Efficiency Optimization of A Standalone Solar Energy System Using Perturb and Observe Based MPPT Technique

Page |1
EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION OF A STANDALONE

SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM USING PERTURB AND
OBSERVE BASED MPPT TECHNIQUE
ANYAHARA, IHECHILURU CHIMEZIRIM
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING,
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING,
ENUGU STATE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

(ESUT)
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

MASTERS IN ENGINEERING (M.ENG) IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS
ENGINEERING
NOVEMBER, 2017
Page |2
DECLARATION
This thesis titled “Efficiency Optimization of a Standalone Solar Energy System Using Perturb
and Observe Based MPPT Technique” is my original work. I declare that it has not been
submitted in part or full to any assessing body
Student Name: ANYAHARA, IHECHILURU CHIMEZIRIM
Reg No:
Signature…………………………. Date:…………………………….
Page |3
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to God Almighty, My wife and children for their immense support
during the period of this program.

Page |4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. Mgbachi for his support and consistent guidance which
enabled me complete this work. I appreciate the contributions of Engr. (Dr.) Nnadi and Engr.
(Dr.) Okonkwo who were adjunct lecturers during my program. Not forgetting Engr. (Dr.)
Alor, Engr. (Prof.) G. N. Onoh, and Engr. (Prof.) J. Eke for their time and positive criticism
which gave me a deeper understanding of this work. I want to also appreciate Carlos Osorio,
Principal Applications Engineer for Mathworks for his instructional videos which were a
stepping stone for me. My sincere appreciation goes to the leadership of the department and
faculty for creating an enabling environment to make this study possible. Lastly to my dear
Wife and children for their support and encouragement during the period of this thesis.
May the Almighty God bless you all.
Page |5
ABSTRACT
Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels are a great source of renewable energy generation which has in
recent time seen rapid growth and awareness. One of the few positives that can be taken from
this awareness is that it is changing the average person’s mindset towards renewable energy as
people now find the benefits of having their own renewable energy system more attractive than
they ever had ("Growth of photovoltaics", 2017) .
The biggest problem with solar PV systems which has hindered its penetration and reach is its
relatively low efficiency and high capital cost. This low efficiency of the PV solar systems
results in inefficient battery charging (this causes the batteries to die prematurely and thus leads
to higher OPEX with very low return on Investment) while high capital cost is usually due to
oversized PV array due to the same low PV module power conversion efficiency (Pakkiraiah
& Sukumar, 2016).
This work provides the step by step modelling of the various components used in this study to
show that Efficiency of a Standalone Solar Energy System can be greatly optimized by Using
Perturb and Observe Based MPPT Technique. The components includes: PV solar cell /
module / array, dc to dc buck converter, MPPT tracker using Perturb and Observe algorithm /
non-MPPT tracker and DC battery load to show battery SOC & charging progress. All the
components were modeled using MATLAB / Simulink and the simulation results validate the
claim that MPPT can significantly increase the efficiency / performance of PV system. This
validation gives hope to any solar PV investor as it shows that it is possible to extract maximum
available power from solar PV modules by using Perturb and Observe based Maximum Power
Point Tracking (MPPT) technique so that power wastages resulting from the impedance
mismatch between the load seen by the PV module at its output and the internal impedance of
the PV modules (which is normally a major setback) are completely or almost eliminated.
The effects of shading or low solar irradiation on PV modules / array were also discussed and
simulation results/analysis shows that non-MPP trackers are more affected under low
irradiation or shading condition than MPP trackers.
Lastly, the power utilization of non-MPP trackers and MPP trackers were also investigated to
show that while the non-MPP tracker struggles with an efficiency of less than 60%, an MPP
tracker gives over 93% efficiency under the same test conditions (1000W/m2 @250C).
Simulation Results were analyzed to further show that more PV modules are required under
same solar irradiation and temperature to produce same power as the MPPT trackers so that
the battery bank is efficiently charged validating the claim that use of MPPT trackers reduces
the total capital and operational cost for PV solar installation.
Page |6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title i
Declaration ii
Approval iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Abstract vi
Table of Contents vii
List of Tables xii
List of Figures xiii
List of Appendices xix
Nomenclature xx
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 4
1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study 5
1.4 Significance of the study 6
1.5 Scope of the Study 6
1.6 Limitations of the Study 7
Chapter 2: Literature Review 8
2.1 Research Survey on Various MPPT Performance Issues to 8
Improve the solar PV Efficiency
2.2 Adaptive perturb and observe algorithm for photovoltaic 9
maximum power point tracking

Page |7
2.3 Design Analysis of DC-DC Converters Connected to a 10
photovoltaic Generator and Controlled by MPPT for Optimal
Energy Transfer throughout a Clear Day
2.4 Design and Simulation of Intelligent Control MPPT 10
Technique for PV Module Using MATLAB/ SIMSCAPE
2.5 Design and Simulation of Perturb and Observe MPPT 11
Algorithm for 72 Cell Solar PV System
2.6 A detailed modeling of photovoltaic module using MATLAB 12
2.7 Photovoltaic module modeling using Simulink/Matlab 12
2.8 Brief theory on the components used in the implementation of 13
this project
2.8.1 Standalone PV solar system 14
2.8.1.1 Types of Standalone Solar Systems 14
2.8.1.2 Standalone Solar (PV) System with DC Load, Electronic 15
control Circuit and Battery
2.8.1.3 Solar Cell 16
2.8.1.4 Photovoltaic Cell 16
2.8.1.5 PV Module 17
2.8.1.6 PV Modelling 17
2.8.1.7 Construction of a Solar Cell 18
2.8.1.8 Working Principle of Solar Cell 18
2.8.1.9 Materials Used in Solar Cell 19
2.8.1.10 Criteria for Material to be Used in Solar Cell 19
2.8.1.11 Series and Parallel Combination of PV Cells 19
2.8.1.12 Cells in Series 20

Page |8
2.8.1.13 Cells in Parallel 20
2.8.1.14 Advantages of Solar Cell 20
2.8.1.15 Disadvantages of Solar Cell 20
2.8.1.16 Uses of Solar Generation Systems 21
2.8.2 DC to DC Converter 21
2.8.2.1 Basics of a Switching Converter 22
2.8.2.2 The Buck (Step-down) Converter 23
2.8.2.3 Voltage and Current Relationships 24
2.8.2.4 Analysis for the Switch Closed 26
2.8.2.5 Analysis for the Switch Open 27
2.8.2.6 Impedance Matching 30
2.8.3 MPPT Techniques 31
2.8.3.1 Hill climbing technique 34
2.8.3.2 Perturb and Observe Technique 34
2.8.3.3 Incremental Conductance MPPT Technique 37
2.8.3.4 Fractional Open Circuit Voltage MPPT Technique 38
2.8.3.5 Fractional short Circuit Current MPPT Technique 38
2.8.4 Battery / Load 39
2.8.4.1 Premature Battery Capacity loss 41
2.8.4.2 Internal Ohmic Measurements for Lead Acid batteries 42
2.8.4.3 Lead-Acid Battery chemical theory 43
2.8.4.4 State of Charge and Depth of Charge 43
Chapter 3: Research Methodology 45
3.1 Methodology 45
Page |9
3.1.1 Simulink Model of PV Solar Module, DC to DC converter, 46
control algorithm and battery
3.1.1.1 PV Solar Module 46
3.1.1.2 Simulation Modelling of PV Solar Module 47
3.1.1.3 Step1: Subsystem for PV module Temperature Conversion to 47
Kelvin
3.1.1.4 Step2: Subsystem for Cell Reverse Saturation Current at 48
reference Temperature
3.1.1.5 Step3: Subsystem for PV module Saturated Current 48
3.1.1.6 Step4: Subsystem for PV module Photocurrent 49
3.1.1.7 Step5: Subsystem for PV module output current 49
3.1.1.8 Step6: Interconnected PV Subsystem 50
3.1.1.9 Step7: Completed PV Solar Module 51
3.2 Simulink Model of DC to DC Buck Converter 55
3.2.1 DC to DC Buck Converter Design Calculation 56
3.3 MPPT Pertuurb and Observe Control Algorithm 61
3.4 Lead Acid Battery as Load 63
3.5 Interconnection of the various models and simulation of the 64
complete MPPT Design
3.5.1 Effect of Shading or Low Solar Irradiation on PV module 67
output Power
3.5.1.1 Case 1: Full Sunlight or Brightly illuminated PV array 68
3.5.1.2 Case 2: Partially illuminated PV array 69
3.5.1.3 Case 3: Poorly illuminated PV array 71
Chapter 4: Results and Discussion 72

P a g e | 10
4.1 MPPT Vs PWM Charge Controllers 72
4.1.1 Case 1: Directly Coupled Battery Load to PV Solar Modules86 74
4.1.2 Case 2: PWM Charge Controller (non-MPPT) 74
4.1.3 Case 3: MPPT Charge Controller 76
Chapter 5: Result Analysis, Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Solar I – V and P – V Characteristics Curve104 92
5.2 Effect of Impedance Mismatch on Solar PV Output 93
Characteristics
5.3 MPPT Perturb and Observe Algorithm 95
5.4 Effect of Shadding or low solar irradiance on PV Solar Output 97
Power
5.5 Comparison of MPPT and PWM Charge controllers (Case 1) 98
5.6 Comparison of MPPT and PWM Charge controllers (Case 2) 100
5.7 Summary of Research Objectives Result 101
5.8 Conclusion 103
5.9 Recommendation 104
References 106
Appendix A 111
Appendix B 113
P a g e | 11
LIST OF TABLES
Tables Title Pages
1.1 Solar P-I characteristics 52
1.2 Solar I-V Characterisitcs 52
1.3 Solar P-V Characteristics 52
1.4 Technical Data for the Proposed DC to DC Buck Converter 58
1.5 Summary of Perturb and observe Operation 62
Effect of shading or Low solar Irradiance on PV Module 68

1.6
Power Output – Case1

1.7

1.8
POWER UTILIZED IN CHARGING 48V, 400AH 90
1.9 BATTERY BANK BY PWM & MPPT CHARGE
CONTROLLERS RESPECTIVELY
POWER UTILIZED IN CHARGING 48V, 400AH 91
2.0 BATTERY BANK BY 2.97KW PWM & 1.98KW MPPT
CHARGE CONTROLLERS RESPECTIVELY

P a g e | 12
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Title Pages
1.1 Characteristics of a typical PV Cell showing the Optimum 2
Operating Points
1.2 Block diagram of the PV array Connected to Load 3
2.1 PV Solar Module, DC to DC Converter, MPPT Controller and 13
Load
2.2 Standalone Solar(PV) System with DC load, Electronic Control 15
Circuit and Battery
2.3 Solar Cell, Module, Array 16
2.4 Series and Parallel Connected Solar Cells in a PV module 17
2.5 Basic Structure of a PV Cell 18
2.6 Current and Voltage Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Cell 19
2.7 Basic Linear Regulator 21
2.8 A Basic DC to DC Switching Converter 22
2.9 Buck DC to DC Switching Converter 25
2.10 Buck Converter Wave forms 27
2.10a DC to DC Converter between Solar Panel and Load 30
2.11 MPPT Techniques 32
2.12 Power Voltage Curve with I-V and P-V Characteristics of a 34
Photovoltaic System
2.13 Flow Chart of Perturb and Observe MPPT Technique 35
2.14 Flow Chart of Incremental Conductance MPPT Technique 37

P a g e | 13
2.15 Series and Parallel Connection of 6V, 200AH Batteries to give 39
24V, 400AH
2.16 Solar Deep Cycle batteries on a rack inside a Battery Room 40
2.17 Battery Capacity and Internal Resistance Over a Period of Time 42
3.1 PV Cell Circuit Model 46
3.2 Subsystem for PV Module Temperature Conversion to Kelvin 47
3.3 Irr Subsystem Model 48
3.4 PV Module Saturated Current 48
3.5 PV Module Light Generated Current 49
3.6 PV Module Output Current 49
3.7 Interconnected PV Subsystem to form the PV module 50
3.8 Completed PV Module Subsystem 51
3.9 Power Vs Current Characteristics of Solar Module at different 53
Irradiance
3.10 Current Vs Voltage Characteristics of Solar Module at Different 53
Irradiations
3.11 Power Vs Voltage Characteristics of Solar Module at diffent 54
Irradiance
3.12 Simulation result to show that a specific voltage and current 54
combination gives the PV Power output
3.13 DC to DC Buck Converter Showing Switch Current, Switch 58
Voltage and Inductor Voltage
3.14 DC to DC Buck Converter Subsytem, PWM and PID Block 59
Scope
P a g e | 14
3.15 DC to DC Buck Converter Signal Waveform, Switch Current 60
and Voltage, Inductor Voltage, Diode Current and Voltage
3.16 Perturb and Observe MPPT Algorithm 61
3.17 MPPT Perturb and Observe Algorithm Function Block 62
3.18 12V, 200AH Lead - Acid Battery Model 63
3.19 Complete MPPT Model to Show Battery Voltage and State of 64
Charge Progress as the battery is Charged
3.20 Complete MPPT Model to Show Duty Cycle, Input and Output 65
Current, Voltage and Power
3.21 Signal Builder for Generation of Varying Irradiance Level from 65
500 to 1000W/m^2
3.22 Complete 1.5KW MPPT with Perturb and Observe Control 66
Algorithm
3.23 1.5KW MPPT showing Battery Charging progress and Battery 66
state of Charge (SOC).
3.25 Effect of shading or Low solar Irradiance on PV Module Power 68
Output – Case1
Output – Case2
Output – Case3
4.1 300W Solar PV Modules connected in parallel 72
4.2 12V, 200AH battery bank Parametization 73
4.3 Direct Coupling of PV Solar Module and Battery Load 74

P a g e | 15
4.4 PWM Charge Controller Schematic 75
4.5 PWM Charge Controller between PV Solar Module and Battery 76
Load
4.6 MPPT Charge Controller between PV Solar Module and 77
Battery Load
4.7 Series and Parallel connection of PV Solar modules to give 78
1.98KW PV array
4.8 Series Connection of 4 X 12V, 200AH Lead-Acid Batteries to 78
give 48V, 200AH capacity
4.9 Parallel Connection of Bank 01 and Bank 02 to give 48V, 400AH 79
Lead-Acid Battery Bank Capacity
4.10 Series connection of PV Solar modules to give 1.98KW PV array 80
4.11 1.98KW PV Array connected through a PWM charge controller 80
to charge 48Vdc,400AH Battery bank
4.12 Simulation result of 1.98KW PV Array connected through a 81
PWM charge controller to charge 48Vdc,400AH Battery bank
4.13 1.98KW PV Array connected through a MPPT charge 82
controller to charge 48Vdc,400AH Battery bank
4.14 Simulation result of 1.98KW PV Array connected through a 82
4.15 Additional 6 X 165W PV Solar Modules to combine with the 83
1.98KW to achieve up to 30A of battery charging current
4.16 Combined 12 X 165W and 6 X 165 PV Solar Modules to give 84
2.97KW to achieve up to 30A of battery charging current

P a g e | 16
4.17 2.97KW PV Array connected through a PWM charge controller 84
to charge 48Vdc,400AH Battery bank
4.18 Simulation Result 2.97KW PV Array connected through a 85
4.19 Simulation result for the comparison of MPPT and PWM 85
charge controllers using same 1.98KW capacity of Solar PV
Array to a 48Vdc,400AH Battery bank
4.20 Simulation graph for the comparison of MPPT and PWM 86
charge controllers using same 1.98KW capacity of Solar PV
Array to a 48Vdc,400AH Battery bank
4.21 Simulation graph of the input for the comparison of MPPT and 86
PWM charge controllers using same 1.98KW capacity of Solar
PV Array to a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank
4.22 Simulation graph of the Output for the comparison of MPPT 87
and PWM charge controllers using same 1.98KW capacity of
Solar PV Array to a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank
4.23 Simulation result for the comparison of when MPPT charge 87
controller (connected to 1.98KW PV array) and PWM charge
controller (connected to 2.97KW PV array) are used to charge
a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank.
4.24 Simulation graph for the comparison of when MPPT charge 88
controller (connected to 1.98KW PV array) and PWM charge
controller (connected to 2.97KW PV array) are used to charge
a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank.

P a g e | 17
4.25 Simulation graph of the Input for the comparison of when 88
MPPT charge controller (connected to 1.98KW PV array) and
PWM charge controller (connected to 2.97KW PV array) are
used to charge a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank.
4.26 Simulation graph of the Input for the comparison of when 89
MPPT charge controller (connected to 1.98KW PV array) and
PWM charge controller (connected to 2.97KW PV array) are
used to charge a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank.
5.1 I - V Curve for different Resistive Load 94
5.2 Graphical illustration of Perturb and Observe MPPT 96
Technique using the Solar P – V curve
5.3 Graphical illustration of the comparison between PWM charge 99
controller and MPPT charge controller
5.4 Graphical illustration of the comparison between 2.97KW PV 101
Array connected to PWM charge controller and 1.98KW PV
Array connected to an MPPT charge controller

P a g e | 18
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Title Pages

A.1.1 Data Sheet for 50W BP PV Solar Module 111
A.1.2 Technical Specification for 50W BP PV Solar Module 112
A.1.3 Math Function equation for PV output current Io 112
MATHLAB Script for the graph of Solar PV Panel I 113
B.1.1
- V and P - V Characteristics
MATLAB Function Code in "C" for Perturb and 115
B.1.2
Observe MPPT Technique
P a g e | 19
Nomenclature
MPPT Maximum power point tracking

ANN Artificial neural networks
P&O Perturb and Observe MPPT Technique
INC Incremental Conduction MPPT Technique
HC Hill Climbing MPPT Technique
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
PID Proportional Integral Derivative
A 1.3 is an ideality factor
Io Output Current
Vo Output Voltage
Trk Reference Temperature in Kelvin
Tak Module Operating Temperature in Kelvin
S PV Module Illumination (W/cm2)
q Electron Charge 1.6*10^(-19)C.
K Boltzmann Constant 1.3805*10^(-23) J/K
Eg Band gap of Si 1.12eV
PV Module short circuit current @ 25oC & S = 1000
Iscr (W/cm2)
Ns Number of Cells Connected in Series
Np Number of Cells Connected in parallel
Ki Short Circuit Temperature Coefficient @ Iscr = 0.0013A/oC
Rs Series Resistance of PV Module
Ipv Light Generated Current of the PV Module
Cell reverse saturation current at reference temperature
Irr (Trk)
Id PV Module Saturation Current or diode current
Voc Open Circuit Voltage
Vmpp Voltage at Maximum Power Point
Impp Current at Maximum Power Point
Pmpp Power at Maximum Power Point
P a g e | 20
Rin Input Resistance

Rout Output / Load Resistance
Ropt Optimum Resistance
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
SOC State of Charge
DOD Depth of Discharge
Ah Ampere hour (Amp hour)
Qe Charge Consumed from the battery
MOSFET Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor
BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor
Vs Supply Voltage or Source Voltage
D DC to DC Converter duty cycle
Ps Power of the Source
Po Output Power
L Inductor. Unit is Inductance
T Period
Zo Output Impedance
Zi Input Impedance
P_pv Output Power of the PV Module or Array
V_pv Output Voltage of the PV Module or Array
Pout Output Power of the MPPT Controller
FLCIC Fuzzy Logic Controller Intelligent Control
SCCC Short Circuit Current Control
OCVC Open Circuit Voltage Control
ACO Ant Colony Optimization
P a g e | 21
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
The consumption of fossil fuels has an environmental impact, in particular the release of carbon
dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. CO2 emissions can be greatly reduced through the
application of renewable energy technologies, which are already cost competitive with fossil
fuels. In addition, the technological options and the continuous growth of energy demand in
the world are leading towards exploration of renewable energy sources ("Towards Sustainable
Energy: The current Fossil Fuel problem and the prospects of Geothermal and Nuclear power",
2017).
Renewable Electrical Energy is the type of Electrical energy produced from natural sources
which are constantly and sustainably replenished. As the term suggests, Renewable Electrical
Energy will not run out, unlike energy from fossil fuels. Also, renewable sources are reliable
and help avoid health and environmental problems due to the close to zero pollution generated
during use.
The recent fuel price hikes, oil spills, and concerns of global warming have contributed
immensely to the change of an average person’s mindset towards renewable energy. People
now find the benefits of having their own renewable energy system more attractive in recent
times ("UK launches Renewable Energy Strategy", 2008).
It is important to mention that the biggest renewable energy source to benefit from this mindset
change is Solar PV systems because of their many merits such as cleanness and relative lack
of noise or moving parts, as well as their ease of installation and integration when compared
wind turbine.
The advantages of PV systems are; low maintenance cost, absence of fuel cost, no noise due to
the absence of moving parts, longer life span compared with other forms of renewable energy
sources, and the most important advantage is that no fume is released into the environment
(Rawat & Chandel, 2013).
P a g e | 22
On the other hand, the major obstacles that limit the implementation of PV systems are; higher
initial costs, and low efficiency of energy conversion. This is because even in recent times, the
conversion efficiency of PV modules is still relatively low (Grätzel, 1995).
This has led to the various challenges faced by investors in Electrical Renewable Energy
Systems (Solar PV Panels), due to power mismatch between the load (battery) characteristics
and PV Systems.
This mismatch makes it difficult for the PV array to provide optimum power enough to charge
or replenish the PV system’s battery bank under light PV panel shading or adverse weather
conditions.
This situation impedes on the anticipated return on investment as the battery banks soon die
off leading to high operational cost and loss of revenue.
Consequently, the essential issue in a PV module is always how to track its optimum operating
point. The operating voltage Vpv and operating current lpv are very critical in order to exploit
the maximum efficiency of the PV modules hence, each photovoltaic cell has an optimum
operating point, called maximum power point (MPP), as shown in Figure 1.1.
Fig1.1: Characteristics of a typical PV cell to show the optimum operating points ("SolarPro Magazine",
2017).
This point varies depending on cell temperature, solar radiation and battery state of charge or
load condition (load impedance). The operating point of PV modules at their maximum
efficiency implies the operation at the optimum point (Rawat & Chandel, 2013).
P a g e | 23
The concept of Maximum Power Point Tracking or MPPT as it is commonly called is very
unique to PV systems and also brings about a very special application of power electronics in
the field of Photovoltaics. The concept which is usually applied in PV module / array level is
a control algorithm that is very useful in extracting maximum available power from PV module
to the load under varying weather conditions.
The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is called ‘maximum power
point’ (or peak power voltage), thus the MPPT algorithm is used to force the PV modules to
operate at its maximum power point.
MPPT algorithm checks the output power of PV module (Ppv = Vpv*Ipv), compares it to battery
voltage and then determines what is the best power that the PV module can produce to charge
the battery and converts this power to the best voltage that can get maximum current into
battery.
PV Array Power Converter

Load
Voltage and PWM
Current Sensor Generator
MPPT and Duty Cycle Adjust
Fig 1.2: Block diagram of a PV array connected to the load
The MPPT is located between the PV modules and the load, in order to ensure maximum power
operation. By changing the duty cycle of the DC-DC converter, the impedance of the PV
module can be matched to the impedance of the load for maximum power transfer (Gupta,
2016).
Several conventional MPPT algorithms have been previously proposed to increase the power
conversion efficiency of PV modules such as perturbation and observation (P&O) and
incremental conductance (IC).
P a g e | 24
The P&O and IC methods are widely used in PV applications due to the ease of
implementation. Using PV module which represents the fundamental power conversion unit of
a PV generator system, PV solar cells can be modelled using Matlab / Simulink to describe the
output characteristics mainly affected by the solar insolation, cell temperature, and load
voltage. Sim Power System tool in Matlab/Simulink software will be used to show that it is
possible to develop and simulate a PV solar cell within the different observed weather and load
conditions (Pakkiraiah & Sukumar, 2016).
The controller based on Perturb and Observe method is proposed to increase the average
tracking efficiency of the PV system. In short, the main aim of the proposed MPPT unit used
here is to move the operating points (Ipv ,Vpv) to the optimum points (Iop ,Vop) of a PV
module under varying solar radiation and ambient temperature so as to achieve the maximum
power point as well as the maximum efficiency.
1.2 Problem Statement
The world demand for electric energy is constantly increasing, and conventional energy sources
are threatened to be depleted. This is evident with the recent fuel price hikes, oil spills, and
concerns of global warming which has contributed immensely to the change of an average
person’s mindset towards renewable energy. Solar photovoltaic system as renewable energy
source has become significant due to several advantages such as the absence of fuel cost, no
carbon footprints and little maintenance.
Despite the abundance of Solar energy and the mind set change towards renewable energy
systems, investors in Electrical Renewable Energy Systems (Solar PV Systems) are faced with
the following challenges:
• Low energy conversion efficiency of the solar PV module. The conversion

efficiency of PV modules is still relatively low (< 50%).
• Higher installation cost resulting from oversized PV array due to the low PV module
conversion efficiency.
• Premature battery failure and other associated cost due to power mismatch between
the battery (load) and PV System characteristics.
P a g e | 25
This low energy conversion efficiency of the solar PV module and the power mismatch
(impedance mismatch between the internal resistance of the PV module and battery) are the
major obstacle that limit the implementation of PV systems because it makes it difficult for the
PV array to provide optimum power enough to charge or replenish the PV system’s battery
bank under low irradiation (light PV panel shading) or adverse weather conditions.
This is partially overcome by installation of oversized PV array which results in higher capital
cost and wastage of energy. This situation impedes on the anticipated return on investment as
the battery banks soon die off leading to high operational cost and loss of revenue.
With an MPPT tracking technique, investors in Solar PV Systems will have a huge return on
investment over a period of time. Below are the benefits that will lead to the ROI:
• up to 95% of the available power on the solar panel at all times is converted into
useful electrical energy to replenish or charge the battery, hence will result to
significant extended battery life.
• Lower capital cost since fewer PV modules will be installed to meet the same power
requirement. No room for power wastages due to oversized PV array.
• Reduction in OPEX as replacement of batteries is done over a given period due to
age and not due to premature battery failure.
1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this work is to model a Photovoltaic System and Maximum Power Point
Tracking controller using Simulink, to show how the PV system power efficiency can be
significantly improved by using Perturb and Observe MPPT technique.
Other objectives include:
• To model the following: (i) the equivalent circuit of a PV module using the general
mathematical description of the I – V output characteristics, (ii) DC to DC Buck
Converter, (iii) MPPT Perturb and Observe algorithm, (iv) Load (Lead Acid battery)
• To investigate the overall effect of shading or low solar irradiation and temperature rise
on PV array power output.
• To show that the overall cost of Photo-Voltaic System installation can be greatly
reduced by using MPPT charge controllers.
P a g e | 26
1.4 Significance of the study
One of the major CAPEX in standalone Photovoltaic system installation is the backup battery.
Inefficient charging of the backup batteries due to impedance mismatch between the PV
module / array and the load, leads to power wastages and ultimately premature battery failure
which has huge economic implications.
The significance of this study is to avert this high OPEX, by applying Perturb and Observe
maximum power point tracking technique to ensure the energy extraction from the PV solar
module is greatly optimized. This will also ensure that higher installation cost from oversized
PV array due to the low PV module conversion efficiency is averted.
1.5 Scope of the study
The scope of this work covers the investigation of how the Efficiency of a
Standalone Solar Energy System can be optimized by Using Perturb and Observe Based
Maximum Power Point Tracking Technique. This study became necessary due to the fact that
at any given point in time, the solar module operates at a particular voltage and current called
the operating point which is largely dictated by the electrical load seen by the PV module at its
output.
This research work will show that it is only when we force the PV Solar Module / array to
operate at its maximum power point (MPP) by forcing the voltage of the PV module to be the
value at the maximum power point or to regulate the current to the right amount as that of the
maximum power point using DC to DC converters and a suitable switching control algorithm
(or technique that ensures that the available PV power is optimally delivered to the load at all
times) that we can get maximum power delivered to load. It shows that this MPP corresponds
to the peak of the P-V curve or the knee of the I-V curve.
It compares the performance of non-MPPT charge controllers and MPPT charge controllers in
delivering optimum power necessary to charge the PV battery bank under good irradiance
condition and poor (shading) irradiance condition. It will further show through simulation that
with MPPT, CAPEX and OPEX are greatly reduced.
P a g e | 27
1.6 Limitations of the Study
This research work did not show an indebt modelling of the lead acid battery which was used
as the load. Battery model from SimPower Systems / Simulink library was used and
parametrized to suit the required battery conditions for the test simulations. Another limitation
to this research was due to inadequate research centers in Nigeria, where wide practical
experiments can be performed. Hence the work done in this research was done with computer
based MATLAB simulations in Simulink environment.
P a g e | 28
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Research Survey on Various MPPT Performance Issues to Improve the Solar PV
Efficiency
Pakkiraiah and Durga (2016) studied the current and future issues involved in the development
of Photo Voltaic System with improved performance and described solar energy as the most
abundant alternative energy source when compared with other renewable energy sources.
According to Pakkiraiah and Durga, despite the abundance of solar energy as an energy source,
when compared to other sources, solar PV module can convert only about 30 – 40% of the
solar irradiation into electrical energy due to its inherent nonlinear P-V and I-V characteristics
which has remained a major challenge to its growing popularity.
The researchers further gave hope to intending users of solar Photovoltaic systems as he
proposed the use of maximum power point tracking techniques and control algorithms as a
basic requirement necessary to extract the maximum available power of the PV modules
(available power with respect to solar irradiation and ambient temperature) at any particular
instant.
Pakkiraiah and Durga proposed several types of MPPT control techniques as a way of
improving the solar PV module efficiency. The proposed techniques are Hill Climbing or
Perturbation and Observation (P&O), Incremental Conductance (INC), Artificial Neural
Network (ANN) with back propagation technique, Fuzzy Logic Controller Intelligent Control
(FLCIC) with DC-DC converter, Particle Swarm Optimization, Open Circuit Voltage Control
(OCVC), Short-Circuit Current Control (SCCC), feedback of power variation with voltage
technique, feedback of power variation with current technique, single input fuzzy controller for
tracking MPP, Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), and Genetic Algorithm PV array Charge
controller. It was established that the main challenge with the existing control algorithms is
slow tracking which results in reduced utilization efficiency.
They concluded by saying that the vast development to improve solar PV efficiency by the
MPPT algorithms has encouraged the domestic generation of power using solar panels. Also,
the available MPPT techniques based on the number of control variables involved, types of
P a g e | 29
control strategies, circuitry, and applications are very useful criteria for selecting an MPPT
technique for a particular application i.e. for grid tied or standalone mode of operations.
2.2 Adaptive perturb and observe algorithm for photovoltaic maximum power point
tracking
Piegari and Rizzo (2010) affirmed that the global economic convenience of a PV system
depends on the costs and on the energy conversion efficiency hence it is evident that it is
necessary to reduce the costs and increase the efficiency to make solar energy attractive.
Their research work confirms that the optimisation of energy generation in a photovoltaic (PV)
system is necessary to let the PV cells operate at the maximum power point (MPP)
corresponding to the maximum efficiency. Piegari and Rizzo maintain that since the MPP
varies, based on the irradiation and cell temperature, appropriate algorithms must be utilised to
track the MPP. This is known as maximum power point tracking (MPPT).
Piegari and Rizzo proposed an adaptive MPPT system based on Pertub and Observe or hill
climbing algorithm. The proposed hill-climbing method is opportunely modified by including
automatic parameter tuning and control mode switching. This method satisfies the
requirements of good dynamic and steady-state performance; the control mode switching was
designed to avoid the tracking deviation, which guarantees an efficient extraction of the PV
array energy and the stability of the maximum seeking procedure for large signal operation.
The system was experimentally validated, resulting in an MPPT efficiency of greater than 98%.
Piegari and Rizzo observed from their study that the proposed algorithm, also, presents another
great advantage by using the adaptive method. Being an adaptive method, it is less sensitive to
changes in the parameters of the circuit. With a traditional P&O method, the aging of the PV
cells and the converter create changes in the plant’s characteristics, possibly making a retuning
of the system necessary to maintain optimal working conditions.
This research work shows that in order to implement the proposed algorithm, the initial
identification of panel parameters is necessary only to establish an approximate value of the
MPP. In fact, the very low minimum perturbation value makes the algorithm performances not
strongly dependent on the panel parameters. So, with this algorithm the plant is robust at
changes in panel parameters because the stability at a steady-state is ensured by very small
perturbation amplitude.
P a g e | 30
This adaptive perturb and observe algorithm has been set up to reduce the main problems that
arise in utilizing traditional P&O algorithms which are dynamic response and steady-state
stability. The basic principle of this algorithm is to adapt the perturbation amplitude to the
actual operating conditions.
2.3 Design Analysis of DC-DC Converters Connected to a photovoltaic Generator and

Controlled by MPPT for Optimal Energy Transfer throughout a Clear Day
Kolsi, Samet and Amar, (2013), explained that DC-DC converters are widely used in
photovoltaic generating systems as an interface between PV module and the load. According
to Kolsi et al., dc to dc converters must be chosen to be able to match the maximum power
point (MPP) of PV module when climatic conditions change with different resistive load
values. They noted that DC-DC converters must be used with MPPT controller in order to
reduce losses in the global PV system. The effect of climatic conditions on the design of two
components (inductance, capacitance) for three topologies of DC-DC converters commonly
used in PV systems was the main focus of this work. Kolsi et al., maintains that when climatic
conditions change, the boundary of inductance and capacitance parameters of DC-DC
converter will change hence the two parameters: inductance and capacitance must be properly
sized to achieve optimal efficiency for each converter (Kolsi, Samet and Amar, 2013, p. 27).
To achieve this optimal efficiency, Kolsi et all proposed a modified Pertub and Observe MPPT
algorithm for use with dc to dc converters whose goal is to match the load resistance RL to the
optimal resistance of the PV module Ropt defined as: Ropt = Vm,pv / Im,pv. When RL matches with
that of Ropt (Rin = Ropt), the maximum power transfer from PV to the load will occur.
2.4 Design and Simulation of Intelligent Control MPPT Technique for PV Module
Using MATLAB/ SIMSCAPE
Swati, Lini and Shimi, (2013) presented a new fuzzy logic based Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) algorithm for solar panel. The solar panel used in this work was modelled
and analysed in MATLAB/SIMULINK and was observed to produce maximum power at a
particular operating point called Maximum Power Point (MPP). The report from the analysis
of Swati shows that to produce maximum power and to get maximum efficiency, the entire
photovoltaic panel must operate at its maximum power point. This maximum power point of
PV panel keeps on changing with changing environmental conditions such as solar irradiance
and cell temperature and thus to extract maximum available power from a PV module, MPPT
P a g e | 31
algorithms are implemented. In this research work, Perturb and Observe (P&O) MPPT and
fuzzy logic based MPPT are developed and compared. Simulation results show the
effectiveness of the fuzzy based technique to produce a more stable power.
Swati et al modelled a solar cell by a current source in parallel with a diode, a shunt resistance
and series resistance were equally added since no solar cell is considered ideal. They also talked
about special considerations for the design of a dc to dc converter which is that the minimum
oscillator frequency should be about 100 times larger than the transistor switching time to
maximize efficiency. This limitation is due to the switching loss in the transistor because as the
transistor switching loss increases with the switching frequency, the efficiency decreases.
2.5 Design and Simulation of Perturb and Observe MPPT Algorithm for 72 Cell Solar
PV System
Manish S., Sunil A., and Ekta S. (2015), presented the design and performance of present stand-
alone solar photovoltaic energy system with Perturb and Observe based mppt algorithm. The
solar PV panel design comprised of 72 solar cells. P and O algorithms was used for the efficient
tracking of the Maximum power point. Manish et al carried out a comparative analysis of the
conventional model with MPPT algorithm and without MPPT algorithm. In this method, the
array terminal voltage is always adjusted according to the MPP voltage and the duty cycle is
adjusted directly in the algorithm. The control loop is simplified, and the computational time
for tuning controller gains is eliminated. The system however showed a good dynamic response
and good tracking accuracy. The system includes a solar panel, MPPT (maximum power point
tracking) controller, a dc-dc converter, and a single phase VSI (voltage source inverter). In the
proposed system, the PV module is modeled using the electrical characteristics of a solar cell
to provide the output current and the voltage of the PV module. System operation was tested
under changing irradiation while temperature was kept constant at 25oC. The proposed system
was simulated using MATLAB/Simulink and from the results obtained during simulation,
Manish et al confirmed that with a well-designed system (power converter inclusive) and an
efficient algorithm, the implementation of MPPT is simple and can be easily constructed to
achieve efficiency level of the PV modules.
2.6 A detailed modeling of photovoltaic module using MATLAB

P a g e | 32
Bellia, H., Youcef, R., & Fatima, M. (2014), described the PV module as the interface which
converts light into electricity and explained that modeling this device, necessarily requires
taking weather data (irradiance and temperature) as input variables. The output gives the PV
module current and voltage as well as the PV module power. In this paper, Bellia et al presents
a detailed modeling of the effect of irradiance and temperature on the parameters of the PV
module. The chosen model is the single diode model with both series and parallel resistors for
greater accuracy. The detailed modeling is then simulated step by step using
MATLAB/Simulink software due to its frequent use and its effectiveness.
The analysis of this work was done considering when the I(V) characteristic is plotted for series
resistance (Rs) equal to zero and Rs = 0.55 Ω. (The last value of the series resistance is as
provided by manufacturer data sheet). Bellia et al pointed out that neither Isc nor Voc are
affected by the change of the series resistance. In spite of this, the shape moves to the
rectangular form when Rs decreases. The Maximum Power Point moves to the right, so, Pmp is
in reverse proportion to the series resistance.
The presented work is a detailed modeling and simulation of the PV cell and module. It is
implemented under MATLAB/Simulink environment. This model is first drafted in accordance
with the fundamentals of semiconductors and the PV cell technology. In other words, the PV
module parameters have been selected according to their variation with illumination and
temperature. Bellia et al research shows that for any type of PV module, one can determine all
the necessary parameters under any new conditions of irradiance and temperature and then,
obtain the I(V) and P(V) characteristics. This reference model can be considered as a tool which
can be used to study all types of PV modules available in markets, especially, their behavior
under different weather data of standard test conditions (STC). The result also shows that It is
important to compute RS, even if it is given by a manufacturer because the experimental
Maximum Power Point does not match with the computed one.
2.7 Photovoltaic module modeling using Simulink/Matlab
Krismadinata, Rahim, N., Ping, H., & Selvaraj, J. (2013), described in this reseach a method
of modeling and simulation of photovoltaic (PV) module that is implemented in
Simulink/Matlab. Krismadinata et al observed that it is necessary to define a circuit-based
simulation model for a PV cell in order to allow the interaction with a power converter. The
P a g e | 33
electrical characteristics of PV cells that are affected by irradiation and temperature are
modeled using a simplified diode equivalent circuit model. The simulation results were
compared with difference types of PV module datasheets and the result shows that the created
simulation blocks in Simulink/matlab are similar to actual PV modules, compatible to different
types of PV module and user-friendly.
2.8 Brief theory on the components used in the implementation of this project
Below theory describes the various functional blocks that will be interconnected to make the
PV solar module operate at its maximum power point (Pmpp).
PV Array Load
Power Converter
Voltage Current Load could be dc battery
Sensor bank, dc water pump, dc
MPPT Controller led light, dc fan, ac load

through a dc to ac inverter
Fig 2.1: Shows PV solar module, DC to DC converter, MPPT controller and load
As shown in Fig 1.1 in chapter 01, the items below are required for the design and simulation
of this project. These are:
• Standalone PV solar system

• DC to DC Converter
• MPPT Algorithm
• Load (Battery)
2.8.1 Standalone PV solar system

Standalone PV solar systems often referred to standalone solar electrical systems are systems
which utilize only solar electric energy as its main source of energy. Very many locations exist
P a g e | 34
with such systems especially in remote locations where there is no source of electricity
available.
At these locations standalone solar electrical system become the ideal source of electricity with
the main advantage of not depending at all on utility grid or any other source of electricity and
since it does not have any connection with grid or other electric supply line, it is also known as
off-grid photovoltaic system.
Since the sun is the only source of energy in this system it is designed bearing in mind that
users of this system should also enjoy electricity even in night times. This is achieved by using
a storage battery system. This makes a storage battery system an essential component of
standalone solar system.
Situations where the system is designed for load dedicated for use or operation in day times
only, the battery storage system most times is omitted.
Popular examples of standalone solar system are solar lanterns, solar home lighting systems,
solar water pumping systems, solar inverter systems, etc. ("What is Standalone Solar Electric
System? | Electrical4u", 2017)
2.8.1.1 Types of Standalone Solar Systems
Depending upon the use and design there are different types of standalone solar systems.
1. Standalone Solar (PV) system with only DC load

2. Standalone Solar (PV) system with DC load and Electronics control circuitry
3. Standalone Solar (PV) system with DC load, Electronics control circuitry and Battery
4. Standalone Solar (PV) system with AC/DC load, Electronics control circuitry and
Battery.
2.8.1.2 Standalone Solar (PV) System with DC Load, Electronic Control

Circuit and Battery
P a g e | 35
A standalone system can be more practical and usable if it is able to serve even in absence of
sunlight that is in night times. This can be simply done by adding a storage battery in the system
which stores electricity produced during day times.
Fig 2.2 Shows Standalone Solar (PV) System with DC Load, electronic Control Circuit & Battery
(https://www.electrical4u.com/what-is-standalone-solar-system/)
This stored electricity can be utilized when there is no sunlight and in night times. After adding
a suitable rated battery, the system becomes a Standalone Solar (PV) System with DC Load,
Electronic Control Circuit and Battery. It is needless to say that this standalone system has four
basic components ("What is Standalone Solar Electric System? | Electrical4u", 2017).
• Solar Module Array

• Electronics Control Circuit
• Storage Battery System and
• DC Load
2.8.1.3 Solar Cell
The name Solar Cell means that it is a cell or a plate which converts solar energy into the
useful electrical energy. The energy which we get from sun is enormous and it is a great source
of energy. Its energy will never finish so this is also known as as the main source of renewable
P a g e | 36
energy. With the scarcity of non-renewable energy it is of utmost importance to find a way out
to solve the energy problem by some means within a very short period of time. So there is a
way out which is now developing. That is we are now able to convert the sun energy to
electrical by some means and that is why the importance of solar cell comes into play. Though
it is developing but if it is developed completely, then every household may produce the energy
of its own. The solar cell is a device which is made of p-n junction diode which effect photo
voltaic effect to convert light energy into electrical energy . ("Solar PV Modules", 2017)
Fig 2.3: Solar Cell, Module, Array ("Solar PV Modules", 2017)
2.8.1.4 Photovoltaic cell
A photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell is a semiconductor device that converts light to

electrical energy by photovoltaic effect. If the energy of photon of light is greater than the band
gap then the electron is emitted and the flow of electrons creates current.
However a photovoltaic cell is different from a photodiode. In a photodiode light falls on n-

channel of the semiconductor junction and gets converted into current or voltage signal but a
photovoltaic cell is always forward biased.
P a g e | 37
2.8.1.5 PV module
Usually a number of PV modules are arranged in series and parallel to meet the energy
requirements. PV modules of different sizes are commercially available (generally sized from
60W to 170W). For example, a typical small scale desalination plant requires a few thousand
watts of power.
2.8.1.6 PV modeling
A PV array consists of several photovoltaic cells in series and parallel connections. Series
connections are responsible for increasing the voltage of the module whereas the parallel
connection is responsible for increasing the current in the array.
Typically a solar cell can be modeled by a current source and an inverted diode connected in
parallel to it. It has its own series and parallel resistance. Series resistance is due to hindrance
in the path of flow of electrons from n-to-p junction and parallel resistance is due to the leakage
current. Photovoltaic cell is always forward biased.
Fig 2.4: Series and Parallel Connected Solar Cells in a PV Module ("How Solar Panels work - Letitgo",
2017)
2.8.1.7 Construction of Solar Cell
The junction diode is made of SI OR GaAs. A thin layer of p-type is grown on the n-type
semiconductor. Top of the p-layer is provided with a few finer electrodes which leaves open
P a g e | 38
space for the light to reach the thin p-layer and it under lays p-n junction. Bottom of the n-layer
is provided with a current collecting electrode (Mukherji, 2009).
Fig 2.5: Basic Structure of a PV Cell (https://www.electrical4u.com/solar-cell/)
2.8.1.8 Working Principle of Solar Cell
When light reaches the p-n junction, electron is excited to the valance band under the condition
that light energy is higher than the band gap energy; it generates the electron and holes which
are equal in number in the valance and conduction band respectively. These electron hole pairs
move in opposite directions to the barrier field. Electrons move towards the n-side and the hole
is moved towards the p-side. So a voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage and when
a load is connected, the current flows.
P a g e | 39
Fig: 2.6: Current and Voltage Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Cell (https://www.electrical4u.com/solar-

cell/)
2.8.1.9 Materials Used in Solar Cell
The materials which are used for this purpose must have band gap close to 1.5ev. Commonly
used materials are:
1. Silicon.
2. GaAs.
3. CdTe.
4. CuInSe2
2.8.1.10 Criteria for Materials to be Used in Solar Cell
1. Must have band gap from 1ev to 1.8ev.

2. It must have high optical absorption.
3. It must have high electrical conductivity.
4. The raw material must be available in abundance and the cost of the material must be
low.
2.8.1.11 Series And Parallel Combination Of PV Cells
The solar cells may be connected in series or parallel combination to make solar panels to improve
the efficiency of PV system.
P a g e | 40
2.8.1.12 Cells in Series

When two identical cells are connected in series, the short circuit current of the system would
remain same but the open circuit voltage would be twice. If the cells are identical, we can write
the following relationships:
I1 = I2 = I …………..……………………………………………………….(1)
Voc1 + Voc2 = 2Voc ………..………………………………………………..(2)
When we connect two dissimilar cells in series, their open circuit voltages add up but the net short
circuit current takes a value in between Isc1and Isc2.
2.8.1.13 Cells in parallel

When we connect two identical cells in parallel. The open circuit voltage of the system would
remain same as an open circuit voltage of a single cell. But the short circuit current of the system
would be twice as much as of a single cell. If the cells are identical, we can write the following
relationships:
Isc1 + Isc2 = 2Isc …….………………………….……………………..(3)
Voc1 = Voc2 = Voc …………………………………………….…………..(4)
When two dissimilar cells are connected in parallel, the short circuit currents add up but the open
circuit voltage lies between Voc1and Voc2, represented by Voc (Kotak & Tyagi, 2013).
2.8.1.14 Advantages of Solar Cell

1. No pollution associated with it.
2. It must last for a long time.
3. No maintenance cost.
2.8.1.15 Disadvantages of Solar Cell
1. It has high cost of installation.

2. It has low efficiency.
P a g e | 41
3. During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night we will not get
solar energy.
2.8.1.16 Uses of Solar Generation Systems
1. It may be used to charge batteries.

2. Used in light meters.
3. It is used to power calculators and wrist watches.
4. It can be used in spacecraft to provide electrical energy.
2.8.2 DC-DC CONVERTER
DC-DC converters are power electronic circuits that convert a dc voltage to a different dc
voltage level, often providing a regulated output. DC-DC converters are classified as switched-
mode dc-dc converters, also called switching power supplies or switchers.
One method of converting a dc voltage to a lower dc voltage is a simple circuit as shown in

Fig.1 below. The output voltage is
VO = ILRL ……………………………………………………………….(1)
where the load current is controlled by the transistor. By adjusting the transistor base current,
the output voltage may be controlled over a range of 0 to roughly Vs. The base current can be
adjusted to compensate for variations in the supply voltage or the load, thus regulating the
output. This type of circuit is called a linear dc-dc converter or a linear regulator because the
transistor operates in the linear region, rather than in the saturation or cutoff regions. The
transistor in effect operates as a variable resistance (Hart, 2011).
Fig. 2.7 shows a basic linear regulator (Hart, 2011)

P a g e | 42
While this may be a simple way of converting a dc supply voltage to a lower dc voltage and
regulating the output, the low efficiency of this circuit is a serious drawback for power
applications. The power absorbed by the load is VOIL, and the power absorbed by the transistor
is VCEIL, assuming a small base current. The power loss in the transistor makes this circuit
inefficient. For example, if the output voltage is one-quarter of the input voltage, the load resistor
absorbs one-quarter of the source power, which is an efficiency of 25 percent. The transistor
absorbs the other 75 percent of the power supplied by the source. Lower output voltages result
in even lower efficiencies. Therefore, the linear voltage regulator is suitable only for low-power
applications.
2.8.2.1 BASICS OF A SWITCHING CONVERTER
An efficient alternative to the linear regulator is the switching converter. In a switching converter
circuit, the transistor operates as an electronic switch by being completely on or completely off
(saturation or cutoff for a BJT or the triode and cutoff regions of a MOSFET). This circuit is
also known as a dc chopper.
Assuming the switch is ideal in Fig.2.0.7, the output is the same as the input when the switch is
closed, and the output is zero when the switch is open.
Periodic opening and closing of the switch results in the pulse output shown in Figure 2.0.7c.
Fig 2.8 (a) A basic dc-dc switching converter; (b) Switching equivalent; (c) Output voltage. (Hart, 2011)
P a g e | 43
The average or dc component of the output voltage is
……………………………………(2)
The dc component of the output voltage is controlled by adjusting the duty ratio D, which is the
fraction of the switching period that the switch is closed
….……………………………….(3)
where f is the switching frequency. The dc component of the output voltage will be less than or
equal to the input voltage for this circuit.
The power absorbed by the ideal switch is zero. When the switch is open, there is no current in
it; when the switch is closed, there is no voltage across it. Therefore, all power is absorbed by
the load, and the energy efficiency is 100 percent. Losses will occur in a real switch because the
voltage across it will not be zero when it is on, and the switch must pass through the linear region
when making a transition from one state to the other.
2.8.2.2 THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

Controlling the dc component of a pulsed output voltage of the type in Figure 2.8c may be
sufficient for some applications, such as controlling the speed of a dc motor, but often the
objective is to produce an output that is purely dc. One way of obtaining a dc output from the
circuit of Figure 2.8a is to insert a low-pass filter after the switch. Figure 2.8a shows an LC low-
pass filter added to the basic converter. The diode provides a path for the inductor current when
the switch is opened and is reverse-biased when the switch is closed. This circuit is called a buck
converter or a step-down converter because the output voltage is less than the input.
P a g e | 44
2.8.2.3 Voltage and Current Relationships

If the low-pass filter is ideal, the output voltage is the average of the input voltage to the filter.
The input to the filter, vx in Figure 2.0.8a, is Vs when the switch is closed and is zero when the
switch is open, provided that the inductor current remains positive, keeping the diode on. If the
switch is closed periodically at a duty ratio D, the average voltage at the filter input is VsD, as in
Equation (2). This analysis assumes that the diode remains forward-biased for the entire time
when the switch is open, implying that the inductor current remains positive.
An inductor current that remains positive throughout the switching period is known as
continuous current. Conversely, discontinuous current is characterized by the inductor current’s
returning to zero during each period.
(a)
(b)
P a g e | 45
(c)
Fig 2.9: (a) Buck dc-dc converter; (b) Equivalent circuit for the switch closed; (c) Equivalent circuit for the
switch open (Hart, 2011).
Another way of analyzing the operation of the buck converter of Figure 2.0.8a is to examine the
inductor voltage and current. This analysis method will prove useful for designing the filter and
for circuit analysis.
Buck converters and dc-dc converters in general, have the following properties when operating
in the steady state:
1. The inductor current is periodic.

iL(t + T ) = iL(t) ……..……………………………………………………………….(4)
2. The average inductor voltage is zero:
1 𝑡+𝑇
𝑉𝐿 = ∫𝑡 𝑉𝐿(𝜆). 𝑑𝜆 = 0 ………………………………………………….……(5)
𝑇
3. The average capacitor current is zero:

1 𝑡+𝑇
𝐼𝑐 = ∫𝑡 𝐼𝑐(𝜆). 𝑑𝜆 = 0 …………………………………………………...…….(6)
𝑇
4. The power supplied by the source is the same as the power delivered to the load. For
non-ideal components, the source also supplies the losses.
Ps = Po ……………………...……... ideal
Ps = Po + losses ………………………………non-ideal
P a g e | 46
Analysis of the buck converter of Figure 2.0.8a begins by making these assumptions:
• The circuit is operating in the steady state.

• The inductor current is continuous (always positive).
• The capacitor is very large, and the output voltage is held constant at voltage Vo.
This restriction will be relaxed later to show the effects of finite capacitance.
• The switching period is T; the switch is closed for time DT and open for time (1-D)T.
• The components are ideal.
The key to the analysis for determining the output Vo is to examine the inductor current and
inductor voltage first for the switch closed and then for the switch open. The net change in
inductor current over one period must be zero for steady state operation. The average inductor
voltage is zero(Hart, 2011) .
2.8.2.4 Analysis for the Switch Closed
When the switch is closed in the buck converter circuit of Figure 2.0.9a, the diode is reverse-
biased and Figure 2.0.9b is an equivalent circuit.
The voltage across the inductor is
𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 ………………………………………………………..…(7)
Rearranging,
𝒅𝒊𝑳 𝑽𝒔−𝑽𝒐
= for switch closed.
𝒅𝒕 𝑳
Since the derivative of the current is a positive constant, the current increases linearly as shown
in Figure 2.0.9b. The change in current while the switch is closed is computed by modifying the
preceding equation.
𝒅𝒊𝑳 𝚫𝒊𝑳 𝚫𝒊𝑳 𝑽𝒔−𝑽𝒐

= = = ………………………………………………………………..(8)
𝒅𝒕 𝚫𝒕 𝚫𝒕 𝑳
P a g e | 47
𝑉𝑠−𝑉𝑜
(Δ𝑖𝐿)closed = ( ) 𝐷𝑇 ……………………………………………………………..(9)
𝐿
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig 2.10 Buck converter waveforms: (a) Inductor voltage; (b) Inductor current; (c) Capacitor current (Hart,
2011)
2.8.2.5 Analysis for the Switch Open

When the switch is open, the diode becomes forward-biased to carry the inductor current and
the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.0.9c applies. The voltage across the inductor when the switch
is open is
𝒅𝒊𝑳
𝑽𝑳 = −𝑽𝒐 𝑳
𝒅𝒕
P a g e | 48
Rearranging,
𝒅𝒊𝑳 −𝑽𝒐
= for switch open
𝒅𝒕 𝑳
The derivative of current in the inductor is a negative constant and the current decreases linearly
as shown in Figure 2.0.9b. The change in inductor current when the switch is open is
𝚫𝒊𝑳 𝚫𝒊𝑳 −𝑽𝒐

= =
𝚫𝒕 (𝟏 − 𝑫)𝑻 𝑳
𝑽𝒐
(𝚫𝒊𝑳)𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 = − ( ) (𝟏 − 𝑫)𝑻
𝑳
Steady-state operation requires that the inductor current at the end of the
switching cycle be the same as that at the beginning, meaning that the net change
in inductor current over one period is zero. This requires
(∆𝒊𝑳) 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 + (∆𝒊𝑳) 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 = 𝟎
Using Eqs. (6-7) and (6-8),
𝑽𝒔 − 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒐
( ) (𝑫𝑻) − ( ) (𝟏 − 𝑫)𝑻 = 𝟎
𝑳 𝑳
Solving for Vo,
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝒔 𝑫
which is the same result as Equation (2). The buck converter produces an output voltage that is
less than or equal to the input.
𝑽𝒐
(𝚫𝒊𝑳)𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 = − ( ) (𝟏 − 𝑫)𝑻 ……………………………………………………..(10)
𝑳
P a g e | 49
Steady-state operation requires that the inductor current at the end of the switching cycle be the
same as that at the beginning, meaning that the net change in inductor current over one period is
zero. This requires
(∆𝒊𝑳) 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 + (∆𝒊𝑳) 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 = 𝟎
Using Equations (9) and (10),
𝑽𝒔 − 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒐
( ) (𝑫𝑻) − ( ) (𝟏 − 𝑫)𝑻 = 𝟎
𝑳 𝑳
Solving for Vo,
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝒔𝑫……………………………………………………………………………..(11)
which is the same result as Equation (2). The buck converter produces an output voltage that is
less than or equal to the input.
An alternative derivation of the output voltage is based on the inductor voltage, as shown in
Figure 2.09a. Since the average inductor voltage is zero for periodic operation,
𝑽𝑳 = (𝑽𝒔 − 𝑽𝒐)𝑫𝑻 + (−𝑽𝒐)(𝟏 − 𝑫)𝑻 = 𝟎
Solving the preceding equation for Vo yields the same result as Eq. (11), Vo = VsD. Note that
the output voltage depends on only the input and the duty ratio D.
If the input voltage fluctuates, the output voltage can be regulated by adjusting the duty ratio
appropriately. A feedback loop is required to sample the output voltage, compare it to a
reference, and set the duty ratio of the switch accordingly.
P a g e | 50
2.8.2.6 Impedance Matching

A buck converter can be used to maximize the power transfer through the use of
impedancematching.
Fig 2.10a: DC to DC Converter between Solar panel and Load
An application of this is in a "maximum power point tracker" commonly used in photovoltaic

systems.
By the equation for electric power:

𝑽𝒐𝑰𝒐 = 𝜼𝑽𝒊𝑰𝒊 …………………………………………………………………………..(12)
where:
• Vo is the output voltage
• Io is the output current
• η is the power efficiency (ranging from 0 to 1)
• Vi is the input voltage
• Ii is the input current
By Ohm's Law, we have :
𝑰𝒐 = 𝑽𝒐⁄𝒁𝒐 ………………………………………………………………..(13)
𝑰𝒊 = 𝑽𝒊⁄𝒁𝒊…………………………………………………………………..(14)
where:
• Zo is the output impedance
P a g e | 51
• Zi is the input impedance

Substituting these expressions for Io and Ii into the power equation yields:
𝑽𝒐𝟐 ⁄𝒁𝒐 = 𝜼 𝑽𝒊𝟐 ⁄𝒁𝒊……………………………………………………………………..(15)
As was previously shown for the continuous mode, (where IL > 0), and D is the duty cycle
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑫𝑽𝒊 ………………………………………………………………..(16)
Substituting this equation for Vo (equation 16) into the equation 15, gives:
(𝑫𝑽𝒊)𝟐 ⁄𝒁𝒐 = 𝜼 𝑽𝒊𝟐 ⁄𝒁𝒊………………………………………………………………..(17)
Equation 17 is further reduced to:
𝑫𝟐 ⁄𝒁𝒐 = 𝜼⁄𝒁𝒊………………………………………………………………..(18)
And finally;
𝑫 = √𝜼𝒁𝒐⁄𝒁𝒊………………………………………………………………..(19)
𝒁𝒐
𝒁𝒊 = 𝜼 𝑫𝟐 ……….……………………………………….……………………..(20)
This shows that it is possible to adjust the impedance ratio by adjusting the duty cycle. This is
particularly useful in applications where the impedance(s) are dynamically changing especially
in calculating MPPT because insolation changes dynamically.
2.8.3 MPPT Techniques

In order to utilize the potential with any of these converters in a PV system, the converter needs
to be controlled by a MPPT algorithm. Various MPPT algorithms (Hua,1998; Hussein, 1995;
Koutroulis, 2001; Pan, 1999) have been proposed based on power measurements, including the
hill-climbing (HC) method (Koutroulis, 2001), perturb and observe (P&O) method (Hua,
1998), and incremental conductance (IncCond) method (Hussein, 1995).
The HC and P&O methods achieve the same fundamental thought in different ways (Salas,
2006). These two algorithms are widely used because of their simplicity; however they can fail
under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions. The incremental conductance method can track
P a g e | 52
the maximum power point (MPP) more accurately than the HC and P&O algorithms can,
however it is relatively complicated to implement.
Fig 2.11: MPPT Techniques (https://www.mathworks.com/discovery/mppt-algorithm.html).
Every addition to converter and MPPT algorithm add additional cost to the entire PV system.
However the cost is minimal compared to the PV panels and can usually be offset by improved
efficiency. Improving efficiency is the easiest way to cut cost with a PV system. A good MPPT
algorithm and a high efficiency converter are a must to improve efficiency but should not be
the only changes to the standard setup. One should also employ higher output voltages to lower
line losses and allow for more efficient AC conversion. The second easiest way to improve
overall system cost is in the components themselves. A higher and more stable line voltage will
mean smaller AC inverters with grid tie systems that will not need any boosting capabilities at
all. The removal of expensive components such as current sensors also helps to keep cost at a
minimum and improves the system reliability. The system needs to be robust enough that when
the consumer wants to expand their energy production by adding more panels, they don’t need
to replace their entire system. The DC/DC converter and MPPT control algorithm proposed in
this work will implement all of these improvements with the hope of creating a highly efficient,
low-cost, and highly reliable solar PV system for clean renewable power generation.
P a g e | 53
As was previously explained, MPPT algorithms are necessary in PV applications because the
MPP of a solar panel varies with the irradiation and temperature, so the use of MPPT algorithms
is required in order to obtain the maximum power from a solar array.
Over the past decades many methods necessary to find the MPP in PV systems have been
developed and published. These techniques differ in many aspects such as required sensors,
complexity, cost, range of effectiveness, convergence speed, correctness of tracking when
irradiation and/or temperature change, hardware needed for the implementation or popularity,
among others. A complete review of 19 different MPPT algorithms can be found in (T. Esram
and P.L. Chapman, 2007).
Among these techniques, the P&O and the InCond algorithms are the most common. These
techniques have the advantage of an easy implementation with obvious draw back which if
carefully considered can be reduced to a level it does not impact on the efficiency of the system.
Other techniques based on different principles are fuzzy logic control, neural network,
fractional open circuit voltage or short circuit current, current sweep, etc. Most of these
methods yield a local maximum and some, like the fractional open circuit voltage or short
circuit current, give an approximated MPP, not the exact one (Mohamed & Motaleb, 2010)
In normal conditions the V-P curve has only one maximum, coping with this is not a problem.
However, if the PV array is partially shaded, there are multiple maxima in these curves as a
result of the dynamically changing weather condition. In order to relieve this problem, MPPT
algorithm is implemented to cope with the fast changing weather conditions that present
multiple maxima (Tat L. Nguyen and Kay-Soon Low 2010). Some of the most popular MPPT
techniques are discussed below.
MPPT algorithms are typically used in the controller designs for PV systems and the algorithms
account for factors such as variable irradiance (sunlight) and temperature to ensure that the
maximum available PV power at any instant is utilized by the load.
P a g e | 54
Fig 2.12: Power voltage curve with I-V and P-V characteristics of a photovoltaic system
(https://www.mathworks.com/discovery/mppt-algorithm.html).
2.8.3.1 Hill-climbing techniques
Both P&O and Incremental Conductance algorithms are based on the “hill-climbing” principle,
which consists of moving the operation point of the PV array in the direction in which power
increases. Hill-climbing techniques are the most popular MPPT methods due to their ease of
implementation and good performance when the irradiation is constant. The advantages of both
methods are the simplicity and low computational power they need. The shortcomings are also
well-known: oscillations around the MPP and they can get lost and track the MPP in the wrong
direction during rapidly changing atmospheric conditions.
2.8.3.2 Perturb and observe
The P&O algorithm is also called “hill-climbing”, but both names refer to the same algorithm
depending on how it is implemented. Hill-climbing involves a perturbation on the duty cycle
of the power converter and P&O a perturbation in the operating voltage of the DC link between
the PV array and the power converter (T. Esram and P.L. Chapman, 2007).
The P&O algorithm is a relatively simple yet powerful method for MPPT. The
algorithm is an iteration based approach to MPPT (Salas, 2006). A flowchart of the method
can be seen in Figure 3.7. In the case of the Hill-climbing, perturbing the duty cycle of the
P a g e | 55
power converter implies modifying the voltage of the DC link between the PV array and the
power converter, so both names refer to the same technique.
V(K) = Present Voltage measurement, V(K-1) = Previous Voltage measurement
P(K) = Present value of Power, P(K-1) = Previous value of Power
Fig 2.13: Flowchart for Perturb and Observe MPPT Algorithm.
In this method, the sign of the last perturbation and the sign of the last increment in the power
are used to decide what the next perturbation should be. As can be seen in Figure 3.6, on the
left of the MPP increasing the voltage increases the power whereas on the right decreasing the
voltage increases the power.
If there is an increment in the power, the perturbation should be kept in the same
direction and if the power decreases, then the next perturbation should be in the
opposite direction. Based on these facts, the algorithm is implemented (T. Esram and P.L.
Chapman, 2007). The process is repeated until the MPP is reached. Then the operating point
oscillates around MPP.
P a g e | 56
There are multiple ways to try to optimize the P&O algorithm. The first and most important is
𝑃𝐾
to choose the constants within the system carefully. The first constant 𝑟𝐶 , {1 – (𝑃 ) <=
𝐾−1
𝑟𝐶 } that tells the algorithm whether or not the MPP has changed,
needs to be sized just right. It needs to be big enough to stop the oscillation effect once the
MPP has been found but small enough to ensure that the algorithm will move to the correct
point when the MPP changes even slightly.
Another important constant to optimize is the amount the duty cycle changes (Δd) with each
perturbation.
This needs to be small enough to allow for a sufficient number of steps within the full duty
cycle range. It is also important to make this number small enough that when the MPP is
reached one change won’t be enough to throw it over the MPP causing the same oscillations
𝑃𝐾
that were avoided by sizing {1 – (𝑃 ) <= 𝑟𝐶 } correctly.
𝐾−1
This also means that the amount of change in the duty cycle should be correlated with the first
constant as well as.
This all makes it sound as though it would be best to have Δd as small as possible, but this
would also cause problems. The system needs to be able to respond to rapid changes in the
environment, such as cloud cover. If a cloud suddenly shades part of the panel the algorithm
should be able to quickly account for the change in MPP and move the operating point to the
new MPP. Having the amount of change in the duty cycle per iteration very small would mean
that it would take a great number of iterations to reach the new MPP.
Every iteration where the panel is not operating at the MPP can be considered a loss in power.
Therefore it is important to have Δd be large enough to allow the algorithm to converge to a
new MPP quickly.
This shows that there is a large trade-off between speed and efficiency with this algorithm. The
algorithm in use here increases or decreases the duty cycle by 0.125% per iteration.
The last main way to optimize this algorithm is to change the time between when one iteration
ends and the next one begins. There needs to be enough time between the iterations to be sure
that the converter or panel has reached a steady state after a variation in duty cycle.
P a g e | 57
If there is not enough time the power calculation may be made from fluctuating voltage and
currents. The fluctuations would cause the calculated power to be wrong, which could make
the rest of the algorithm change the duty cycle in the wrong direction.
Here again careful decisions need to be made because if the time between iterations is too long
then there will be convergence issues with the system under rapidly changing conditions.
2.8.3.3 Incremental conductance
This algorithm, shown below, compares the incremental conductance to the instantaneous
conductance in a PV system. Depending on the result, it increases or decreases the voltage until
the maximum power point (MPP) is reached.
Unlike with the P&O algorithm, the voltage remains constant once MPP is reached.
Incremental conductance method uses two sensors: voltage and current sensors which it uses
to monitor / senses the output voltage and current of the PV array.
Fig 2.14: shows Flowchart for Incremental conductance MPPT algorithm

(https://www.mathworks.com/discovery/mppt-algorithm.html).
Incremental conductance method uses two sensors: voltage and current sensors .It monitors /
senses the output voltage and current of the PV array. At maximum power point the slope of
the PV curve is 0.
(dP / dV) mpp = d (VI) / dV

P a g e | 58
0 = I + VdI / dV mpp
dI / dV mpp = - I / V
The left hand side of the equation is instantaneous conductance of the solar panel. When this
instantaneous conductance equals the conductance of the solar panel, then the MPP is reached.
Here we are sensing both the voltage and current simultaneously. Hence the error due to change
in radiation is eliminated. However the complexity and the cost of implementation increases.
As we go down the list of algorithms, the complexity and the cost of implementation goes on
increasing which may be suitable for a highly complicated system. This is the reason that
Perturb and Observe and Incremental Conductance method are the most widely used
algorithms.
2.8.3.4 Fractional open circuit voltage
The near linear relationship between VMPP and VOC of the PV array, under varying irradiance
and temperature levels, has given rise to the fractional VOC method.
VMPP = k1 VOC
Where k1 is a constant of proportionality. Since k1 is dependent on the characteristics of the

PV array being used, it usually has to be computed beforehand by empirically determining
VMPP and VOC for the specific PV array at different irradiance and temperature levels. The
factor k1 has been reported to be between 0.71 and 0.78. Once k1 is known, VMPP can be
computed with VOC measured periodically by momentarily shutting down the power converter.
However, this incurs some disadvantages, including temporary loss of power[54].
2.8.3.5 Fractional short circuit current
Fractional ISC results from the fact that, under varying atmospheric conditions, IMPP is
approximately linearly related to the ISC of the PV array.
IMPP = k2 ISC
where k2 is a proportionality constant. Just like in the fractional VOC technique, k2 has to be
determined according to the PV array in use. The constant k2 is generally found to be between
0.78 and 0.92. Measuring ISC during operation is problematic. An additional switch usually has
P a g e | 59
to be added to the power converter to periodically short the PV array so that ISC can be measured
using a current sensor.
For this work, Perturb and Observe MPPT algorithm will be implemented in Simulink to
demonstrate how the available power of a PV solar system can be effectively utilized to drive
a load or charge batteries.
2.8.4 Battery / Load
The battery charger is the most important part of the solar system because the only limited-age
part of this system is the storage batteries. Storage batteries are essential in all standalone solar
electric systems (PV power systems). Their efficiency and life time affects significantly the
overall PV system performance and economics. The storage battery's effectiveness depends on
the charging process. The maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique is adopted to
maximize the PV output power for any temperature and irradiation conditions. This solar
charging system is composed of a solar panel, lead-acid batteries, buck converter as power
charger and control circuit.
Fig 2.15: Series and Parallel connection of 6V 200AH batteries to give 24V, 400AH (Retrieved from
https://us.v-cdn.net/6024911/uploads/attachments/10344/3442.png)
To make the PV system more stable, where the power produced by the photovoltaic panel is
unstable and strongly related to the insolation intensity, operating temperature and other
factors, it is important to use storage batteries, especially in stand-alone (i.e. not grid-
connected) photovoltaic (PV) systems.
P a g e | 60
This is necessary to ensure that issues arising from surplus or reduction of power can be solved
(Maraud & Abdulbaqi,, 2016, p. 12). Another purpose of using the batteries in the off-grid
photovoltaic power system is to store the electrical energy produced by the PV panel during
the sunshine period and restore it during night time, sunless periods and those of weak
irradiation. More, energy storage devices plays a significant role in maintaining the dynamic
power balance in the entire system, able to meet momentary peak power demands and hence,
improves the reliability of these systems(Maraud & Abdulbaqi,, 2016, p. 12).
Fig 2.16 (a): Solar Deep cycle batteries on a rack inside a battery room
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_room)
The lead acid battery, although known for more than one hundred years, is more commonly
used in photovoltaic system due to its low cost, reliability, ease of availability, energetic
efficiency, lifetime and maintenance-free operation. The charge controller has been regarded
as one of the important devices in photovoltaic systems to safely charge lead acid battery and
improve charge efficiency. The most basic function of a charge controller is to prevent lead-
acid battery from overcharging and deep discharging. Besides that, the unstable voltage from
PV system may damage the load.
P a g e | 61
Fig 2.16 (b): Solar Deep cycle batteries on a rack inside a battery room
(http://www.livinggreenandfrugally.com/charge-battery-bank-without-generator)
2.8.4.1 PREMATURE BATTERY CAPACITY LOSS
A large number of techniques have been explored and tried out in the field. No single method
or test instrument is capable of foolproof prediction about the residual capacity without
performing a 100% capacity test. On the other hand, by combining some of them the state of
health and expected residual life of the battery can be predicted more precisely and reliably.
This is especially true in the finding of failing cells in a standby lead-acid battery (Eltek, 2017).
Some of the techniques used for finding failing cells or predicting the state of a battery’s health
and expected residual capacity are:
1. Measurement of a significant deviation (>25%) in the Impedance, conductance or DC

resistance of the cell as compared to the one recorded at the time of commissioning.
2. A partial discharge test with the battery connected to the load in which the voltages of
each cell in the string are recorded in a test that involves lowering the rectifier float
voltage below the open circuit voltage and discharging the battery with the connected
load current.
3. Measurement and recording of cell temperature periodically.
4. Measurement of cell voltage compared to midpoint voltage.
2.8.4.2 Internal Ohmic Measurements for Lead Acid Batteries

P a g e | 62
Measurement of a significant deviation in the impedance, conductance or DC resistance of a

battery cell helps to predict the residual capacity of the battery.
Below methods are used in the battery industry to describe the internal Ohmic measurements
of batteries:
– AC Impedance
– AC Conductance
– Resistance
– DC Resistance
All these methods try to find correlation between residual capacity and the given internal
Ohmic value. Normally, change in impedance/conductance/resistance of more than 25% could
indicate a good or bad battery cell. See Figure 2.17 for the graph.
Fig 2.17: Battery Capacity and Internal resistance over a period of time (Eltek, 2017).
P a g e | 63
The value of each cell usually is verified at the time of commissioning and is taken as the
reference value. Different cells from different manufacturers or different lots from the same
manufacturers usually will have different reference values.
Experimental data show that the internal resistance within a batch of cells (from the same
manufacturer) varies by about ±10% so that a residual capacity determination is afflicted with
at least the same uncertainty (Eltek, 2017).
Conductivity, impedance or resistance measurements are therefore used as threshold value

detectors (good – not good) instead of exact residual capacity detectors.
A capacity test is also recommended by the manufacturers of different test instruments for
conductivity, impedance or resistance measurement if the readings differ by more than 20-30
% of the initial reference value (Eltek, 2017).
2.8.4.3 LEAD-ACID BATTERY Chemical Theory
The cell of a lead-acid battery comprises a set of positive and negative electrodes. In a full
charge state, the positive electrode is lead dioxide (PbO2) and the negative electrode is the
sponge lead (Pb) and the electrolyte solution is the sulfuric acid (H2SO4) (Maraud &
Abdulbaqi,, 2016, p. 12).
For charging and discharging processes, the chemical reaction could convert the energy from
electrical into chemical and back again. The following equation shows the process of a
chemical reaction inside the battery during charging and discharging
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒>
Pb + PbO2 + H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
<𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
The nominal potential of each Pb/PbO2 cell is about 2V. So, in order to prevent the
overcharging and gassing problems, the cell is charged for less than 2.4V which is known as
the gassing voltage (Maraud & Abdulbaqi,, 2016, p. 13).
2.8.4.4 State of Charge and Depth of Charge
State of charge (SOC) and depth of charge (DOC) are variables that can describe the battery
charge. The main difference is that the SOC describes the ratio of the remaining charge Qe to
the nominal capacity C10 of the battery, while the DOC represents the ratio of Qe to the actual
capacity CI of the battery under a specific discharge current (I) .
P a g e | 64
These two variables can be achieved by calculating the charge consumed and the battery
capacity.
• SOC = 1 – Qe / C10
• DOC = 1 – Qe / CI
Where:
• C10: is the battery nominal capacity (Ah)

• CI : is the battery actual capacity under the actual discharge current I (Ah)
• Qe : is the charge consumed from the battery (Ah)
Knowing of SOC is very important in the charging process of lead-acid batteries, because it
determines the value of instantaneous charging current to prevent the overcharging and gassing
problems (Maraud & Abdulbaqi,, 2016, p. 13). Where, as SOC is increased during the charging
process, the charging current must be decreased gradually to overcome the gassing and
electrolyte losses and to increase the useful service life for the battery.
P a g e | 65
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, we present the methodology, tests and implementation with which this thesis
work carried out. Here we describe the methods and principles used while carrying out this
study.
3.1 Methodology
In order to adequately understand the concept of MPPT and its huge benefits in PV solar
systems installations, it became necessary to study the dynamic behavior of solar PV system
and the various components that make up the MPPT charge controller. Simulink was used to
model all components required in this design which includes: the Solar PV module (using its
equivalent circuit characteristic equation), DC to DC buck converter, Perturb & Observe MPPT
algorithm and battery load.
• The equivalent circuit model of the PV module which represents the fundamental
power conversion unit of a PV generator system was implemented to show the
behavior of the output characteristics (I-V & P-V) when the PV module temperature
and / or the sun irradiation is varied.
• Also, the DC to DC buck converter was modelled and implemented in Simulink to
see how the output voltage depends only on the converter duty ratio.
• The PWM signal frequency was equally monitored to see if the simulated wave
forms and ripples match the calculated values for same inductance, capacitance and
switching frequency.
P a g e | 66
3.1.1 Simulink Model of PV Solar Module, DC to DC converter, control

algorithm and battery were modelled as shown below:
3.1.1.1 PV Solar Module:
The model for this work is an ideal Photovoltaic cell modelled by a current source in parallel
with a diode. A series resistance is added to the model (since no solar cell is ideal) as shown in
Figure 3.1 below. Rs is the intrinsic resistance, Ipv is the cell photo current, Irr is the cell reverse
saturation current at reference temperature, Id is the diode current, for Matlab simulation
purpose a 50 W (make BP solar) module is taken as reference module.
Rs
Io
Np*Id
Vo
Np*Ipv
Fig 3.1: PV Cell Circuit Model
Important parameters required for Matlab simulation model of the PV module are taken from
manufacturer datasheet as given in Table A.1.1 & A.1.2 in Appendix A. The math function
block equation used in this model is also shown in Table A.1.3 in Appendix A.
In order to visualize the behavior of different voltages and currents in the circuit, we will be
using the following elements: Current measurement, Voltage Measurement Scope and Graph.
P a g e | 67
3.1.1.2 Simulation Modelling of PV Solar Module
From the equations below;
1. Ipv = Id + Io ………………………………………….………….…….….(1)
2. Irr = Iscr/ [e(q*Voc/(K*Ns*A*TrK))-1] ……..……….….…………………….(2)
3. Id = Irr*(TaK/TrK)3 * e[(Eg*q/K*A)*{(1/TrK)-(1/TaK)}] .…………….………...(3)
4. Ipv = [Iscr+(Ki*(TaK-TrK))] *(S/1000) ……………………………….…(4)
5. Io = Np*Ipv – (Np*Id*{e[(q/(Ns*A*K*TaK)*(Vo+(Io*Rs)]-1} ………………….(5)
the PV solar module was modelled using Simulink into subsystems and later interconnected to
give the PV module. The steps are described below:
3.1.1.3 Step 1: Subsystem for PV module Temperature conversion to Kelvin
Fig 3.2: Subsystem _PV module Temperature Conversion to Kelvin

P a g e | 68
3.1.1.4 Step 2: Subsystem for Cell Reverse Saturation Current at
Reference Temperature (Irr)
Fig 3.3: Irr Subsystem model
3.1.1.5 Step 3: Subsystem for PV Module Saturated Current (Id)
Fig 3.4: PV Module Saturated Current (Id)

P a g e | 69
3.1.1.6 Step 4: Subsystem for PV module Photocurrent (Ipv)
Fig 3.5: PV Module Output Current (Ipv)
3.1.1.7 Step 5: PV Module output current (I0). Subsystem realized by combining

equations (2), (3) & (4).
Fig 3.6: PV Module Output Current (Io)

P a g e | 70
3.1.1.8 Step 6: Interconnected subsystems
Fig 3.7: Interconnected subsystems to form PV Module
Equations (2), (3), (4) are combined through their various product blocks, gain block, function
block, sum block and divide block (see Figures 3.1 – 3.6). This combination is fed through a“5
X 1” mux to a function block. Figure 3.6 shows the e output of the combined function blocks
which is the PV output current Io.
The interconnected subsystems and completed model of PV solar module is shown in Figure
3.7 and 3.8 respectively.
P a g e | 71
3.1.1.9 Step 7: Completed PV Solar Module
Fig 3.8: Completed PV Module Subsystem
Simulating the model with five different irradiation levels from Tables 1.4 – 1.6 of gives the
P-V and I-V characteristics graphically illustrated in Figure 3.9 – 3.11.
The MATLAB Script for the graph of the Solar PV I – V and P –V Characteristics is shown in
Appendix B.1.1.
P a g e | 72
PV PV
Modul PV PV Modul PV PV
Solar e Module Solar Module e Solar Module Module
Irradianc Output Output Irradian Output Output Irradian Output Output
e input Power Current ce input Current Voltag ce input Power Current
(Watts (Amps) (Amps) e (Watts) (Amps)
) (Volts)
1000 64.4 3.39 1000 3.67 16.7 1000 64.4 16.7
800 50.2 2.65 800 2.92 16.6 800 50.2 16.6
600 36.55 2.03 600 2.19 16.5 600 36.55 16.5
400 23.23 1.37 400 1.42 16.5 400 23.23 16.5
200 10.7 0.67 200 0.67 15.8 200 10.7 15.8
Table 1.1: Data for Solar P - I Table 1.2: Data for Solar I - V Table 1.3: Data for Solar P - V
characteristics (Max. Power and characteristics (Max. Current and characteristics Max. Power and
Current) at different irradiance. Voltage) at different irradiance. Voltage at different irradiance.
(see Fig: 3.9) (See Fig: 3.10) (See Fig: 3.11)

P a g e | 73
Fig 3.9: Power Vs Current characteristics of solar module at different irradiance
Fig 3.10: Current Vs Voltage characteristics of solar module at different irradiance

P a g e | 74
Fig 3.11: Power Vs Voltage characteristics of solar module at different irradiance
Fig 3.12: Simulation result to show that a specific voltage and current combination gives the
PV Power output
P a g e | 75
To verify impedance mismatch between PV module and load, it can be seen that when a
variable load is connected across the output terminals of the PV module, say we choose a value
of resistance above the impedance of the PV module, it is observed that the power output is not
optimum (i.e. exactly the rated PV module output power). However, when the load is set to a
value which is equal in resistance to that of the PV module, Maximum power is attained.
3.2 Simulink Model of DC-DC Buck Converter
From chapter 2, we saw that the DC to DC converter in this MPPT design will serve the purpose
of transferring maximum power from the solar PV module to the load. It will also acts as an
interface between the load and the PV module such that by changing its duty cycle the load
impedance as seen by the source is varied and matched at the point of the peak power so as to
transfer maximum power to load.
The dc to dc converter used in this work is a buck converter which is a step down converter
because the output voltage VO is always smaller than the input voltage VS.
This buck converter is modelled with all the circuit elements from SimScape / SimPower
Systems and Simulink library.
The main circuit elements that make up the model includes:
• DC Voltage source VS,

• A pulse generator,
• an ideal switch (power mosfet),
• a diode,
• an inductor,
• a capacitor and
• a resistor.
Additional elements used in the model are: current measurement, voltage measurement and
scope in order to visualize the voltage and current variations in the circuit as the duty cycle is
varied. The powergui which allows us to model Simpower systems components from Simulink
is also selected from Simpower toolbox. These are connected as shown in Figure 3.13 & 3.14
to give the Simulink model of the DC to DC buck converter.
P a g e | 76
From the basic circuit design of DC to DC converter discussed in Chapter 2, the values of
Inductor, capacitor, switching frequency, duty cycle and load resistor is calculated since we
already know the input voltage (which is PV Module output Voltage 18 to 22Vdc) and the
output voltage which in this case is 13.5Vdc.
3.2.1 DC to DC Buck Converter Design Calculation
Using the buck converter circuit - Figure 2.9 Chapter 02, the duty ratio for continuous – current
operation is determined from Equation (11).
𝑽𝒐
𝑫= ,
𝑽𝒔
this implies that
𝟏𝟑.𝟓
𝑫= = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑.
𝟐𝟐.𝟎𝟐
The switching frequency and inductor size must be selected for continuous-current operation.
Let the switching frequency be arbitrarily set 40 kHz, which is well above the audio range and
is low enough to keep switching losses small and output current to vary between 5A – 11A.
Average inductor current is same as the output current
IL = Io = 4A
∆𝒊𝑳 = (𝟒𝟎%) ∗ (𝟓) = 𝟐𝑨
The buck converter is designed such that the output ripples is not more than 2 percent. Note
that the inductor value was selected such that the peak to peak variation in inductor current
does not exceed 40% of the average value.
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 22.02 − 13.5
𝐿=( )∗𝐷 = ( ) ∗ 0.613
∆𝑖𝐿𝑓 2 ∗ 40,000
= 𝟔𝟓. 𝟐𝟖𝝁𝑯
Analyzing the circuit for an output current of 11A,
IL = Io = 11A
P a g e | 77
∆𝒊𝑳 = (𝟒𝟎%) ∗ (𝟏𝟏) = 𝟒. 𝟒𝑨
Resulting in
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 22.02 − 13.5
𝐿=( )∗𝐷 = ( ) ∗ 0.613
∆𝑖𝐿𝑓 4.4 ∗ 40,000
= 𝟐𝟗. 𝟔𝟕𝝁𝑯
Since 29.67𝜇H would be too small for 5A output, we will use 𝐿 = 65.28𝜇𝐻 which would be
rounded up to 𝑳 = 𝟔𝟔𝝁𝑯.
Inductor RMS is determined from
∆𝒊𝑳⁄𝟐
𝜤𝑳,𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √(𝑰𝑳)𝟐 + ( )𝟐
√𝟑
Variation in inductor current is 2A for each output current. Using the 11A output current, the
inductor must be rated for an rms current of
𝟏
𝜤𝑳,𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √(𝟏𝟏)𝟐 + ( )𝟐
√𝟑
= 11.015A.
This implies that the average inductor current would be a good approximation to the rms current
since the variation is relatively small.
Using 𝑳 = 𝟔𝟔𝝁𝑯, the minimum capacitance is determined as
𝟏−𝑫 (𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑)
𝑪= 𝟐
=
𝟖𝑳(∆𝑽𝒐⁄𝑽𝒐) 𝒇 𝟖 ∗ 𝟔𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟎 ∗ (𝟎. 𝟎𝟐) ∗ (𝟒𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎)𝟐
−𝟔
C = 22.90𝝁𝑭 ≈ 𝟐𝟑𝝁𝑭.
This can be approximated to 23𝜇𝐹.
Allowable output voltage ripple of 2 percent is (0.02)*(13.5) = 270mV.

P a g e | 78
This can be approximated to 35𝜇𝐹.
S/No. Parameters Value Remarks

1 Vin 22.02Vdc Vmpp
Vo, Output Voltage of the
2 Vout 13.5Vdc
DC to DC Converter
3 R 30.0Ω Load Resistance
4 F 40KHz Switching Frequency
5 C 23𝝁𝑭 Capacitance (μF)
6 L 66 𝝁H Inductor (μH)
7 Io 5A -11A Output current
Table 1.4: Technical data for the proposed DC to DC Buck Converter
Fig 3.13: DC to DC Buck Converter showing Switch Current, Switch Voltage, and Inductor Voltage
The buck converter model is parametrized with the values of inductance, capacitance,
switching frequency, supply voltage and load resistance as shown in Table 1.4 and then
P a g e | 79
simulated to show the relationship between the supply voltage VS, output voltage VO, and
Inductor voltage VL, when the switch is OPEN (VL = VS - VO ) and when it is CLOSED ( VL =
- VO ) and also to show that the output voltage VO is related to the input voltage VS by:
• VO = VSD
• Where D is the duty cycle or ratio and VS is the input voltage.
Figure 3.13 shows the schematic diagram of a DC to DC buck converter used for this work. To
ensure the output of the DC to DC converter remains stable, a negative feedback is introduced
in the model.
Fig 3.14: DC to DC Buck Converter Subsystem, PWM & PID block, Scope
P a g e | 80
Fig 3.15: DC to DC Buck Converter signal wave forms: Switch Current & Voltage, Inductor Voltage, Diode
Current & Voltage
Figure 3.14 shows a closed loop control DC to DC buck converter whose circuit elements have
been grouped into a subsystem block – dc to dc buck converter subsystem block. PID control
and sum block were used to implement the negative feedback necessary to keep the output
voltage sable. The dc to dc buck converter of Figure 3.15 shows the complete buck converter
circuit, PID block and Sum block grouped into a subsystem.
P a g e | 81
3.3 MPPT Perturb and Observe Control Algorithm
V(K) = Present Voltage measurement; V(K-1) = Previous Voltage measurement
P(K) = Present value of Power; P(K-1) = Previous value of Power
Fig 3.16: Perturb and Observe MPPT Algorithm

P a g e | 82
Pertubation Effect Conclusion for next Perturbation in

Perturbation in
in panel on perturbation in panel ‘converter duty
converter output
voltage power voltage cycle
voltage “Vo”
“∆V” “∆P” “∆V * ∆P” “D’
+Ve +Ve +Ve +Ve +Ve
-Ve -Ve +Ve +Ve +Ve
-Ve +Ve -Ve -Ve -Ve
-Ve +Ve -Ve -Ve -Ve
Table 1.5: Summary of perturb and observe operation
Note that the following
∆V = V(K-1) – V(K)
If ∆V * ∆P = +Ve …This means the output voltage is increased by increasing “D”
If ∆V * ∆P = -Ve …This means the output voltage is decreased by decreasing “D”
The above flow chart shown in Figure 3.16 describes the MPPT Perturb and Observe algorithm
which involves perturbation of the panel operating voltage or duty cycle based on a comparison
of the power generated to ensure maximum power point.
Fig 3.17: MPPT Perturb and Observe Algorithm Function Block

P a g e | 83
This was implemented in Simulink using Matlab function block from Simulink library.
Matlab function block was used to implement the algorithm using Matlab language.
This algorithm was implemented using conditional statements which continuously monitors
and compares the previous power P(K-1) to the present power P(K) to know whether to
increase or decrease duty cycle such that the maximum power point is achieved . See Appendix
B.1.2 for MATLAB Function code in “C” for the implementation of this Perturb and Observe
MPPT technique.
3.4 Lead Acid Battery as load
The Lead acid battery which is the load of the overall circuit is implemented from Simulink
library. The battery model is parametrized to reflect a 12V, 200AH. Additional elements used
in the model are: current measurement, voltage measurement and scope in order to visualize
the charging progress and Battery State of charge (SOC). Blocks and components from
Simscape Electronics and Simscape PowerSystems were used to implement this model as
shown in Figure 3.18.
Fig 3.18: 12V, 200AH Lead – Acid Battery Model

P a g e | 84
3.5 Interconnection of the various models and simulation of the complete MPPT
design
The PV model system block, the DC to DC Buck Converter System block, the MPPT control
algorithm block and the battery block are interconnected to make the complete MPPT model.
Suitable current, voltage and power measurement components from Simulink library are
connected to display actual measurement parameters from the model.
Fig 3.19: Complete MPPT model to show battery voltage and state of charge progress as the battery is
charged
The Voltage display will display the system voltages at selected points while the Current
display displays the current flowing through the system at selected points. The Power display
will give an overall view of power produce by the solar PV module and the Power used in
charging the battery so that the overall efficiency of the model is visualized and MPPT concept
appreciated.
P a g e | 85
Fig 3.20: Complete MPPT model to show duty cycle, input and output Current, Voltage and Power.
This system was scaled up by reproducing 9 extra PV modules making a total of 10 PV

modules. Total power capacity for the 10 module PV array is 1.5KW at 150W per module.
Varying irradiance level was achieved using Signal builder as shown in Figure 3.2.0 below.
Fig 3.21: Signal Builder for generation of varying irradiance level from 500 – 1000W/M2
P a g e | 86
Fig 3.22: Complete 1.5KW MPPT with Perturb and Observe Control Algorithm
Vmpp is 20.349Vdc while Impp is 7.337A. Figures 3.22 – 3.23 shows the completed system with
approximately 97% efficiency.
Fig 3.23: 1.5KW MPPT showing Battery Charging progress and Battery state of Charge (SOC).
P a g e | 87
3.5.1 Effect of Shading or Low Solar Irradiation on PV module output Power
To study the dynamic behavior of Solar PV modules during shading or low solar irradiation
and ambient temperature rise, the modelled Solar PV module was reproduced in Simulink
environment into five different subsystems and cascaded to give a PV array of capacity 107.5V,
4.0A which gives a total capacity of 430W as shown in Figure 3.25.
The different PV modules were connected in series and the solar irradiance and temperature
values of each of the connected PV modules were varied randomly by choosing irradiance
levels to reflect different illumination levels on each of the modules.
Different irradiation levels were used to show shadow cast upon solar panels due to high rise
building or trees. 1000W/m2 to represent a brightly lit PV solar Module, while 200W/m2
represents a poorly lit PV module. 0W/m2 means there is no output at all from the panel.
Tables 1.6 – 1.8 below show three different cases of the solar irradiance consideration for this
model and the result obtained. Figures 3.24 – 3.26 shows clearly the effect of shading or low
solar irradiation on PV module power output.
The PV modules were interconnected using the SUM block, Product block and constant block
from Simulink library. Additional elements used in the model are: current measurement,
voltage measurement and scope in order to visualize the voltage, current and output power
variations in the circuit as the module irradiation levels are varied.
P a g e | 88
3.5.1.1 Case 1: Full Sunlight or Brightly illuminated PV array
CASE 1
PV PV
IRRADIANCE OUTPUT
PV OUTPUT OUTPUT
S/N TEMP (Kelvin) REMARKS POWER
MODULE VOLTAGE CURRENT
(W/m2) (Watts)
(Volts) (Amps)
1 MODULE 1 1000 298.15
2 MODULE 2 1000 298.15
FULL
3 MODULE 3 1000 298.15 430 107.5 4
SUNLIGHT
4 MODULE 4 1000 298.15
5 MODULE 5 1000 298.15
Table 1.6: Effect of shading or Low solar Irradiance on PV Module Power Output – Case1
Table 1.6 shows a brightly lit PV array with each module having 1000W/m2 which is
considered the brightest sunlight necessary for the module to deliver rated power.
Fig 3.25: Effect of shading or Low solar Irradiance on PV Module Power Output – Case1
P a g e | 89
5.1.2 Case 2: Partially illuminated PV array
CASE 2
PV PV
IRRADIANCE OUTPUT
PV TEMP OUTPUT OUTPUT
S/N REMARKS POWER
MODULE (Kelvin) VOLTAGE CURRENT
(W/m2) (Watts)
(Volts) (Amps)
1 MODULE 1 800 298.15 VARYING

SUNLIGHT
2 MODULE 2 300 298.15
WITH
TRACES OF
3 MODULE 3 700 298.15 301 107.5 2.8
SHADOW
4 MODULE 4 800 298.15 CAST ON
PV SOLAR
5 MODULE 5 850 298.15 MODULE
Above table show the irradiance level of each of the PV modules ranging from 300 to
850W/m2. It can also be seen that module 2 has the least irradiance level which can be due to
shadow cast by trees or high rise buildings. Module 5 can be seen to have the highest irradiance
level.
P a g e | 90
The graph of the I-V and P-V characteristics as shown in Figure 3.21 shows that as the
irradiance level decreases, the PV Power output decreases as well. Note the drop in PV output
current from 4.0A to 2.8A.
P a g e | 91
5.1.3 Case 3: Poorly illuminated PV array
CASE 3
PV
IRRADIANCE OUTPUT PV OUTPUT
PV TEMPERATURE OUTPUT
S/N REMARKS POWER CURRENT
MODULE (Kelvin) VOLTAGE
(W/m2) (Watts) (Amps)
(Volts)
1 MODULE 1 200 298.15

POORLY
2 MODULE 2 300 298.15 ILLUMINATED

PV ARRAY DUE
3 MODULE 3 300 298.15 TO SHADOW 105 107.5 0.98
CAST ON PV
4 MODULE 4 0 298.15
SOLAR
MODULES
5 MODULE 5 500 298.15
Result shows that the irradiation levels have a significant impact on the power output of the
PV array.
P a g e | 92
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 MPPT Vs PWM Charge Controllers
Test and comparison of the performance of the proposed MPPT charge controller, conventional
PWM charge controller and direct coupled load (Solar PV module and Load) was carried out
using the same 2 X 150W Solar PV module and battery load to see how the available PV Solar
power is utilized to charge the batteries. The PV Solar modules were connected in parallel as
shown in Figure 4.1 in order to closely match the battery voltage to the PV module output
voltage Vmpp.
Fig 4.1: 300W Solar PV Modules connected in parallel
The battery model was parametrized as shown in Figure 4.2 below to reflect 12V, 200AH
battery bank.
The PWM charge controller was modelled with all the circuit elements from SimScape /
SimPower Systems and Simulink library. Additional elements used in this model are: current
measurement, voltage measurement and scope in order to visualize the voltage and current
variations in the circuit.
P a g e | 93
The powergui which allows us to model Simpower systems components from Simulink was
also selected from Simpower toolbox. These were connected as shown in in Figure 4.2 below
Fig 4.2: 12V, 200AH battery bank Parametization
The test was carried out in three different phases to show the following:
1. The percentage of the available PV Solar Power utilized when the 2 X 150W PV Solar
modules is connected directly to the battery load due to load mismatch.
2. The percentage of the available PV Solar Power Utilized when the 2 X 150W PV Solar
modules is connected to same battery load through a PWM charge controller
3. The percentage of the available PV Solar Power Utilized when the 2 X 150W PV Solar
modules is connected to the same battery load through an MPPT PWM charge
controller.
The simulation for the different cases was done with same battery load to demonstrate the likely
power wastage associated with direct coupling of PV Solar panel to Battery, PWM Charge
controller and the effect of using non-MPPT charge controllers.
P a g e | 94
4.1.1 Case 1: Directly Coupled Battery Load to PV Solar Modules
In case 1, we see a battery load (12V, 200AH lead acid battery) directly coupled to the 2 X
150W PV solar modules. It can be seen from Figure 4.2 that the PV module voltage is pulled
down to almost the battery voltage due to the mismatch between the load impedance and the
optimal impedance of the PV modules. This results in wastage in power as the battery struggles
to recover from less than 40% DOD. The regulation of the battery charging is achieved through
human intervention and can never be precise hence the batteries soon die off due to
overcharging.
Fig 4.3: Direct Coupling of PV Solar Module and Battery Load
4.1.2 Case 2: PWM Charge Controller (non-MPPT)
Case 2 shows a similar behavior as observed in Case 1. The major difference between Case 1
and Case 2 is that whereas the battery load in “Case 1” does not have any form of charging
current regulation for the batteries, the PWM charge controller in “Case 2” is able to regulate
the current flow into the battery when the battery is fully charged. This saves the battery from
over charging but the obvious power wastage is a major challenge of this method.
P a g e | 95
Fig 4.4: PWM Charge Controller Schematic
The battery current limiting is achieved through the use of specialized current isolating circuits,
which disconnects the PV module when the battery is fully charged.
The schematic for the PWM charge controller is as shown in Figure 4.3 above.
For Case 1 and 2, the battery impedance is not properly matched to the solar panel input
impedance. We can see that for the PV system with directly coupled battery, the drop in PV
module voltage from 21.8V to 11.0V shows that the battery internal resistance pulled the PV
module internal resistance down due to impedance mismatch hence maximum power transfer
cannot be possible.
P a g e | 96
Fig 4.5: PWM Charge Controller between PV Solar Module and Battery Load
4.1.3 Case 3: MPPT Charge Controller
Case 3 shows that though the battery is below 40% DOD, the output voltage is slightly higher
than that of case 2. From chapter 2, we saw that Ps = Po + losses. This implies that 𝐼𝑆 𝑉𝑆 =
𝐼𝑂 𝑉𝑂 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠. Hence, as the output voltage 𝑉𝑂 is seen to be less than the input voltage 𝑉𝑆 ,
the output current 𝐼𝑂 increases to compensate for the power and is observed to be less than 𝐼𝑆 .
This arrangement produces more current necessary to efficiently charge the battery as almost
all the available PV Solar Power is utilized. This is unlike the PWM charge controller and
direct coupling of battery load to the PV Solar Modules in cases 1 and 2 above.
P a g e | 97
Fig 4.6: MPPT Charge Controller between PV Solar Module and Battery Load
A typical scenario is illustrated with the below design objective:
Case 1:
• Design and Installation of a 1.98KW PV Solar Electrical Energy System

• 2 X 48V, 200AH Battery bank ( 2 strings of 48Vdc, 200AH)
• 50A PWM Charge controller
Case 2:
• Design and Installation of a 1.98KW PV Solar Electrical Energy System

• 2 X 48V, 200AH Battery bank ( 2 strings of 48Vdc, 200AH)
• 50A MPPT Charge controller
The first step is to model the PV modules and connect them such that the total installed capacity
is exactly as recommended in the design specification above and secondly, to also model the
battery to suit the given specification.
P a g e | 98
Fig 4.7: Series and Parallel connection of PV Solar modules to give 1.98KW PV array
Figures 4.0.6 and 4.0.9 shows the 1.98KW Solar PV array for the test simulation.
The battery model comprises of two battery banks connected in parallel to give the 48Vdc,
400AH. Each of the battery banks contains 4 X 12Vdc, 200AH lead acid
Fig 4.8: Series Connection of 4 X 12V, 200AH Lead-Acid Batteries to give 48V, 200AH
capacity
P a g e | 99
Fig 4.9: Parallel Connection of Bank 01 and Bank 02 to give 48V, 400AH Lead-Acid Battery Bank Capacity
batteries which are connected in series to give the 48Vdc, 200AH battery capacity for each
bank. This is shown in Figures below
The Simulation will be carried out under the same solar irradiance and ambient temperature.
For the PWM charge controller, the PV array voltage is matched close to the battery bank’s
float voltage which in this case is 54.5Vdc. This was achieved by arranging the solar modules
in four banks categorized as A, B, C & D such that each bank has three solar modules connected
in series to give approximately 66V, 7.34Amp.
Connecting banks A, B, C & D in parallel gives a total installed capacity of 1.98KW (ie 4 X
66Vdc, 7.34Amp such that Vpv remains 66.56Vdc while Ipv is 29.36Amp).
Since the MPPT has a DC to DC Buck Converter whose major work among others previously
mentioned in chapters 2 and 3 is to step down voltage from a higher
P a g e | 100
Fig 4.10: Series connection of PV Solar modules to give 1.98KW PV array
magnitude to a lower magnitude while ensuring very minimal power loss, the PV Solar array
are connected in series to give 12 X 165W totaling to 1.98KW.
Fig 4.11: 1.98KW PV Array connected through a PWM charge controller to charge
48Vdc,400AH Battery bank
P a g e | 101
Fig 4.12: Simulation result of 1.98KW PV Array connected through a PWM charge controller to charge
The combined series connection of the PV Solar array gives 12 X 22.48Vdc, 7.34Amp hence
the output voltage Vpv is 269.75Vdc while Ipv remains 7.34Amp.
The 1.98KW PV array shown in Figures 4.0.6 and 4.0.9 were used to charge a 2 X
48Vdc, 200AH Lead Acid Battery Bank through their respective charge controllers (PWM or
MPPT) to determine which among the two is more efficient.
The experimental setup described in the circuit of Figure 4.1.0 above shows the simulation
result of PWM charge controller when a 1.98KW PV Solar Array is used to charge a 2 X
48Vdc, 200AH battery bank. The result shows that only about 460W out of the total 1.98KW
installed capacity is transferred to the load (utilized to charge the battery bank). The rest of the
available electrical energy of the solar panel is wasted.
P a g e | 102
Fig 4.13: 1.98KW PV Array connected through a MPPT charge controller to charge 48Vdc,400AH Battery
bank
Similarly, for the experimental setup below which was simulated using an MPPT charge
controller, it is observed that about 1.70KW which is 97% of the available PV Solar Array’s
Power is utilized to charge the battery bank. From the simulation results, it can be seen that
about 30Amp is utilized to efficiently charge the battery bank.
P a g e | 103
The simulation results in both cases show clearly that the PWM charge controller which has
about 11Amps charging current will charge very slowly and longer when compared to the
MPPT charge controller which delivers up to 30Amp charging current to battery bank.
To ensure the 48Vdc, 400AH battery bank is adequately charged, at least with up to 30A as is
the case with MPPT charge controller, an additional 6 X 165W PV Solar Modules are required
as shown in Figure 4.1.4 below.
The additional six modules will be categorized as bank E and F since each bank comprises of
3 X 165W PV Solar Modules connected in series. Banks E and F are then connected in parallel
to A, B, C & D to give a total installed capacity of 18 X 165W which is 2.97KW as show in
Figure 4.1.5.
The Solar PV Array output voltage Vpv still remains 66.56Vdc, while the Ipv is now 44A. Also
note that this series and parallel combination of the PV Array for the PWM
Fig 4.15: Additional 6 X 165W PV Solar Modules to combine with the 1.98KW to achieve up
to 30A of battery charging current
P a g e | 104
Fig 4.16: Combined 12 X 165W and 6 X 165 PV Solar Modules to give 2.97KW to achieve up to 30A of
battery charging current
charge controller is the best combination to ensure the 48Vdc battery bank is maintained at a
float charge voltage of 54.5Vdc.
Fig 4.17: 2.97KW PV Array connected through a PWM charge controller to charge 48Vdc,400AH Battery
bank
P a g e | 105
The simulation result of Figures 4.1.6 and 4.1.7 shows that about 30A is used to charge the
battery bank which was achieved by the use of 18 X 165KW PV Solar
Fig 4.19: Simulation result for the comparison of MPPT and PWM charge controllers using same 1.98KW
capacity of Solar PV Array to a 48Vdc,400AH Battery bank
P a g e | 106
Fig 4.20: Simulation graph for the comparison of MPPT and PWM charge controllers using
same 1.98KW capacity of Solar PV Array to a 48Vdc,400AH Battery bank
Fig 4.21: Simulation graph of the input for the comparison of MPPT and PWM charge
controllers using same 1.98KW capacity of Solar PV Array to a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank
P a g e | 107
Fig 4.22: Simulation graph of the Output for the comparison of MPPT and PWM charge
controllers using same 1.98KW capacity of Solar PV Array to a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank
Fig 4.23: Simulation result for the comparison of when MPPT charge controller (connected to
1.98KW PV array) and PWM charge controller (connected to 2.97KW PV array) are used to
charge a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank.
P a g e | 108
Fig 4.24: Simulation graph for the comparison of when MPPT charge controller (connected to
1.98KW PV array) and PWM charge controller (connected to 2.97KW PV array) are used to
charge a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank.
Fig 4.25: Simulation graph of the Input for the comparison of when MPPT charge controller
(connected to 1.98KW PV array) and PWM charge controller (connected to 2.97KW PV array)
are used to charge a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank.
P a g e | 109
Fig 4.26: Simulation graph of the Input for the comparison of when MPPT charge controller
(connected to 1.98KW PV array) and PWM charge controller (connected to 2.97KW PV array)
are used to charge a 48Vdc, 400AH Battery bank.
Modules arranged in series and parallel combinations as described in Figure 4.16 above. The
table below shows the simulation result obtained for the different irradiation levels the PV solar
array was exposed to. 1000W/M2 represents a bright weather condition while a 100W/m2
represents a poor weather condition. For this simulation, 0W/m2 was not considered as it is
considered to be obtainable in the night when the PV Solar Array outputs zero (0) Watt.
P a g e | 110
1.98KW SOLAR ARRAY & 1.98KW SOLAR ARRAY &

PWM CHARGE MPPT CHARGE
S/No. IRRADIANCE CONTROLLER CONTROLLER
Pout Iout Vout Pout Iout Vout

(Watts) (Amps) (Volts) (Watts) (Amps) (Volts)
1 100 - - 43.91 45.63 0.88 52.13
2 200 - - 43.91 77.25 1.47 52.57
3 300 - - 43.91 109.10 2.06 53.04
4 400 - - 43.91 141.60 2.65 53.50
5 500 - - 43.91 174.60 3.24 53.96
6 600 - - 43.91 392.00 7.23 54.22
7 700 130.40 2.71 48.15 669.10 12.34 54.24
8 800 271.00 5.63 48.15 975.30 17.91 54.44
9 900 411.60 8.55 48.15 1,293.00 23.65 54.49
10 1000 552.30 11.47 48.15 1,679.00 30.87 54.50
TABLE 1.9: POWER UTILIZED IN CHARGING 48V, 400AH BATTERY BANK BY

PWM & MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLERS RESPECTIVELY
P a g e | 111
2.97KW SOLAR ARRAY & 1.98KW SOLAR ARRAY &

PWM CHARGE MPPT CHARGE
S/No. IRRADIANCE CONTROLLER CONTROLLER
Pout Iout Vout Pout Iout Vout

(Watts) (Amps) (Volts) (Watts) (Amps) (Volts)
1 100 893.15 22.56 39.59 45.74 0.88 52.12
2 200 928.39 23.45 39.59 77.11 1.47 52.58
3 300 1,008.96 23.96 42.11 109.10 2.06 53.04
4 400 1,046.85 24.86 42.11 141.60 2.65 53.50
5 500 1,188.25 25.77 46.11 174.60 3.24 53.96
6 600 1,257.16 26.68 47.12 396.60 7.28 54.44
7 700 1,384.31 27.62 50.12 682.00 12.55 54.40
8 800 1,432.43 28.58 50.12 952.90 17.45 54.60
9 900 1,480.54 29.54 50.12 1,310.00 24.03 54.50
10 1000 1,529.66 30.52 50.12 1,663.00 30.52 54.49
TABLE 2.0 SHOWS THE POWER UTILIZED IN CHARGING 48V, 400AH BATTERY
BANK BY 2.97KW PWM & 1.98KW MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLERS RESPECTIVELY
For this simulation, 0W/m2 was not considered as it is considered to be obtainable in the night
when the PV Solar Array outputs zero (0) Watt.
CHAPTER FIVE
P a g e | 112
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we presented the graphical representation of our thesis on the Efficiency
Optimization of a Standalone Solar Energy System Using Perturb and Observe Based MPPT
Algorithm. This includes analysis based on each of the measurements and observations from
our simulation results.
5.1 Solar I – V and P – V Characteristics Curve
The graph of Figure 3.10 and 3.11 in Chapter 3 shows the I – V and P – V characteristic curve
of the solar cell. From the graph we can se that at any given point in time, the solar module
operates at a particular voltage and current. This point on the I – V curve where the solar
module operates is called the operating point. Thus for a given irradiance and temperature, an
operating point on the solar I – V curve corresponds to a unique current and voltage value.
It is worth mentioning that the photo-generated current from the PV characteristics equation
(4) of Chapter 3 is directly proportional to the irradiance level hence an increase in irradiation
leads to a higher photo-generated current. Moreso, the equation (2) shows that short circuit
current is also directly proportional to the irradiance.
The first plot where we have “Voltage Vs Current” defines two distinct points. The first is the
short circuit current Isc which in this case is 3.67A. while the second is the open circuit voltage
Voc. Short circuit current is the current of the PV Solar Cell as shown in the graph when the
voltage is zero. Simillarly, Open Circuit Voltage is voltage at which the PV Solar Cell current
is zero. In this case the value is 22.8Vdc. As the solar irradiance was increased from 200W/m2
to 1000W/m2, it was observed that there was significant increase in the PV panel’s current
while the voltage remained nearly the same with very little change. For solar irradiance of
200W/m2, the PV panel current was seen to be 0.67Amp, 400W/m2 gave 1.42Amps, 600W/m2
gave 2.19Amps, 800W/m2 gave 2.92Amps while 1000W/m2 gave 3.67Amps respectively.
As the effect on both the current and voltage is positive, i.e. both increase when the irradiation
rises, the effect on the power is also positive: the more irradiation, the more power is generated.
This is clearly shown in the graph of Figure 3.11.
Similarly, the point on the graph of Figure 3.10 where the maximum current (3.67Amps) and
voltage (16.85Vdc ) intercept is called the maximum power point of the PV Solar Cell or the
P a g e | 113
knee of the I – V curve. This is the point at which the PV Solar Cell delivers maximum power
to load. This point depends on the solar irradiance and ambient temperature and If the “load
line” crosses this point precisely, then the maximum power is transferred to the load.
It can also be seen from the graph of Figure 3.11 (Solar P – V) curve that at the peak of the P
– V curve, the Solar PV module delivers maximum power to load. It is evident that at 1000w/m2
solar irradiance, the PV solar cell delivers a maximum power power of 64.41W which
corresponds to a voltage of 16.85Vdc. This voltage is called the Vmpp. As the voltage increases
above the Vmpp, the power is observed to decrease. This is same result if the volatage decreases
below the Vmpp. It is thus evident from Figure 3.11 that each curve has a maximum power
point (MPP) which is the optimal point for the efficient use of the PV panel for the different
irradiation levels considered.
5.2 Effect of impedance mismatch on solar PV output characteristics
Recall that from the solar I – V and P – V curve analysis above, we mentioned that at any given
point in time, the solar module operates at a unique voltage and current called it’s operating
point for a given irradiance and temperature. This operating point is largely dependent on the
Load resistance.
P a g e | 114
Fig 5.1: I – V Curve for different Resistive Load
From PV module P-V characteristics we have seen there is only one point where power is
maximum, the corresponding voltage is VMPP and current is IMPP. If load line crosses this point
the maximum power is transferred to load. This value of load resistance is given by:
𝑽𝒎𝒑𝒑
𝑹𝒎𝒑𝒑 =
𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒑
A PV cell behaves differently depending on the size or type of load connected to it. The output
power of PV panel is greatly depended upon the load at output side. The power delivered to
load cannot be maximum if there is load mismatch. Load mismatching is when there is a
difference between the internal resistance of source and the resistance of the load at output side.
According to maximum power transfer theorem, when the equivalent resistance of source is
equal to the load resistance, the maximum power will delivered. The equivalent resistance is
called characteristics impedance which can be easily determined from the data sheet given by
manufacturer. If load is equal to this characteristic impedance, then we will get maximum
power from the solar panel.
P a g e | 115
We can calculate characteristic impedance from VMPP and IMPP values given from the graph of
Figure 3.12. From the graph, we can see that as the load impedance was increased from 0Ω to
20Ω the power increased from 0W to a peak value and started to decrease.
The PV internal resistance is 7.0Ω hence with a load resistance of approximately 7.0Ω,
maximum power is transferred to load. Here we take three conditions.
Case (1): When Load resistance is more than characteristic impedance, say about 8.0Ω - the
output power is observed to be decrease to a value less than the PV module maximum rated
power of 55 Watt (at 1000W/m2).
Case (2): When Load resistance is less than characteristic impedance, the output power is
equally observed to be less than the rated maximum power of 55 Watt (at 1000W/m2).
Case (3): When Load resistance is equal to characteristics impedance in Fig.17. The output
power is about 54 Watt which is a close approximation to the PV module rated maximum
power at 1000 W/m2.
Figure 3.12 also shows the effect on efficiency of PV module due to different load applied by
user. The PV module power reduces if the load is not properly matched with the characteristics
resistance of the PV module. This problem can be solved by applying DC-DC converter in
between PV module & Load.
5.3 MPPT Perturb and Observe Algorithm
The basic premise behind P&O as discussed in Chapter 2 (see Figure 2.12 for the flow chart)
is the algorithm’s constant comparison of the array’s output power after a
P a g e | 116
Fig 5.2: Graphical illustration of Perturb and Observe MPPT Technique using the Solar P – V
curve
small, deliberate perturbation in the array’s operating voltage is applied. If the output power is
increased after the perturbation, then the array’s operating point is now closer to the MPP, and
the algorithm continues to “climb the hill” towards the MPP. If the power is decreased, then
the operating point is further from the MPP, and the algorithm reverses the algebraic sign of
the perturbation in order to “climb the hill.”
Figure 5.1 shows the levels of operation of the simulation of the Charge controller using P&O
MPPT algorithm with reference voltage perturbation when the system was started and run at
850-W/m2 solar irradiance and 25oC cell temperature with a low perturbation frequency of 100
Hz and a high step size of 13.5 V which represents an increment of duty cycle by 0.05 (5%).
System operation can be better explained with reference to the array power–voltage curve at
the same irradiance and cell temperature levels as shown in Figure 5.2 above.
P a g e | 117
Assuming the Array power was measured to be around 1287W with the system operating at
the initial reference voltage of 237Vdc as is represented by point “A”. The initial perturbation
direction is to increase the reference voltage, so the reference voltage is increased in steps of
13.5 V (the step size) to 259.83V thereby moving the operating point to point B.
Similarly, the Array power at B is measured after a perturbation period of 1 s has passed. As a
result of the decrease in power at point B from 1287W to 569.8W, the P&O algorithm reverses
the perturbation direction, decreasing the reference voltage to 237V and moving the operating
point back to point A.
Due to the power increase as a result of moving from point B to point A, the algorithm
continues in this direction to decrease the reference voltage to 214V (i.e. point O). The power
is also measured and since the power at O which is 1424W is more than the power at point A
(1287W) perturbation continues in the same direction to decrease the reference voltage by the
step size to get to point C. At point C, the reference voltage is 192Vdc and the power is
measured and observed to be lower than the power at A.
As a result, the direction of perturbation reverses from point C to the direction of point O. The
perturbation continues changing direction with the sole aim of tracking the maximum power
point as the solar irradiance continues to change due to the dynamic nature of the weather.
5.4 Effect of Shadding or low solar irradiance on PV Solar output power
The simulation results of Tables 1.8 to 2.0 and Figures 3.2.3 to 3.2.5 shows how shading or
poor solar irradiance affect the power output of a PV Solar module or Array. The first case
considered was for a brightly lit pv array such that all the modules receive 1000W/m2 which
is considered as the brightest sunlight. The PV Power output was recorded to be 430W at
107.5Vdc and 4.0A.
For partially illuminated, PV modules as shown in Figure 3.2.4, the power output recorded was
301W at 107.5Vdc and 2.8A.
Similarly, for poorly illuminated PV array as shown in Figure 3.2.5, the output power reduces
to 105W at 107.5V and 0.98A.
This result shows that the photo-generated current from the PV characteristics equation (4) of
Chapter 3 is directly proportional to the irradiance level hence an increase in the solar irradiance
P a g e | 118
leads to a higher photo-generated current. Equation (2) of chapter 3 also shows that short circuit
current is directly proportional to the irradiance.
It is worth mentioning that PV shadding effects are more pronounced in PWM charge
controllers than in MPPT charge controllers since for the PWM charge controllers, the PV
Strings are configured to closely match the battery bank float voltage. Example 22Voc for
12Vdc battery bank (float Voltage is 13.5Vdc), 42 Voc for 24Vdc battery bank (float Voltage
is 27.5Vdc) and 66 Voc for 48Vdc battery bank (float Voltage is 54.5Vdc).
5.5 Comparison of MPPT and PWM Charge controllers (Case 1)
The first comparion was done with a PWM and MPPT charge controller with both fed from a
1.98KW PV Solar array. The graph of the simulation result from Table 2.1 show clearly the
following:
• the PWM had no power output until about 600W/m2 solar irradiance which suggestes
that the load will only get supply when the solar irradiance is above 600W/m2 unlike
the the MPPT charge controller which had power output from 100W/m2. This can be
explained from the fact the PV Array voltage was configured to give approximately
66Vdc in 1000W/m2 (considered to be the brightes sunlight) to closely match the
battery float voltage of 54.5Vdc. Hence, it becomes very obvious that a lower solar
irradiance would affect the overal output voltage of the PWM.
• the MPPT charge controller PV Array voltage was set to approximately 270Vdc and
with the dc to dc bulk converter, this voltage is stepped down to 54.5Vdc needed to
charge the battery efficiently. Notice that at 1000W/m2 the PV Array voltage is
expected to be 270Vdc hence a drop of irradiance from 1000 to 500W/m2 is not
significant enuogh to cause the PV Array voltage to drop below 54.5Vdc.
P a g e | 119
Fig 5.3: Graphical illustration of the comparison between PWM charge controller and MPPT charge controller
• the charging current of the MPPT charge controller was observed to be almost 3 times
that of the PWM charge controller. This is where the MPPT derives it’s efficiency from.
• While the power wasteage in the PWM charge controller is huge (above 50%), the
MPPT attained above 95% efficiency on the available PV power.
5.6 Comparison of MPPT and PWM Charge controllers (Case 2)
Here we PV Array power of the PWM charge controller was increased by addition of extra two
strings making a total of six strings with a total power capacity of 2.97KW and compared to
the 1.98KW of the MPPT charge controller PV array.
The observations below were made during the test and simulation:
P a g e | 120
• The PWM charge controller was able to produce up to 895W at very low irradiation,
but due to impedance mismatch between the battery load and the internal impedance of
the PV Array, much power is still wasted.
• The MPPT had a gradual start with low irradiance and was seen to output more power
as the irradiance increased.
• At 800W/m2, the MPPT is seen to be doing better than the PWM charge controller
because it could provide an output voltage (54.5Vdc) high enough to force the produce
current into the battery compared to the PWM that was still on 50.12Vdc.
• It can also be seen that with 1000W/m2 irradiance, both MPPT and PWM charge
controllers produced 30.25A, however, the 1.98KW MPPT produced more power than
the 2.97KW PWM because of the difference in their output voltage. The PWM charge
controller was seen to have an efficiency of less than 60% whereas MPPT had above
95%.
• The additional modules required to achieve extra 19.05Amp to meet up with the
30.52Amp produced by the MPPT charge controller shows that the PWM charge
controller is largely inefficient since over 1KW is wasted.
P a g e | 121
Fig 5.4: Graphical illustration of the comparison between 2.97KW PV Array connected to PWM charge controller
and 1.98KW PV Array connected to an MPPT charge controller
5.7 Summary of Research Objectives Result
Having studied the respective research objective results; it was observed that:
1. Though the series or parallel interconnection of cells increase the voltage or current
respectively, the overall nature of the I–V curve remains the same. This I-V curve is
defined for a unique set of temperature and irradiance conditions. It follows that if the
irradiance increases the I-V curve increases and if the temperature increases the I-V
curve decreases. Thus a higher irradiance gives a better I-V curve whereas a higher
temperature gives a worse I-V curve.
2. At any given point in time, the solar module operates at a particular voltage and current.
This is called the operating point. For a given irradiance and temperature, the operating
point of a PV module corresponds to a unique I-V value.
3. The PV module operating point is largely dictated by the electrical load seen by the PV
module at its output. To get maximum power delivered by the PV module, it is
imperative to force the module to operate at the operating point corresponding to its
maximum power or as it is generally called, the maximum power point (MPP). This
point corresponds to the peak of the P-V curve or the knee of the I-V curve.
4. The simplest way to track solar PV module maximum power point is to force the
voltage of the PV module to be the value at the maximum power point or to regulate
the current to the right amount as that of the maximum power point using DC to DC
converters.
5. Due to the dynamic weather condition which causes the PV module to have varying
maximum power points resulting from the changes in irradiance and temperature, it
becomes necessary to track such changes so that at all times irrespective of the weather
condition, the PV module operates at its maximum power point. This process is called
Maximum Power Point Tracking or MPPT and the devices that perform this process
are called MPP trackers. MPPT trackers are hardware implementation of MPPT
Algorithm or Algorithms. The various Algorithms to track PV module maximum power
point are called MPPT techniques.
P a g e | 122
6. The effect of PV module shading is more pronounced in PWM charge controllers since
the PV module voltage is closely matched to the battery voltage. Any drop in
illumination or solar irradiance becomes obvious as compared to MPPT which has a dc
to dc converter which can either step up voltage, step down voltage or do both.
7. Simulation result of Figures 4.1.8 to 4.2.5 in Chapter 4 shows that the proposed MPPT
charge controller was able to deliver more power to charge the battery bank efficiently
with 12 modules (1.98KW array) when compared to PWM charge controller which had
18 modules (2.98KW array). Also from this we saw that the while the MPPT had above
95% efficiency, the PWM was still struggling with less than 60% efficiency
8. Additional cost is required to meet up with the required current capacity necessary to
efficiently charge / replenish the battery bank. This also results to over 37% wastage on
the total installed capacity. This is illustrated in Tables 2.1 to 2.2 of Chapter 4.
5.8 Conclusion
The aim of this research work is to show how energy extraction from PV Solar System
Installations can be optimized by using Perturb and Observe Maximum Power Point Tracking
technique such that the battery bank is efficiently charged, leading to extended battery life and
quick return on investment (ROI).
Simulink model of the PV solar Module/Array were developed (see Figures 3.1 to 3.7) and the
simulation results (Figures 3.8 to 3.10) have shown that at any given point in time, the solar
module operates at a particular voltage and current called the operating point which is largely
dictated by the electrical load seen by the PV module at its output.
Hence to get maximum power delivered by the PV module/array, it is imperative to force the
module to operate at the operating point corresponding to its maximum power or as it is
generally called, the maximum power point (MPP). This point corresponds to the peak of the
P-V curve or the knee of the I-V curve.
The simplest way to track solar PV module maximum power point as discussed in this work is
to force the voltage of the PV module to be the value at the maximum power point or to regulate
the current to the right amount as that of the maximum power point using DC to DC converters
P a g e | 123
and a suitable switching control algorithm or technique for the dc to dc converter. For this
work, DC to DC Buck converter and Perturb and Observe technique (Algorithm) were
modelled in Simulink to ensure that energy extraction from the PV Solar module / array is
optimized (see Figure 3.18 to 3.22).
This work also shows clearly the effects of direct coupling of PV Solar modules or Array to
load and also the effect of using PWM charge controllers (which are non-MPPT charge
controllers) on PV Solar systems which are:
• High OPEX from the frequent replacement of dead batteries due to the use of inefficient
PWM charge controller.
• Higher capital cost from oversized installations which waste above 55% of total
available PV power.
The PV model simulation results (Figures: 3.23 to 3.25) show that the effects of increase in
solar irradiation on the voltage and current of the PV module or array is positive i.e. both
voltage and current were observed to increase when solar irradiance was increased. Similarly,
the power is equally positive as an increase in irradiation brings about an increase in PV module
or array power.
With the above establish, the effects of shading or low solar irradiance on PV Solar
module/array was equally observed and analyzed for MPPT and PWM charge controllers to
show that shading effects is more pronounced in PWM charge controllers since the PV module
output voltage (Vpv) is closely matched with the battery bank voltage.
Further comparison was done to compare the power output of an MPPT charge controller and
that of a PWM charge controller to justify the claim the an MPPT charge controller with above
95% efficiency is far better than the PWM charge controller which is only about 45 – 50%
efficient (Figure 4.6 to 4.13).
This obvious loss or wastage in power by PWM charge controller was observed to be due to
impedance mismatch between the PV module/array and the load.
To further prove that PWM charge controllers will require addition cost to provide same power
requirement as with MPPT charge controller (see Figure: 4.14 to 4.25 and Figures 5.2 & 5.3),
a 12 X 165KW PV solar modules with MPPT was seen to produce same current as an 18 X
165KW PV solar modules connected to a PWM charge controller. The cost of the extra 6
P a g e | 124
modules will amount to savings in capital cost if MPPT charge controller is used instead of
PWM charge controller.
3 Recommendation
Despite the huge success achieved in this work, it was observed that the Perturb and Observe
Maximum Power Point Tracking technique (algorithm) measures the changes in power via a
closed control loop that uses a defined step-size (5% change in duty cycle) to perturb the duty
cycle of the controller which results in small changes in the operating point of the array. The
disadvantages of this P&O MPPT technique are its slow and possibly incorrect tracking
direction when a rapid change in solar irradiation occurs. To address the problem of
responsiveness, I recommend:
1. that an adaptive Perturb and Observe control technique can be implemented to speed
up the tracking process. This adaptive P&O is expected to modify the perturbation step-
size so that when the difference between the operating point and MPP is large, the step-
size is also large and as the algorithm starts to approach the MPP, it adjusts the step-
size to become very small. By doing so, tracking speed is enhanced.
2. This adaptive P&O is expected to modify the perturbation cycle so that when the
difference between the operating point and MPP is large, the perturbation cycle is small
and as the algorithm starts to approach the MPP, it adjusts the perturbation cycle to
become very large. By doing so, oscillation around the MPP is reduced.
P a g e | 125
References
a project report on MPPT algorithm for PV panel. (2017). Slideshare.net. Retrieved 20

August 2017, from http://www.slideshare.net/gauravchitransh/finl-rpt?from_action=save
AHN, C., CHOI, J., LEE, D. and AN, J. (2010). Adaptive Maximum Power Point
Tracking Algorithm for Photovoltaic Power Systems. IEICE Transactions on Communications,
E93-B(5), pp.1334-1337.
Bellia, H., Youcef, R., & Fatima, M. (2014). A detailed modeling of photovoltaic
module using MATLAB. NRIAG Journal Of Astronomy And Geophysics, 3(1), 53-61.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nrjag.2014.04.001
Bernardo, P. C. (2009). A High Efficient Micro-controlled Buck Converter

withMaximum Power Point Tracking for Photovoltaic Systems. Proceedings of the
International Conference on Renewable Energies and Power Quality.
Bleijs, J. and Gow, J. (2001). Fast maximum power point control of current-fed DC-
DC converter for photovoltaic arrays. Electronics Letters, 37(1), p.5.
Charging Basics. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.hawkins.co.za/charging_basics.html
Chilambarasan, M., Ramesh Babu, M. and Jones Basil, T. (2015). Comparison of DC-
DC Converters for Photo-Voltaic Application. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 787, pp.864-
868.
Design and Analysis of Microcontroller-Based, Maximum Power Point Tracker for

Photovoltaic Power Systems. (2016). International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR),
5(6), pp.1830-1836.
Design and Analysis of Microcontroller-Based, Maximum Power Point Tracker for

Photovoltaic Power Systems. (2016). International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR),
5(6), pp.1830-1836.
Eltek. (2017). Monitoring of Lead Acid Batteries - an Eltek White Paper.

Slideshare.net. Retrieved 25 October 2017, from https://www.slideshare.net/Eltek/2013-wp-
monitoring-of-lead-acid-
Enrique, J., Andújar, J. and Bohórquez, M. (2010). A reliable, fast and low cost
maximum power point tracker for photovoltaic applications. Solar Energy, 84(1), pp.79-89.
Femia, N., Petrone, G., Spagnuolo, G., & Vitelli, M. (2005). Optimization of Perturb
and Observe Maximum Power Point Tracking Method. IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, 20(4), 963-973. doi:10.1109/tpel.2005.850975
P a g e | 126
Go, S., Ahn, S., Choi, J., Jung, W., Yun, S., & Song, I. (2011). Simulation and Analysis
of Existing MPPT Control Methods in a PV Generation System. Journal of International
Council on Electrical Engineering, 1(4), 446-451. doi:10.5370/jicee.2011.1.4.446
Gosumbonggot, J. (2016). Maximum Power Point Tracking Method Using Perturb and
Observe Algorithm for Small Scale DC Voltage Converter. Procedia Computer Science, 86,
pp.421-424.
Grätzel, M. (1995). Low Cost and Efficient Photovoltaic Conversion by

Nanocrystalline Solar Cells. Chemie Ingenieur Technik, 67(10), 1300-1305.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cite.330671006
Growth of photovoltaics. (2017). En.wikipedia.org. Retrieved 4 November 2017, from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics
Gupta, A. (2016). Solar Photovoltaics Engineering. A Power Quality Analysis Using

Matlab Simulation Case Studies. Anchor Academic Publishing.
Hart, D. (2011). Power electronics. New York: McGraw-Hill
How do Photovoltaics Work? | Science Mission Directorate. (2017). Science.nasa.gov.

Retrieved 20 August 2017, from http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-
nasa/2002/solarcells
How Solar Panels work - Letitgo. (2017). Letitgo.com.au. Retrieved 3 November 2017,
from http://www.letitgo.com.au/solar-engineering/18--how-solar-panels-work.html
Hua, C. (1998). Implementation of a DSP-Controlled Photovoltaic System with Peak

Power Tracking. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 45, no. 1, 99-107.
Hussein, K. (1995). Maximum Photovoltaic Power Tracking: An Algorithm for

Rapidly Changing Atmospheric Conditions. IEE Proceedings Generation, Transmission and
Distribution, vol. 142, no. 1, 59-64.
Kotak, V., & Tyagi, P. (2013). DC To DC Converter in Maximum Power Point Tracker.
https://www.ijareeie.com. Retrieved 11 September 2017, from http://DC To DC Converter in
Maximum Power Point Tracker.
Koutroulis, E. (2001). Development of a Microcontroller-Based, Photovoltaic

Maximum Power Point Tracking Control System. IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics,vol. 16, no. 1, 46-54.
Krismadinata, Rahim, N., Ping, H., & Selvaraj, J. (2013). Photovoltaic Module
Modeling using Simulink/Matlab. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 17, 537-546.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2013.02.069
P a g e | 127
Lahfaoui, B., Zouggar, S., Elhafyani, M. and Seddik, M. (2016). An Experimental

Study of P&O MPPT Control for Photovoltaic Systems. International Journal of Power
Electronics and Drive Systems (IJPEDS), 7(3), p.954.
Lohmeier, C. (2011). A Current-Sensorless MPPT Quasi-Double-Boost Converter for

PV Systems. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and
Exposition,1069-1075.
Manish S., Sunil A., and Ekta S. (2015). Design and Simulation of Perturb and Observe
MPPT algorithm for 72 Cell Solar PV System. International Journal of Soft Computing and
Engineering, 4(6), pp. 49 – 53.
Maraud, H. S., & Abdulbaqi,, I. M. (2016). Optimal Battery Charger Fed by

Photovoltaic System based on Decreased Charging Current Method. International Journal of
Computer Applications, 139(12), 12-21. doi:10.5120/ijca2016909419
Mohamed, A., & Motaleb, A. (2010). maximum power point tracking in Photovoltaic
System (M.Eng.). Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros (ETS) Departamento de Ingeniería
Eléctrica Universidad de Sevilla.
Morales, D. (2010). Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms for Photovoltaic

Applications (MSC in Technology, Undergraduate). Aalto University School of Science and
Technology.
Mukherji, S. (2009). Study of the processes involved in the manufacturing of Solar

Cells & Modules and an overview of Solar Energy in general (A one month internship at Webel
SL Energy Systems Pvt. Ltd). Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur.
Mutlag, A., Mohamed, A. and Shareef, H. (2016). AN IMPROVED PERTURBATION

AND OBSERVATION BASED MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING METHOD FOR
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS. Jurnal Teknologi, 78(6-2).
Pakkiraiah, B., & Sukumar, G. (2016). Research Survey on Various MPPT

Performance Issues to Improve the Solar PV System Efficiency. Journal Of Solar Energy,
2016, 1-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/8012432
Pakkiraiah, B., & Sukumar, G. D. (2016). Research Survey on Various MPPT

Performance Issues to Improve the Solar PV System Efficiency. Journal of Solar Energy, 2016,
1-20. doi:10.1155/2016/8012432
Pan, C. (1999). A Fast Maximum Power Point Tracker for Photovoltaic Power Systems.
Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society
Conference, 390-393.
P a g e | 128
Piegari, L., & Rizzo, R. (2010). Adaptive perturb and observe algorithm for
photovoltaic maximum power point tracking. IET Renewable Power Generation,4(4), 317.
doi:10.1049/iet-rpg.2009.0006
Rawat, R., & Chandel, S. S. (2013). Review of Maximum-Power-Point Tracking

Techniques for Solar-Photovoltaic Systems. Energy Technology, 1(8), 438-448.
doi:10.1002/ente.201300053
Ropp, M. E., & Gonzalez, S. (2009). Development of a MATLAB/Simulink Model of

a Single-Phase Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System. IEEE Transactions on Energy
Conversion, 24(1), 195-202. doi:10.1109/tec.2008.2003206
Sellam, M., Hazzab, A., & Bourahla, M. (2008, September 1). Photovoltaic array
maximum power point tracking using a fuzzy-sliding mode control. International Journal of
Applied Engineering Research.
Solar Performance and Efficiency. (2017). Energy.gov. Retrieved 20 August 2017,

from http://energy.gov/eere/energybasics/articles/solar-performance-and-efficiency
Solar PV Modules. (2017). Solardirect.com. Retrieved 3 November 2017, from

http://www.solardirect.com/pv/pvlist/pvlist.htm
SolarPro Magazine. (2017). Solarprofessional.com. Retrieved 4 November 2017, from

http://solarprofessional.com/articles/design-installation/field-applications-for-i-v-curve-
tracers/page/0/2#.Wf12Z1tSzIU
Sourov, M. (2012). A High Performance Maximum Power Point Tracker for

Photovoltaic Power System Using DC-DC Boost Converter. IOSR Journal of Engineering,
02(12), pp.12-20.
Sourov, M. (2012). A High Performance Maximum Power Point Tracker for

Photovoltaic Power System Using DC-DC Boost Converter. IOSR Journal Of Engineering,
02(12), 12-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/3021-021231220
Swati S., Lini M. and Shimi S. (2013). Design and Simulation of Intelligent Control
MPPT Technique for PV Module Using Matlab and Simscape. International Journal of
Advanced Research in Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, 2(9), pp. 4554-
4565.
T. Esram and P.L. Chapman (2007).Comparison of Photovoltaic Array Maximum

Power Point Tracking Techniques. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 22(2), pp.
439-449.
Tang, L. (2012). Intelligent controllers design for photovoltaic system.

P a g e | 129
Tat L. Nguyen and Kay-Soon Low (2010). A Global Maximum Power Point Tracking
Scheme Employing DIRECT Search Algorithm for Photovoltaic Systems. IEEE Transactions
on Industrial Electronics, 57(10), pp. 3456-3467.
Tender, D. B. (n.d.). Battery Charging Basics. Retrieved September 17, 2017, from
http://www.batterytender.com/battery-basics
Towards Sustainable Energy: The current Fossil Fuel problem and theprospects of
Geothermal and Nuclear power. (2017). Web.stanford.edu. Retrieved 29 October 2017, from
https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297c/trade_environment/energy/hfossil.html
Wang, Y., Shi, Y., Yu, X. and Liu, Y. (2016). Intelligent Photovoltaic Systems by
Combining the Improved Perturbation Method of Observation and Sun Location Tracking.
PLOS ONE, 11(6), p.e0156858.
What is Standalone Solar Electric System? | Electrical4u. (2017). Electrical4u.com.

Retrieved 4 September 2017, from https://www.electrical4u.com/what-is-standalone-solar-
system/
Yang, C., Ma, B. and Jin, N. (2013). The Simulation Research of Photovoltaic System
MPPT Based on MATLAB. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 336-338, pp.686-689.
Yu, R., Li, Y. and Cai, J. (2014). Maximum Power Point Tracking from a Wind Turbine
Emulator Using a DC-DC Converter Controlled. International Journal of Control and
Automation, 7(1), pp.117-128.
Zaghba, L., Terki, N. and Borni, A. (2015). Design and Simulation of MATLAB /
Simulink : Influence of External and Internal Parameters of Photovoltaic Cells. Journal of New
Technology and Materials, 5(1), pp.36-41.
Zan, B., Song, Y., Wang, L., Wang, Y., Du, X. and Zeng, Y. (2013). An Improved P&O
MPPT Method for Photovoltaic Power System. Advanced Materials Research, 805-806, pp.45-
51.
P a g e | 130
Appendix A
A.1: PV Module Parameters / Data Sheet
A.1.1: Data Sheet for 50W BP PV Solar Module
The table below provides information on the important parameters required for Matlab
Simulation from the manufacturer datasheet.
S/N ATTRIBUTE VALUE
1 Voc (Open Circuit Voltage) 21.8V
2 Isc (Short Circuit Current) 3.11A
3 Vmp (Voltage at MPP) 17.44V
4 Imp (Current at MPP) 2.86A
5 Pmp (Power at MPP) 50W
6 Ns 36
7 Np 1
8 Rs 0.45Ω
Table A.1.1: Parameters of 50 W BP PV module

P a g e | 131
S/No. Symbol Significance

1 A 1.3 is an ideality factor
2 Io Output Current
3 Vo Output Voltage
4 Trk Reference Temperature in Kelvin
5 Tak Module Operating Temperature in Kelvin
6 S PV Module Illumination (W/cm2)
7 Q Electron Charge 1.6*10^(-19)C.
8 K Boltzmann Constant 1.3805*10^(-23) J/K
9 Eg Band gap of Si 1.12eV
10 Iscr PV Module short circuit current @ 25oC & S = 1000 (W/cm2)
11 Ns Number of Cells Connected in Series
12 Np Number of Cells Connected in parallel
13 Ki Short Circuit Temperature Coefficient @ Iscr = 0.0013A/oC
14 Rs Series Resistance of PV Module
15 Ipv Light Generated Current of the PV Module
16 Irr Cell reverse saturation current at reference temperature (Trk)
17 Id PV Module Saturation Current or diode current
Table A.1.2: Technical Specification for a 50 W BP PV module
Np*Ipv = U(1)
Np*Id = U(2)
(q/(Ns*A*K*TaK) = U(3)
Vo = U(4)
(Io*Rs) = U(5)
P a g e | 132
Table A.1.3: Math function equation for Io
Appendix B
B.1 MATLAB Functions and Scripts
B.1.1: MATLAB Script for the graph of Solar PV Panel I – V and P – V Characteristic
%the program plots Solar PhotoVoltaic Panel I - V and P - V Characterisitcs
%Written By: ANYAHARA IHECHILURU CHIMEZIRIM
%Reg No: 2015070016844
%Written in: Matlab Editor
%Date: 28/07/2017
clear all;
clc;
Tak=302;
Trk1=26;
Trk=298;
S=[100 80 60 40 20];
%S=70;
ki=0.00023;
Iscr=3.75;
Irr=0.000021;
k=1.38065*10^(-23);
q=1.6022*10^(-19);
A=2.15;
Eg0=1.166;
alpha=0.473;
beta=636;
Eg=Eg0-(alpha*Tak^2)/(Tak+beta)*q;
Np=1;
Ns=36;
V0=0:1:300;
for i=1:5
Ipv=(Iscr+ki*(Tak-Trk))*((S(i))/100);
Id=Irr*((Tak/Trk)^3)*exp(q*Eg/(k*A)*((1/Trk)-(1/Tak)));
I0=Np*Ipv-Np*Id*(exp(q/(k*Tak*A)*V0/Ns)-1);
P0=V0.*I0;
figure(1)
title('I - V charateristics at 25 C');
plot(V0,I0);
axis([0 25 0 4]);
P a g e | 133
xlabel('Voltage in volt');
ylabel('Current in amp');
hold on;
figure(2)
title('P - V charateristics at 25 C');
plot(V0,P0);
axis([0 25 0 70]);
xlabel('Voltage in volt');
ylabel('Power in watt');
hold on;
figure(3)
title('P - I charateristics at 25 C');
plot(I0,P0);
axis([0 4 0 70]);
xlabel('Current in amp');
ylabel('Power in Watt');
hold on;
end
B.1.2: MATLAB Function Code in “C” for Perturb and Observe MPPT Technique
This program provides the necessary adjustments in the dc to dc buck converter duty
cycle to achieve optimum power transfer from PV Solar module / Array to battery Load. This
code was used in the complete MPPT model of Figure 3.19 and 3.20 and all other MPPT
design discussed in this thesis (Chapter 3 to Chapter 5). The Function blocks are shown in
Figure 3.17.
function D = PandO(Param, Enabled, V, I)

% **********************************************************
% MATLAB Implementation of Perturb and Observe algorithm
% for Maximum Power Point Tracking. This algorithm is designed
% to operate with a buck converter
% **********************************************************
% MPPT controller based on the Perturb & Observe algorithm.

P a g e | 134
% D output = Duty cycle of the boost converter (value between

0 and 1)
%
% Enabled input = 1 to enable the MPPT controller
% V input = PV array terminal voltage (V)
% I input = PV array current (A)
%
% Param input:
Dinit = Param(1); %Initial value for D output
Dmax = Param(2); %Maximum value for D
Dmin = Param(3); %Minimum value for D
deltaD = Param(4); %Increment value used to increase/decrease
the duty cycle D
% ( increasing D = decreasing Vref )
persistent Vold Pold Dold;
dataType = 'double';
if isempty(Vold)
Vold=0;
Pold=0;
Dold=Dinit;
end
P= V*I;
dV= V - Vold;
dP= P - Pold;
if dP ~= 0 && Enabled ~=0

if dP > 0
if dV > 0
D = Dold - deltaD;
else
D = Dold + deltaD;
end
else
if dV > 0
D = Dold - deltaD;
else
D = Dold + deltaD;
end
end
else D=Dold;
end
if D >= Dmax || D<= Dmin

D=Dold;
end
P a g e | 135
%Update internal Values
Dold=D;
Vold=V;
Pold=P;
end

Efficiency Optimization of A Standalone Solar Energy System Using Perturb and Observe Based MPPT Technique

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Efficiency Optimization of A Standalone Solar Energy System Using Perturb and Observe Based MPPT Technique

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Page |1

EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION OF A STANDALONE

ANYAHARA, IHECHILURU CHIMEZIRIM

THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

ENUGU STATE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

submitted in part or full to any assessing body

Student Name: ANYAHARA, IHECHILURU CHIMEZIRIM

during the period of this program.

Table of Contents vii

List of Tables xii

List of Figures xiii

List of Appendices xix

1.1 Background of the study 1

1.2 Problem Statement 4

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study 5

1.4 Significance of the study 6

1.5 Scope of the Study 6

1.6 Limitations of the Study 7

Chapter 2: Literature Review 8

2.1 Research Survey on Various MPPT Performance Issues to 8

Improve the solar PV Efficiency

2.2 Adaptive perturb and observe algorithm for photovoltaic 9

maximum power point tracking

2.3 Design Analysis of DC-DC Converters Connected to a 10

photovoltaic Generator and Controlled by MPPT for Optimal

Energy Transfer throughout a Clear Day

2.4 Design and Simulation of Intelligent Control MPPT 10

Technique for PV Module Using MATLAB/ SIMSCAPE

2.5 Design and Simulation of Perturb and Observe MPPT 11

Algorithm for 72 Cell Solar PV System

2.6 A detailed modeling of photovoltaic module using MATLAB 12

2.7 Photovoltaic module modeling using Simulink/Matlab 12

2.8 Brief theory on the components used in the implementation of 13

2.8.1 Standalone PV solar system 14

2.8.1.1 Types of Standalone Solar Systems 14

2.8.1.2 Standalone Solar (PV) System with DC Load, Electronic 15

control Circuit and Battery

2.8.1.3 Solar Cell 16

2.8.1.4 Photovoltaic Cell 16

2.8.1.7 Construction of a Solar Cell 18

2.8.1.8 Working Principle of Solar Cell 18

2.8.1.9 Materials Used in Solar Cell 19

2.8.1.10 Criteria for Material to be Used in Solar Cell 19

2.8.1.11 Series and Parallel Combination of PV Cells 19

2.8.1.12 Cells in Series 20

2.8.1.13 Cells in Parallel 20

2.8.1.14 Advantages of Solar Cell 20

2.8.1.15 Disadvantages of Solar Cell 20

2.8.1.16 Uses of Solar Generation Systems 21

2.8.2.1 Basics of a Switching Converter 22

2.8.2.2 The Buck (Step-down) Converter 23

2.8.2.3 Voltage and Current Relationships 24

2.8.2.4 Analysis for the Switch Closed 26

2.8.2.5 Analysis for the Switch Open 27

2.8.2.6 Impedance Matching 30

2.8.3 MPPT Techniques 31

2.8.3.1 Hill climbing technique 34

2.8.3.2 Perturb and Observe Technique 34

2.8.3.3 Incremental Conductance MPPT Technique 37

2.8.3.4 Fractional Open Circuit Voltage MPPT Technique 38

2.8.3.5 Fractional short Circuit Current MPPT Technique 38

2.8.4 Battery / Load 39