lines to distant
loads centres is entirely practicable
• Widely used in Industrial Application
• Industrial motors
• Transformer equipment
• Control devices
What Is Alternating Current (A. C. Current)
Alternating current is the current
which constantly changes in amplitude,
and which reverses direction at regular
intervals. Direct current flows only in one
direction, and that the amplitude of
current is determined by the number of
electrons flowing past a point in a circuit
in one second.
 What Is Alternating Current (A. C. Current)
For example, a coulomb of electrons moves past a point in a
wire in one second and all of the electrons are moving in the
same direction, the amplitude of direct current in the wire is one
ampere. Similarly, if half a coulomb of electrons moves in one
direction past a point in the wire in half a second, then reverses
direction and moves past the same point in the opposite direction
during the next half-second, a total of one coulomb of electrons
passes the point in one second. The amplitude of the alternating
current is one ampere.
 Properties Of Alternating Current
A D.C. power source, such as a battery, outputs a constant
voltage over time. Of course, once the chemicals in the battery
have completed their reaction, the battery will be exhausted and
cannot develop any output voltage. But until that happens, the
output voltage to the right will remain essentially constant. The
same is true for any other source of D.C. electricity: the output
voltage remains constant over time.
Properties Of Alternating Current
 Properties Of Alternating Current
By contrast, an A.C. source of electrical power changes
constantly in amplitude and regularly here. Because the changes
are so regular, alternating voltage and current have a number of
properties associated with any such waveform. These basic
properties include the following list:
 Properties Of Alternating Current
• Frequency
One of the most important properties of any regular
waveform identifies the number of complete cycles it goes
through in a fixed period of time. For standard measurements, the
period of time is one second, so the frequency of the wave is
commonly measured in cycles per second (cycles/ sec) and, in
normal usage, is expressed in units of Hertz (Hz). It is
represented in mathematical equations by the letter ‘f ’.
 Properties Of Alternating Current
• Period
Sometimes we need to know the amount of time required to
complete one cycle of the waveform, rather than the number of
cycles per second of time. This is logically the reciprocal of
frequency. Thus, period is the time duration of one cycle of the
waveform, and is measured in seconds/ cycle.
 Properties Of Alternating Current
•  Period

Where:
f = frequency in Hz or cycle per second
T = period of sinusoid
P = no. of poles
N = revolution in rpm
 Properties Of Alternating Current
• Wavelength
  It is the length of one complete wave or cycle. The Greek
letter (lambda) is used to represent wavelength in mathematical
expressions. And, λ = c/f. As mathematical expressions. And, λ =
c/f. As shown in the figure to the above, wavelength can be
measured from any part of one cycle to the equivalent point in
the next cycle. Wavelength is very similar to period as discussed
above, except that wavelength is measured in distance per cycle
while period is measured in time per cycle.
 Properties Of Alternating Current
•  Wavelength
 
Where:
= wavelength in meters
= velocity in meter/second
3X10^8 m/s for radio waves
344 m/s for sound waves
f = frequency in Hz
 Properties Of Alternating Current
• Waveforms
Are basically a visual representation of the variation of a
voltage or a current plotted to a base of time. Generally, for AC
waveforms this horizontal base line represents zero condition of
either voltage or current. The most common periodic signal
waveforms that are used are sinusoidal waveform. AC waveforms
can also take the shape of either complex waves, square waves or
triangular waves,etc.
 Properties Of Alternating Current
• Waveforms
 Properties Of Alternating Current
• Waveforms
 The Sine Wave
In discussing alternating current and voltage, you will often
find it necessary to express the current and voltage in terms of
maximum or peak values, peak-to-peak values, effective values,
average values, or instantaneous values. Each of these values has
a different meaning and is used to describe a different amount of
current or voltage
The Sine Wave
 Sinusoids

•
Consider
  the sinusoidal voltage & current:

Where :
Figure (a)
/ = instantaneous value
Em/Im = amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = angular frequency in radians/s
= angular frequency in degrees
ωt = argument of the sinusoid
f = frequency in Hz or cycle per second
t = time in second
Figure (b)
Maximum Or Peak Value Or Amplitude (Vp Or
Ip)

• Refer to figure 1.7 , it is the

maximum of voltage [ Vp ] or
Current [ Ip ]. The peak value
applies to both positive and negative
values of cycle.
• It is the greatest value of either
voltage or current that the waveform
reaches during each half cycle
measured from zero baseline.
 Peak To Peak Value

During each complete cycle ac there are always two maximum

or peak values, one for the positive half-cycle and the other for the
negative half-cycle. The difference between the peak positive
value, and the peak negative value called the peak-to-peak value of
the sine wave. This value is twice the maximum or peak value of
the sine wave and is sometimes used for measurement of ac
voltages. Note the difference between peak and peak-to-peak
values in figure below. Usually alternating voltage and current are
expressed in effective values rather than in peak-to-peak, values
 Phase
•  PHASE
meant the fraction of time period of that alternating current
which has elapsed since the current had passed through the zero
position of reference (t is the phase angle)
• PHASE ANGLE
the difference in degrees between the voltage waveform and
the current waveform having the same periodic time.  
•ANGULAR
  FREQUENCY
•   represents the phasor relationship between two or more
waveforms. This is a rotational unit of angular frequency 2пf
with units in radians per second, rad/s. The complete revolution
of one cycle is 360 degrees or 2пr, therefore, half a revolution is
given as 180 degrees or п rad.
• rad/sec
• rad/sec
 Phase Difference Values
Are the same but their max or zero values are not reach
simultaneously but one after another.
This deficiency is supplied by using the terms "lag or leading”
• LEADING  
Alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum or
zero value earlier as compared to the other quantity.
• LAGGING
Alternating quantity is which reached its maximum or zero
value later than the other quantity.
Phase Difference Values
Phase Difference Values
 Phase Difference Values
• INSTANTANEOUS
  ( i(t) )
  The value of alternating quantity at any instant.
• AVERAGE VALUE
Is expressed by that steady current which transformed by that
alternating current driving the same time.
The arithmetical average or mean of all the values of an
alternating quantity over one cycle.
Where:
y(t) = equation of the alternating quantity
T = period of the alternating quantity
 Phase Difference Values
• AVERAGE VALUE
Iave = 2Im/п
Vave = 2Vm/п
 
• Average value = 0.636 Am
• Average of all the instantaneous values of half cycle.
• In general, Average value = Area under the curve/Base
• For the sinewave: Ave. Value = 2x Max Value/п = 0.636 x Max
Value
 Crest Factor Or Peak Factor
• ratio of the maximum value to the rms value or 1.414 (for
sinusoidal ac only)
• Peak Factor Max Value = Max Value/ RMS Value = 1.414 (for
sine wave)
 Form Factor
• ratio of the rms value to the average value or 1.11(for
sinusoidal ac only)
• Knowledge of this factor is of importance in dielectric
insulation testing because the dielectric stress to which the
insulation is subjected, is proportional to the maximum peak
value of the applied voltage. It is also necessary when meaning
iron losses because their loss depends on the value of the max
flow.
• Form Factor = RMS Value/ Ave. Value = 1.11 (for sine wave)
 Root-mean-square (Rms) Or Effective Value
• The rms value of an alternating current is given by that steady
state current(dc) which when flowing through a given circuit
for a given time produces the same heat as produced by
alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for
the same time.
• Defined as the square root of the average of the squares of the
given quantity taken over a complete period.
 Root-mean-square (Rms) Or Effective Value
•  
Where:
y(t) = equation of the alternating quantity
T = period of the alternating quantity
 
• RMS value = Am/√2 = 0.707 Am = 0.707 Maximum Value
 Measurement Of The Period Of A Sine Wave
• The period of a sine wave can be measured between any two
corresponding points on the waveform.
 Measurement Of The Period Of A Sine Wave
• The period of a sine wave can be measured between any two
corresponding points on the waveform.
 Fundamentals of the Sinusoidal Wave
• SINUSOIDAL WAVE:
RMS 0.707 Amax
AV E half 0.636 Amax
Form factor = 1.11
Peak factor 1.414
• FULL — WAVE RECTIFIED
SINUSOIDAL WAVE:
RMS = 0.707 Amax
AVE = 0.636 Amax
Form factor = 1.11
Peak factor = 1.414 

• HALF — WAVE RECTIFIED SINUSOIDAL

• RECTANGULAR WAVE:
WAVE:
RMS = Amax
RMS = 0.5 Amax
AVE = Amax
AVE half = 0.318 Amax
Form factor = 1.0
Form factor = 1.57
Peak factor = 1.0
Peak factor = 2.0
 Fundamentals of the Sinusoidal Wave
• TRIANGULAR WAVE:
RMS = 0.577 Amax
AVE = 0.5 Amax
Form factor = 1.154
Peak factor = 1.732
 Fundamentals of the Sinusoidal Wave
EXAMPLE 1:
An alternating current of rectangular wave shape has amplitude of 10 and a frequency
of one. What is the RMS current?
SOLUTION
 
𝑹𝑴𝑺= 𝑨 𝑴𝑨𝑿 =𝟏𝟎 𝑨
 Fundamentals of the Sinusoidal Wave
EXAMPLE 2:
Find the average current or a sinusoidal current wave during the half cycle given the
instantaneous maximum current of 20 A.
SOLUTION
 
𝑨𝑽𝑬=𝟎 . 𝟔𝟑𝟔 𝑨 𝑴𝑨𝑿 =𝟎 . 𝟔𝟑𝟔 ( 𝟐𝟎 ) =𝟏𝟐 .𝟕𝟐 𝑨
 Fundamentals of the Sinusoidal Wave

EXAMPLE 3:
The instantaneous voltage of an single phase generator is
given by the equation of 300 sinwt. What is the rms voltage?

SOLUTION
 
𝑹𝑴𝑺=𝟎 . 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝑨 𝑴𝑨𝑿 =𝟎 .𝟕𝟎𝟕 (𝟑𝟎𝟎 )=𝟐𝟏𝟐 . 𝟏𝑽
 Fundamentals of the Sinusoidal Wave
EXAMPLE 4:
•   instantaneous voltage of a single-phase generator is given by the equation 300
The
sint. What is the rms voltage?
SOLUTION

 
𝑹𝑴𝑺=𝟎 . 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝑨 𝑴𝑨𝑿 =𝟎 .𝟕𝟎𝟕 (𝟑𝟎𝟎 )=𝟐𝟏𝟐 . 𝟏𝑽
Vector Representation Of Alternating Currents
• Sinusoidal wave forms can be represented by vector easier manipulating of desired
result. Vector quantity is a physical quantity which has magnitude as well as
direction.
• In fact, vectors are short hand for the representation of alternating voltages and
current and their use greatly simple the problems in AC work.
Vector Representation Of Alternating Currents
Vector Representation Of Alternating Currents
Vector Representation Of Alternating Currents
Vector Representation Of Alternating Currents
Vector Representation Of Alternating Currents
Vector Representation Of Alternating Currents
Vector Representation Of Alternating Currents
 
Summation Of In – Phase Sinusoidal Waves

•   When two or more sinusoidal voltage or current waves are in

- phase and have the same frequency they may be added to yield
a sine wave of a same frequency. The resultant wave will then
have a maximum value that is equal to the arithmetical sum of
the maximum values of the component waves.
 
Summation Of In – Phase Sinusoidal Waves
Summation Of Out – Phase Sinusoidal Waves
Let us examine the two sinusoids
V1(t) = Vm sin ωt and V2(t) = Vm sin(ωt +Φ)
shown in Fig. 9.2. The starting point of v2 in Fig. 9.2 occurs first
in time. Therefore, we say that v2 leads v1 by Φ or that v1 lags
v2 by Φ. If Φ is not equal to zero, we also say that v1 and v2 are
out phase. If Φ = 0, then vl and v2 are said to be in phase; they
reach their minima and maxima at exactly the same time. We can
compare v1 and v2 in this manner because they operate at the
same frequency; they do not need to have the same amplitude.
Summation Of Out – Phase Sinusoidal Waves
Summation Of Out – Phase Sinusoidal Waves
• A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form. When comparing two
sinusoids, it is expedient to express both as either sine or cosine with positive
amplitudes. This is achieved by using the following trigonometric identities:
• sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
• cos( A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B
• With these identities, it is easy to show that
• sin(ωt ± 180 ) = -sinωt
• cos(ωt ± 180 ) = -cosωt
• sin(ωt ± 90 ) = ± cosωt
• cos(ωt ± 90 ) = ∓sinωt
• Using these relationships, we can transform a sinusoid from sine form to cosine
form or vice versa.
Summation Of Out – Phase Sinusoidal Waves
A graphical approach may be used to relate or compare
sinusoids as an alternative to using the trigonometric identities.
Consider the set of axes shown in Fig. 9.3(a). The horizontal
axis represents the magnitude of cosine, while the vertical axis
(pointing down) denotes the magnitude of sine. Angles are
measured positively counterclockwise from the horizontal, as
usual in polar coordinates. This graphical technique can be used
to relate two sinusoids. For example, we see in Fig. 9.3(a) that
subtracting 90˚. from the argument of cos ωt gives sin ωt, or
cos(ωt-90˚) = sin ωt. Similarly, adding 180˚ to the argument
Summation Of Out – Phase Sinusoidal Waves
•   The graphical technique can also be used to add two
sinusoidal of the same frequency when one is in sine form and
the other is in cosine form. To add Acos ωt and B sin ωt, we note
that A is the magnitude of cos ωt while B is the magnitude of sin
ωt, as shown in Fig. 9.4(a). The magnitude and argument of the
resultant sinusoid in cosine form is readily obtained from the
triangle. Thus,
• A cos ωt + B sin ωt = C cos (ωt -)
Summation Of Out – Phase Sinusoidal Waves
Summation Of Out – Phase Sinusoidal Waves
• If
  out-phase by 90˚
 
• If out-phase by an acute angle

Note: Trigonometric Identity

• cos ωt = sin (wt + ° 90)
• sin ωt = cos (cot - 90°)
Sum Of More Than Two — Out Phase Alternating Waves
•  
•  

•  
.
Sum Of More Than Two — Out Phase Alternating Waves
Remember:
Standard Sign Conventions:
• Vector current directed to the RIGHT (→), POSITIVE.
• Vector current directed to the LEFT (←), NEGATIVE.
• Vector current directed to the UPWARD (↑), POSITIVE.
• Vector current directed to the DOWNWARD (↓), NEGATIVE.
Sum Of More Than Two — Out Phase Alternating Waves
•  In complex Number Format:
It = I10˚ + I2+ I3
sin ωt = cos (ωt - 90˚)
 Summation Of IN – Phase Sinusoidal Waves
EXAMPLE 6:
• The current in a given conductor is represented by the geometric sum of two
currents whose equations are I1 = 15 sinωt and I2 = 20cosωt conductor? Determine
the rrns value of the current in the conductor?
SOLUTION
𝐼  1 =15 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡   𝐼𝑡 = √ ¿ ¿ ¿
𝐼  2 =20 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡 =20 sin ⁡(𝑤𝑡 +90 °)
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
  𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒:𝐵𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑡h𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓
  𝑝h𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑏𝑦90°
 
 Summation Of Out – Phase Sinusoidal Waves
EXAMPLE 7:
• Three loads, unit A, B and C are connected in parallel and the currents that are respectively 12, 10 and 15 A
respectively. Assuming IA to be the reference phasor, IB leads IA by 30 degrees and IC lags behind IA by 65
degrees, Calculate the total current.
SOLUTION
=1 2 cos 0 +10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30 +15 𝑐𝑜𝑠
  − 65− 1 − 8.5946
∅ =tan
𝐼 𝑥 =26.9995 26.9995
∅ =− 17.6575
 𝐼 𝑦 =12 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0+10 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30+15 𝑠𝑖𝑛  −65
𝐼 𝑦 =− 8.5946  𝐼 𝑡 = 28.33∠ − 17.65 °
2 2
= √ ( 26.9995 ) + ( − 8.5946 )
 𝐼
𝑡
  𝐼 𝑡 = 28.3344 𝐴
 Summation Of Out – Phase Sinusoidal Waves
EXAMPLE 7:
• Three loads, unit A, B and C are connected in parallel and the currents that are respectively 12, 10 and 15 A
respectively. Assuming IA to be the reference phasor, IB leads IA by 30 degrees and IC lags behind IA by 65
degrees, Calculate the total current.
SOLUTION
    𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼 𝑎 + 𝐼 𝑏 + 𝐼 𝑐
  𝐼  𝑡 =12 ∠0 °+10∠ 30°+15 ∠−65 °
   𝐼 𝑡 = 28.33∠ − 17.65 °
 SEATWORK
Solve the following problems completely. Box your final answer/s. Rounding
off should only be done on your final answers with four decimal places only.
Use engineering lettering and avoid erasures.
1. A 60 cycle current has a maximum value of 6.5A. What will be the
instantaneous value of current at
(a)0.0035 sec after the wave passes through zero in a positive direction
(b)0.01153 sec after the wave passes through zero in a positive direction
2. A sinusoidal voltage having a effective value of 120V is impressed across
a 50 ohms resistor. Calculate the rms and maximum value of current.
3.Calculate the average voltage induced in a coil of 300 turns through which
the flux changes from 250,000 to 20,000 maxwells in 0.15 sec.