• Cheaper

• Easier to Generate
Circuits II • Easily altered
Why AC instead of DC? • Can easily distributed
AC Voltage and Current
Introduction Lecture

• An e.m.f. is generated in the coil (from

Faraday’s Laws) which varies in magnitude and
reverses its direction at regular intervals.
• If values of quantities which vary with time t
are plotted to a base of time, the resulting
graph is called a waveform.
Unidirectional Wave Form Sine wave Sine wave
• It is the shape of the waveform of e.m.f.
produced by an alternator and thus the mains
electricity supply is of ‘sinusoidal’ form.
• One complete series of values is called a cycle
• The time taken for an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle is called the period or the
periodic time, T, of the waveform.

Terms Related to Alternating Waves

Time and frequency
• ALTERNATING WAVE- wave that varies in
magnitude and direction periodically. • INSTANTANEOUS VALUE- Magnitude of an
alternating quantity at any instant of time.
• AMPLITUDE- the maximum value (either positive
or negative) which an alternating quantity attains • TIME PERIOD- time in seconds needed by an
during one complete cycle alternating quantity to complete one cycle.
• ALTERNATION- equal to one-half of a cycle • WAVE LENGTH- length of on complete cycle
• FREQUENCY- number of cycles made per second wave length= velocity of propagation in m/s
or hertz by an alternating wave. Named after divided by the given frequency
German physicist, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz(1886-
1888).
 A.C. VALUES
• Instantaneous values are the values of the
alternating quantities at any instant of time.
They are represented by small letters, i, v, e
etc.
• The largest value reached in a half cycle is
called the peak value or the maximum value
or the crest value or the amplitude of the
waveform. Such values are represented by
Vm, Im, etc.
• A peak-to-peak value of e.m.f. is shown in
Figure 14.3(g) and is the difference between
the maximum and minimum values in a cycle.
• The average or mean value of a symmetrical
alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is
the average value measured over a half cycle,
(since over a complete cycle the average value
is zero).
Average value
The area under the curve is found by
approximate methods such as the
trapezoidal rule, the mid-ordinate rule or
Simpson’s rule. Average values are
represented by VAV, IAV, etc.

FOR NON SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM

EFFECTIVE VALUE(RMS)
• The effective value of an alternating current is
• CHECK UR PHONE that current which will produce the same
heating effect as an equivalent direct current.
The effective value is called the root mean
square (rms) value and whenever an
alternating quantity is given, it is assumed to
be the rms value. For example, the domestic
mains supply in Great Britain is 240 V and is
assumed to mean ‘240 V rms’. The symbols where n is the number of
used for rms values are I, V, E, etc. intervals used.
 SAMPLE PROBLEM

For the periodic waveforms shown in

Figure determine for each: (i) frequency (ii)
average value over half a cycle (iii) rms value
(iv) form factor and (v) peak factor.
 SINUSOIDS
• ω = 2πf; While ω is in radians per second
(rad/s), f is in hertz (Hz).
• Calculate the rms value of a sinusoidal
current of maximum value 20 A. GENERAL EQUATION OF SINUSOID
• Determine the peak and mean values for a
240 V mains supply. • v(t)= Vm sin(ωt +φ)
• A supply voltage has a mean value of 150 V.
Determine its maximum value and its rms
value.
 Let us examine the two sinusoids
v1(t) = Vm sinωt and v2(t) = Vm sin(ωt +φ)
 The horizontal axis represents the magnitude of cosine, while the vertical
axis (pointing down) denotes the magnitude of sine. Angles are measured positively
counterclockwise from the horizontal, as usual in polar coordinates. This graphical
technique can be used to relate two sinusoids.

• A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form.

When comparing two sinusoids, it is expedient to express
both as either sine or cosine with positive amplitudes. With
these identities, it is easy to show that :
• sin(ωt ±180◦) =−sinωt
• cos(ωt ±180◦) =−cosωt
• sin(ωt ±90◦) =±cosωt
• cos(ωt ±90◦) =∓sinωt

• The graphical technique can also be used to add two sinusoids
of the same frequency when one is in sine form and the other
is in cosine form. To add Acosωt and B sinωt, we note that A is
the magnitude of cosωt while B is the magnitude of sinωt.
The magnitude and argument of the resultant sinusoid in
cosine form is readily obtained from the triangle. Thus,
Acosωt +B sinωt = C cos(ωt −θ)
EXAMPLE:
• add 3cosωt and−4sinωt
SAMPLE PROBLEM
• An alternating voltage is given by v=
282.8sin314t volts. Find (a) the rms voltage, (b)
the frequency and (c) the instantaneous value of
voltage when t =4 ms
• An alternating voltage is given by v = 75sin200wt-
0.25 volts.
Find (a) the amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak
value, (c) the rms value, (d) the periodic time, (e)
the frequency, and (f) the phase angle (in degrees
and minutes) relative to 75sin200wt

COMBINATION OF WAVEFORM
• Two alternating voltages are represented by v1 =50sinωt
volts and v2=100sin(ωt-pi/6 )V. Draw the phasor diagram and
find, by calculation, a sinusoidal expression to represent v1 +
v2
• The instantaneous values of two alternating currents are
given by i1 = 20sinωt amperes and i2=10sin(ωt+pi/3)
amperes. Find the resultant of the two currents.
• Calculate the phase angle between v1 =−10cos(ωt + 50◦) and
v2 = 12sin(ωt −10◦). State which sinusoid is leading.
PHASORS
• Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more con- venient to work with
•
than sine and cosine functions.
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
• Phasors provide a simple means of analyzing linear circuits excited by sinusoidal sources;
solutions of such circuits would be intractable other- wise. The notion of solving ac circuits
using phasors was first introduced by Charles Steinmetz in 1893. Before we completely
define phasors and apply them to circuit analysis, we need to be thoroughly familiar with
complex numbers.
• A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as Z = R +jX
• Z= R +jX Rectangular form
• Z = r cisφ Polar form
• Z = re^jφ Exponential form
 OPERATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
example
• Addition:
z1 +z2 = (R1 +R2)+j(X1 +X2)
• Subtraction:
z1 −z2 = (R1 −R2)+j(X1 −X2)
• Multiplication:
z1z2 = r1r2cis(φ1 +φ2)
• Division:
z1 /z2 =r1 /r2cis(φ1 −φ2)
• Square Root:
√z =√r cis φ/2
• Reciprocal:
1/ z =1/ r cis(−φ)

PURELY RESISTIVE
• In a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the current IR
and applied voltage VR are in phase

SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS

 PURELY INDUCTIVE
• In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current IL
lags the applied voltage VL by 90° (i.e. pi/2
rads).
• In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to where f is the supply frequency, in hertz, and L is the
inductance, in henry’s. XL is proportional to f
the flow of alternating current is called the
inductive reactance, XL

• (a) Calculate the reactance of a coil of PURELY CAPACITIVE

inductance 0.32 H when it is connected
• A coil has an inductance of 40 mH and • In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current
to a 50 Hz supply.
negligible resistance. Calculate its inductive IC leads the applied voltage VC by 90° (i.e. /2
• (b) A coil has a reactance of 124 ohms in reactance and the resulting current if rads).
a circuit with a supply of frequency 5 connected to (a) a 240 V, 50 Hz supply, and (b)
• In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to
kHz. Determine the inductance of the a 100 V, 1 kHz supply. the flow of alternating current is called the
coil. capacitive reactance, XC

• In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and
• Determine the capacitive reactance of a
capacitor of 10 μF when connected to a circuit
of frequency (a) 50 Hz (b) 20 kHz
• A capacitor has a reactance of 40microfarad
where C is the capacitance in when operated on a 50 Hz supply. Determine
the value of its capacitance.
farads. XC varies with frequency f
• Calculate the current taken by a 23 μF
capacitor when connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply.
• In a series R–L circuit the p.d. across the • A coil has a resistance of 4 ohms and an
resistance R is 12 V and the p.d. across the inductance of 9.55 mH. Calculate (a) the
inductance L is 5 V. Find the supply voltage reactance, (b) the impedance, and (c) the
and the phase angle between current and current taken from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
voltage. Determine also the phase angle between the
supply voltage and current.
SERIES RL CIRCUIT
resistance R, the applied voltage V is the
phasor sum of VR and VL and thus the current
I lags the applied voltage V by an angle lying
between 0° and 90° (depending on the values
of VR and VL). (VOLTAGE TRIANGLE)
• A coil takes a current of 2 A from a 12 V d.c.
supply. When connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply the current is 20 A. Calculate the
resistance, impedance, inductive reactance
and inductance of the coil.
• A coil of inductance 318.3 mH and negligible
resistance is connected in series with a 200
ohm resistor to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate (a) the inductive reactance of the
coil, (b) the impedance of the circuit, (c) the
current in the circuit, (d) the p.d. across each
component, and (e) the circuit phase angle.
• A coil of inductance 159.2 mH and resistance
20 ohm is connected in series with a 60 ohms
resistor to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine
(a) the impedance of the circuit, (b) the
current in the circuit, (c) the circuit phase
angle, (d) the p.d. across the 60 resistor and
(e) the p.d. across the coil. (f) Draw the circuit
phasor diagram showing all voltages.
• A coil consists of a resistance of 100 ohms
and an inductance of 200 mH. If an alternating
voltage, v, given by v D 200sin500t volts is
applied across the coil, calculate (a) the circuit
impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c) the
p.d. across the resis- tance, (d) the p.d. across
the inductance and (e) the phase angle
between voltage and current.
SERIES RC CIRCUIT
• In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance
C and resistance R, the applied voltage V is the
phasor sum of VR and VC and thus the current
I leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying
between 0° and 90° (depending on the values
of VR and VC),
• A pure inductance of 1.273 mH is connected
in series with a pure resistance of 30 ohm. If
the frequency of the sinusoidal supply is 5 kHz
and the p.d. across the 30 ohm resistor is 6 V,
determine the value of the supply voltage and
the voltage across the 1.273 mH inductance.
• A resistor of 25 ohms is connected in series
with a capacitor of 45 μF. Calculate (a) the
impedance, and (b) the current taken from a
240 V, 50 Hz supply. Find also the phase angle
between the supply voltage and the current.
 SERIES R,C AND L
• In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R,
inductance L and capacitance C, the applied
voltage V is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC.
VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by
180°, and there are three phasor diagrams
possible each depending on the relative values
of VL and VC
 SERIES IMPEDANCE
• For series-connected impedances the total
circuit impedance can be repre-sented as a
single L–C–R circuit by combining all values of
resistance together, all values of inductance
together and all values of capacitance
together.
• A coil of resistance 5 ohms and inductance
120 mH in series with a 100 μF capacitor, is
connected to a 300 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate
(a) the current flowing, (b) the phase
difference between the supply voltage and
current, (c) the voltage across the coil and (d)
the voltage across the capacitor.
• The following three impedances are
connected in series across a 40 V, 20 kHz
supply: (i) a resistance of 8 ohms, (ii) a coil of
inductance 130 μH and 5 ohms resistance, and
(iii) a 10 ohms resistor in series with a 0.25 μF
capacitor. Calculate (a) the circuit current, (b)
the circuit phase angle and (c) the voltage
drop across each impedance.
• Determine the p.d.’s V1 and V2 for the circuit
shown in Figure if the frequency of the supply
is 5 kHz. Draw the phasor diagram and hence
determine the supply voltage V and the circuit
phase angle.