Untitled

INDEX
S.NO TOPICS PAGE.NO

Week 1
1 Lec 1: Energy Scenarios 3
2 Lec 2: Overview of solar energy conversion devices and applications 24
3 Lec 3: Physics of propagation of solar radiation from the sun to the earth 53
Week 2
4 Lec 4: Solar radiation and sunshine measuring instruments 78
5 Lec 5: Geometry, angles and measurement - I 97
6 Lec 6: Geometry, angles and measurement - II 114
Week 3
7 Lec 7: Estimation of radiation under different climatic conditions 134
8 Lec 8: Estimation of radiation in horizontal and inclined surface 149
Week 4
9 Lec 9: Fundamentals of PV cells 173
10 Lec 10: Semiconductor physics 194
11 Lec 11: Performance characterization of PV cells 215
12 Lec 12: Photovoltaic modules and arrays 236
Week 5
13 Lec 13: Components of standalone PV system 265
14 Lec 14: Design of standalone PV system 290
Week 6
15 Lec 15: Functioning and components of PV system 313
16 Lec 16: Design of a grid connected PV system 342
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17 Lec 17: Performance analysis of a grid connected PV system 370
Week 7
18 Lec 18: Basics of thermal collectors 391
19 Lec 19: Basics of heat transfer 419
Week 8
20 Lec 20: Solar collector losses and loss estimation 444
21 Lec 21: Analysis of flat plate collector 467
22 Lec 22: Influence of various parameters on the performance of LFPC 499
23 Lec 23: Testing and application of LFPC 522
Week 9
24 Lec 24: Basics and performance analysis of solar air heaters 547
25 Lec 25: Testing and application of solar air heaters 576
Week 10
26 Lec 26: Fundamentals of concentrating collectors 603
27 Lec 27: Concentrating collector technologies and working principle 634
28 Lec 28: Tutorial : Concentrating Collector 667
Week 11
29 Lec 29: Sensible heat, latent heat and thermochemical energy storage 675
30 Lec 30: Solar pond 708
31 Lec 31: Tutorial : Solar pond power plant design 732
Week 12
32 Lec 32: Emerging technologies 748
33 Lec 33: Solar energy applications in cooking, desalination, refrigeration

and electricity generation 774
34 Lec 34: Tutorial : COP of VARS and performance analysis of PVT collector 801
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Solar Energy Engineering and Technology
Professor. Pankaj Kalita
Department of Center for Energy
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati
Lecture – 1
Energy Scenarios
Dear students, welcome to the first lecture of the course Solar Energy Engineering and
Technology. So, today we will be discussing about energy scenario. So, before we start the exact
energy scenario, let us discuss some of the important terminologies associated with this course.
So, what is energy?
(Refer Slide Time: 1:01)
This energy defines as the ability to do work. The capability to do work depends on the amount
of energy one can control and utilize. The work output depends on the work input. The energy is
the most basic infrastructure input for economic growth and development of a country.
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Now, what is the unit of energy? The International system of units of energy is Joule.
Then what is power? Power is nothing but the rate at which energy is transferred or transformed.
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Now, what is the unit of power? It is watt.
Now, what is the commercial unit of energy? It is kilowatt-hour. Let us learn in deeper sense
what is kilowatt-hour? So, normally we know unit; what does it mean? So, 1 unit is 1 kilowatt-
hour. The electricity used is generally charged in unit of electricity; the kilowatt-hour is the
product of watt and time. That means one kilowatt is equal to 1000 watt, and if we multiply with
time, it becomes watt into time; that maybe in hour, minute or second.
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Normally, if we have to define unit generation, then we need to multiply watt with hour. For
example, 2 kilowatt capacity or rated heater, switched on for 3 hours. What is the consumption
of electricity? So, straightway you can calculate it. So, 2 kilowatt is the rated power multiplied
by 3 hours. It will be 6 kilowatt-hour; so this will be in hour.
So, if we know 1 unit cost, 1 unit cost means 1 kilowatt-hour is equal to say rupees 6. Then
amount of money required will be how much? So, it will be 6 multiplied by 6, which will be
equal to rupees 36. So, these rupees 36 we have to spend if we have to run the heater for 3 hours
in a day. So, this will be 36 rupees per day. If we take one more example, say 50 watt rated
ceiling fan operates for 5 hours per day, then what will be the electricity consumption?
So, straightway you can calculate 50 watt multiplied by 5 hours; it will be 250 watt-hour. So, if
we have to convert to kilowatt, then it will be 0.25 kilowatt-hour. And then if we multiply it with
6 then what will happen? So money spend will be 0.25 multiplied by 6, which will be in rupees.
So, that will be in per day, so that much of money will be spent if we operate the ceiling fan for 5
hours.
So, that way you can calculate the amount of energy requirement to run a particular electrical
utility. Now, why this energy is required? Of course to meet energy demand in different sectors.
It maybe domestic, it maybe transportation, may be agricultural or maybe industry. So, if we talk
about domestic.
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It may be for offices, maybe individual households and other commercial buildings. So, this
sector requires different energy at different forms so let us learn different forms of energy, which
is commonly used. So, what are the common forms of energy? Let us first consider thermal
energy.
This thermal energy is used to meet to various industrial and domestic requirements. Thermal
energy can convert to mechanical energy by using heat engine, and this thermal energy can be
categorized into 3 primary groups based on the temperature ranges. So, first category is high
temperature if the operating temperature varies from 500 to 10000 C or above. And second
category is medium temperature operation if the temperature varies from 150 to 5000 Celsius and
third category is for low temperature.
So, if the temperature varies from 80 to about 1500 Celsius. For high temperature applications,
this thermal energy can be converted efficiently into mechanical energy. For medium
temperature applications, thermal energy can be converted to mechanical energy with certain
difficulty. But, in the last case for low temperature applications, this thermal energy cannot be
converted efficiently into mechanical energy. So, it is mostly used for heating applications.
Now, let us discuss the second category of energy which is commonly used is chemical energy.
So, fuels and organic matter contains chemical energy and exothermic chemical reactions release
heat energy. And sometimes we can convert directly electricity from chemical energy, by using
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fuel cells. There are different kinds of fuel cells which can convert chemical energy to electrical
energy directly; may be PEM fuel cell, proton exchange membrane fuel cell, maybe solid oxide
fuel cell.
There are many kinds of fuel cells which operate at different temperatures. Also we can convert
chemical energy to thermal energy by using combustion route. And about mechanical energy,
this mechanical energy is required for movement of objects, changing the shape of the objects,
and used in transportation, agriculture, handling, processing and different other activities. Now,
let us discuss about the electrical energy, which is the high grade energy and more than 40
percent energy distribution in the world is met through electrical supply systems.
And this electrical energy is very conveniently and efficiently converted to other forms of
energy.
So, this slide shows the development, how industrial development takes place, and how and
when electricity was developed and after that what happens. So, as you are familiar with this
famous philosopher, so he is Aristotle. He is the first man to describe the concept of energy. So,
he has given one statement. So, statement goes something like, “It is clear that there is some
difference between ends”. Some ends are energeia means energy; while others are products
which are additional to the energeia.
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The energy has always been among the most essential resources that endorses the progress,
evolution and prosperity of human societies. Energy use by human beings, from the discovery of
fire and the agricultural revolution to the industrial revolution, and the domination of fossil fuels.
So, this man busy with generating fire, so that indicates discovery of fire by primitive man. So,
this picture is very famous picture, so he is James Watt, he invented the steam engine in the year
1785.
The invention of steam engine brought the industrial revolution. After that many more
mechanical devices were developed including internal combustion engines. So, this era from
1785 to 1888, the time when Tesla discovered induction motor. So, this era is known as
mechanical era. Lot of mechanical machines or which develops or which generates mechanical
energy was developed. In the year 1888, Nikola Tesla developed the induction motor.
The invention of induction motor leads to commercialization of electricity. So, from 1888 that
electrical era was evolved. So, many more technologies were developed so, without electricity
now we cannot think of our life. So, Tesla changed the entire scenario of the world. So, now this
increases the energy requirement by leaps and bounds. After that many more technologies were
developed.
Now, let us pay attention about the progress of energy used that is, world scenario. So, this figure
shows the energy used versus years. So, it was started in the year 1900 to 2009. So, this
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combination has been reported in this figure. As you can see energy requirement was very very
low, when you compare 1900 and if we see in 2009 you can see the rise in requirement of
energy. It is about 10 times more. So, this unit is Exa-joule. So, 1 Exa-joule is equal to 1018
joules.
So, now see here the share of energy comes from different sources. So, this colour indicates
biofuel and then it is it is a coal. Coal and biofuel starting from 1980 all were present but the
share increases with time. But, this year is also very very important. These years after World
War II, many more things happened and people were given lot of attention to harvest energy
from other sources.
Again if we see 1970s, this natural gas uses increases after 1970s. So, this is natural gas and oil
consumption takes the lion’s shares from 1960s because all the machinery developed by that
time and that is why it was oil who takes the lion’s shares. And use of natural gas increases from
World War II and hydro nuclear and geothermal electricity increases constantly from 1970s.
As you can see here these are increases constantly, and biofuel consumption increases
throughout 1900 to 2000 and further increase from 2000 to 2009. And this figure shows the
world’s per capita total primary energy supply from 1900 to 2009. As you can see here this is
almost flat curve, and then after World War II there is a rise in total primary energy supply.
And then it is continuously increases till 1980s. Then 1980s to 2000 again it is almost constant,
some fluctuations were there and then after 2000 there is rise in total primary energy supply.
That means what, once primary energy supply is increases means quality of life is increases. So,
that way you can see if we have to increases the quality of life, then we need to burn more fuels.
And if we burn more fuels, then it will emit lot of greenhouse gas emission. So, that we should
keep in mind.
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Now, let us pay attention about the world energy scenario. So, this is the world map and this old
energy consumption is about 13.5 billion tons of oil equivalent. In the year 2018, the energy
consumption of China is about 3164 million ton of oil equivalent in the year 2018. Followed by
US and India about 2258 and 929 million ton of oil equivalent respectively. China’s energy
consumption growth rate is 3.7 percent, and this growth was the strongest since 2010 and almost
doubled the 10 year average of 1.5 percent per year.
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Now, let us see this figure. This figure shows the comparison of energy mix from 1970s to
predicted 2040. So, as you can see this share is increasing. So, this green colour is oil. Then this
part is red is gas, then this grey is coal, then nuclear is this yellow, then blue part is hydro and
renewable. As you can see renewable was nowhere in 70s and 80s very nominal and as you can
see in 2010, you can see some kind of visibility. And it is predicted that this renewable energy
will take a rider seat in the coming years.
So as you can see here about 80 percent of the share is coming from the fossil fuels, and as you
can see about 158 percent increased in fossil consumption since 1970s to 2020. It is huge
increase in fossil fuel consumption. So, this slide shows about energy production versus years.
So, as you can see over 3 years, energy consumption is increasing. So, what we can conclude
from here in 2017, the world energy production is reported to be about 15000 million ton of oil
equivalent.
So, it is equal to 575 Quad Btu which is nothing but this is equal to 1 Quad Btu is equal to 1018
or 1 Exa-joule; exa-joule or 1018 joule. So, this is joule and equal to one exa-joule. The USA and
China were the main contributors together contributing 54 percent of growth in 2018. India share
about 588 million ton of oil equivalent of global energy production.
So, this slide shows about the world energy scenario at 3 different years. So, one is at 1978, one
is at 1998, and other one is at 2018. So, in a horizontal axis it shows energy per capita in Giga-
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joule per head, and in the vertical axis it shows the population in percentage, these are
percentage.
So in 2018, about 81 percent of global population consumed less than 100 Giga-joule per head
and rest 20 percent consumes the from 100 to 350 Giga-joule per head. You can see the non
uniformity of utilization of energy. The average energy demand per capita in China increased
from 17 Giga-joule per head in 1978 to 97 Giga-joule per head in 2018. This is a huge rise in per
capita energy consumption.
Now, let us learn about effect of fossil based fuels. So, this figure shows the carbon dioxide
present in the art atmosphere, you can see the red color. So, as per IEA report, the global carbon
dioxide emission is estimated to be 32.6 gigatonnes in the year 2017. And if you see this figure
and this figure, this figure is enlarged view of this figure which shows global monthly mean
carbon dioxide. So, if we see very precisely this figure, this vertical axis shows parts per million
of carbon dioxide and here is the year from 1980s to 2020.
So, you can see the variation of carbon dioxide in earth atmosphere. It was 340 in the year 1980s
and it is keep on increasing and now it is about 410 close to 410. So, as you understand the
permissible limit of carbon dioxide in the earth atmosphere is 350. So, you can imagine we are in
the very dangerous situation now. So, we are really in a very dangerous situation because this
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earth atmosphere contains more than 410 ppm carbon dioxide. So, this can be magnified view of
this, it will be starting from to 2015 and 2020. You can see how it varies and now we are here.
So, for comparison, so in December 2019, it was 412.0 ppm and in December 2018 it was 408.94
ppm, you can see the rise in single year. So, what are the adverse effects of this? There is a
climate change. So, you can see the melting glaciers and then drought in many part of the globe.
So, we need some kind of alternative solution to mitigate those environmental problems.
So, let us see the production of fossil fuel with years. So, this cumulative production this bbls is
something called billions barrels per year. So, cumulative production till 1950s was 19 into 10 to
the power 9 bbls and proven reserve is about 250 into 10 to the power 9 bbls. So, with the
existing technological intervention, we can predict the kind of reserve we have. But, this part we
do not have that kind of technological solution to estimate the amount of reserve we have.
So, that is why these future discoveries are required which estimated to be about 910 x 109 bbls.
So, in the 2000 the world’s oil production reaches its peak value of 12.5 billion barrels per year.
As of 2016, the world’s oil production was 29.4 billion barrels per year. So, this fossil fuel
reserves are rapidly depleting that we really need to understand.
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So, why do you need renewable energy? Because of this climate change, we need to do
something about this climate change issues, and we know very clearly about the energy crisis. In
1973, these OPEC countries, they stopped providing oil to the other countries. They increased
the oil price to a very high value so it was very difficult to afford the countries not producing the
oil.
Then people thought about some kind of alternative solution. What to do? From where we can
generate energy? So, this year is very very important for development of renewable energy
technologies. Again in 1973, there was a crisis and people were really forced to think abut new
development and generation of energy from alternative resources. And again 2018, there was a
financial crisis.
So, this all together crisis actually forced researchers to think about some kind of alternative
solutions and of course you need energy security and sustainability. So, what are the alternative
sources we have?
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We have many like solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, hydro energy, bio energy and
tidal energy. Now, let us see this figure how the share of all the energy sources varying with
time. So, from 1970s to 2040, from 2020 to 2040, there is a prediction and these are the actual
values. So, as you can see this oil production is decreasing with years and if we see coal, coal is
sometimes decreasing increasing, decreasing increasing, and then recent trend is to decrease.
And it is predicted that coal utilization will decrease with coming years.
And gas of course, it will increase and hydroelectric it is almost constant and it is predicted that
this will slowly grow. And nuclear is almost constant now and it will remain as per the predicted
models. But, as you can see this renewable energy, it will grow and it will it will be in the driver
seats looking into the environmental problems and sustainability. So, share of renewable energy
is growing at a rate of 7.1 percent per annum.
The predicted to increase up to 15 percent by 2040 from 4 percent today. So, here what is shown
here? Like estimated renewable share of total final energy consumption in the year 2017. So, as
you understand about 80 percent of energy is coming from the fossil fuels and rest is from other
sources. Maybe nuclear, maybe traditional biomass, maybe other sources like hydropower
biomass, solar, wind etc.
This figure shows the annual addition of renewable energy capacity by technology from 2012 to
2018. So, as you can see this yellow colour is for PV, then this blue colour is for wind and this
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green colour is for hydropower, and this orange colour is for bio-power and CSP. So, with year
you can see the contribution of all the different sources of renewable energy. And as you can see
here in 2018, this contribution of solar is extremely higher compared to other sources.
And this axis is secondary axis shows the cumulative of all. So, it is found that it is about 181
Gigawatts in 2018. That much of energy is produced from renewable sources. So, what we can
see here, this global energy power capacity total is about 2378 Gigawatt in 2018. This renewable
energy targets had been adopted in 169 countries at the national and state provincial level by the
end of 2018. More than 230 cities worldwide have adopted targets for 100 percent renewable
energy in at least one sectors by end of 2018. So, this kind of agreement has already been done
globally.
Now, let us pay attention about energy scenario in India. So, as you can see share of renewable
energy and other sources in this pie diagram. So, share of renewable energy is about 23.4
percent, nuclear is 1.9, hydro is 12.4 percent. Diesel is about point one percent. Lignite coal
contribution is about 1.7, gas is 6.9 and major contribution is coal which is about 54.2 percent.
So, this 54.2 percent is equivalent to about 200 Gigawatt of energy, and gas contribution is about
25 Gigawatt. Then lignite coal is about 6 Gigawatt, then diesel is about 0.5 Gigawatt, nuclear is
almost 6.7 Gigawatt; then large hydro which is not renewable. Its contribution is about 12.4 and
it is equivalent to about 45.3 Gigawatt of energy received from this large hydro-power plant.
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And as far as renewable energy is concerned, so we get energy from small hydro, wind power,
solar power and biomass power. So, from small hydro, it is about 4.6 Gigawatt, from wind about
37 Gigawatt, solar about (4) 34 Gigawatt and biomass is about 10 Gigawatt. Now, let us analyze
sector wise. So, we have 3 sectors: Central sector, State sector and Private sector.
So, you can see the installation capacity. So, Central sector installed about 25.3 percent and State
sector installed about 28.5 percent and Private sector is about 46.6. So, if we equalize in terms of
Gigawatt; so Central sector contribution is about 93 Gigawatt, State sector is about 104
Gigawatt, and Private sector is about 171 Gigawatt.
And this thermal contribution increased by about 3.57 in this year and about 137 percent
increased in renewable installation capacity from 2013-14 to 2018-19. It is a huge increase in
installation of renewable energy. An overall growth rate recorded by 6.46 percent, that means
people are using more energy. That way also you can think about now quality of people in a
particular country.
So, why then solar energy we have learned different alternative, then why so special about solar
energy? So, we must know about that first thing it is a clean energy, and see solar power creates
0 emission during each operation and its availability. So, solar energy is available throughout the
globe and it is affordable now, and cost advantage. Since, it is affordable then people can take
solar plant in their home to generate energy for their utility as well as to sell the electricity, what
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they have generated in their household. And of course, government support is required for
installation of plants and get subsidies.
So, what are the key benefits of utilizing the solar energy? Save money on energy costs, a return
on investment, reduces overall household carbon emission, increase value of property. So, it
increases the value of property. Little or no maintenance is required for this kind of installation,
the system is noiseless. These are the key benefits of utilizing solar energy.
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And other advantages are as you can see this cost. So, if you compare in the year 1977, cost was
about 76 dollar per watt. Now, you see it is about 0.3 dollar per watt that means, in recent times
in India if government supports, we get a value about 2.5 rupees per unit cost. Or if subsidies are
not there, then maybe it will go up to 6.5 rupees per unit cost. Also we need to understand this
Swanson’s law. So, this was developed by Richard Swanson, one of the owner of the solar
company. So, that is how it is known as Swanson's law.
What it tells, is the observation that the price of solar photovoltaic modules tends to drop by 20
percent for every doubling of cumulative shipped volume. At present rate, cost declined by 75
percent about every 10 years. So, this horizontal axis tells about the cumulative module
shipments, which will be in megawatt peak. And in vertical axis shows average module price.
You can see how it is decreasing with cumulative module shipment. This law can also be applied
to understand the futuristic reduction of cost.
Now, let us pay attention about installed solar energy capacity in 2018. So, as you can see these
dark colours are for China, it is China. So, they have installed huge amount of solar gadgets. So,
they can generate more than 80 Gigawatt of energy followed by US and some of the European
countries. And if we talk about India, it is more than 40 Gigawatt in this range; and you can say,
you can use this scale and we can understand the installations of solar energy across the globe.
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Now, let us concentrate about the solar energy scenario in India. So, this is a India map, and you
can see the scale here based on the colour code. So, darker the colour is the higher the solar
installation. So, we can understand the kind of energy available here. Maybe the darkest section
is 7.5 kilowatt-hour per meter square per day. These regions are known darkest and then we get
higher solar concentration here.
The solar installed capacity in India as on 28 February 2018 is about 19.6 Gigawatt and
estimated solar potential in India is about 789 Gigawatt peak. So, this chart shows about solar
capacity of different states of India. 10 states are shown here. They are the major solar capacities.
Karnataka followed by Telangana, then Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh then Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. You can see the kind of solar
capacity they have. So, once you know this colour code of a particular region we know the
amount of solar radiation falling on that particular region.
So, that way also we can think and also we must know the solar hours. So, that way you can
understand, how many hours solar normally present in a particular locations and we can estimate
the amount of radiation available for conversion.
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And we can see this solar energy generation in 2018, so here total solar energy generation which
is measured in terawatt-hour is shown here. So, China is producing about 177.5 terawatt-hour
followed by United States. It is about 100 terawatt-hour followed by Japan. Then 72 terawatt-
hour, then Germany, then India is about 31 terawatt-hour. So, this figure shows the total solar
energy generation by countries.
So, we can summarize what we have discussed today. We have primarily discussed about the
definition of energy, the need of energy and what are different forms of energy, and where these
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different forms can be applied. And also we have discussed about worlds energy scenario, then
Indian energy scenario. Then global trend of generation of renewable power and finally we have
discussed about trends of generation of solar power.
So, I hope you have enjoyed this lecture. Thank you for watching this video.
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Assistant Professor Doctor Pankaj Kalita
Department of Centre for Energy
Lecture No. 2
Module -1: Introduction to Solar Energy
Hi students, welcome to the module 1 of the mock course solar energy engineering and
Technology.
So, today we are going to discuss about overview of solar energy, conversion devices and
applications. So before that, I would like to summarize what we have discussed in the last class.
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So, in the last class, we have learned about the fundamentals of energy, different units,
representing energy and its conversion, also learned global and Indian consumption energy
consumption scenario and projected demand of energy, we have also understand the need of
alternative sources of energy to mitigate various environmental issues. And also we have learned
why solar energy is popular in terms of cost, potential and environmental issues which are very
very very important, why solar energy is popular in terms of cost, potential and environmental
issues are also emphasized, in the last class.
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Today, we are giving the overview of various solar energy conversion devices and its
applications. So, in-depth analysis and discussions will be done, when we discuss the individual
modules. So, we will discuss different modes of exploiting solar energy, what are different
modes of exploiting energy?
First thing what is known as solar PV energy where solar radiation falls on the solar cell and it is
converted to electricity. And second case is, conversion of moderate heat, so solar radiation is
falling on solar flat plate collectors and that is converted to heat energy and that is also a thermal
energy. And the third case is, the solar radiation has to be concentrated and that focused energy
or concentrated energy that becomes intense heat that has to be converted to electricity by using
turbine generator assemblies.
So, that is applicable for large power stations. So, normally what happens in this case, we use
conventional Rankine cycle for generation of electricity. From this slides it can be seen that the
only thermal collectors can be used for solar heating applications, so we cannot use this
photovoltaic energy, which is high grade energy for heating applications. So, this is very very
important why because thermal energy is a low grid energy and if we use electrical energy for
heating applications, so we are actually (no) not doing justice, that conversion is very very
expensive.
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Now, this slide shows about solar thermal collector for heating as you can see in order to
generate the heat energy we need to have a thermal collector where solar radiations falls and then
this solar radiation is converted to some kind of heat energy and that heat energy can be stored
whenever required and that energy can be used as per the requirement. And this other part of the
slides shows the solar PV for generation of electricity.
So, solar radiation is falling on this PV collector and we have AC DC converter where the kind
of energy what we will get from this PV module is DC that has to be converted to alternating
current by using an inverter and then finally we can decide whether we should use it or maybe
we can give it to grid.
So, since we have a net metering system, so in the net metering system what we can do the kind
of energy we have generated and kind of energy or amount of energy we have received from the
local discom that can be taken care by that smart net meter and finally we can understand at the
end of the month the amount of energy or amount of bill to be paid or amount of energy we gain
from this installation of solar PV collector.
Now, come to a different method of solar energy utilization, what are the different methods of
solar energy utilization?
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Primarily we have 2 methods direct methods and indirect methods and under direct methods we
have solar thermal and solar photovoltaic systems and under indirect methods we will have water
power, so here hydroelectric power plants are used for generation of electricity and maybe wind,
so wind turbines are used to generate electricity. And then we have biomass, there are again
different routes of conversion of biomass to usual forms may be thermochemical conversion
maybe biochemical conversions, so finally we can generate electricity out of it.
And we have wave energy that wave of ocean can be used for energy conversion and this OTEC
(Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion systems) can also be used for generation of electricity. Here,
temperature difference of surface temperature and then depth at very depth like maybe 1 kilo
meter that the if temperature difference is more than 200 C then OTECH can be installed and
power can be generated.
Of course, we can have marine currents to generate electricity. So, in this course, we will
primarily focus on thermal and photovoltaic conversion systems in details. Since this is a outline
of this course, so we will introduce all the components very briefly in this presentation.
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So, here what you can see, this is a device for thermal collections, what are the different devices
are available for thermal collections? Firstly we will name liquid flat-plate collectors, if your
required temperature is in between 40 or 1000 degree C always will go for liquid flat-plate
collector. So, this liquid flat-plate collectors are something like this. We will solve one exercise
to strengthen the understanding how it works and what are the different components and why
this is so important.
And in the next case is evacuated tube collectors. So, when we require somewhat higher
temperature than what is the provided by liquid-flat plate collector, then we will go for evacuated
tube collectors, so this is something like that, so what is the difference between these two? What
we are doing? We are actually reducing some kind of losses that is called convective losses. So,
if you can reduce the convective losses, then we can actually increase the efficiency of the
collector that is what is the innovation.
Then your third category is Solar Air heater. So, sometimes we might require some kind of heat
energy for drying purpose or maybe some other applications then we have to go for solar air
heaters. So, this configurations of solar air heater and liquid flat plate collectors are almost
similar but difference is in the liquid flat-plate collectors liquids are used and in solar flat-plate
solar air heaters airs are used.
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So, here heat transfer fluid is air in case of solar air heater and in case of liquid flat-plate
collector heat transfer fluid is liquid, this maybe water or maybe some other kind of fluid as per
the requirement as per the applications, different liquids are used as a heat transfer fluid. And if
we can generate heat up to 4000 C, then we can use it for power plant applications and this is
done through cylindrical parabolic concentrating collectors.
So, this is a one axis tracking also sometimes it is called line tracking system. So, here what
happens single axis tracking is possible, tracking means movement of the concentrator. So, we
will discuss these issues in the later slides, lastly we have Paraboloid concentrating collectors
where we can generate fluid temperature or heat transfer of fluid temperature is more than 4000
C it maybe about 8000 C.
So, this concentrating collectors are used for power generations. So, this is fall under thermal
category. So, you can see different photographs here, so this part is Chimney, one Chimney is
here, so this is known as solar Chimney power plant. So, here what happens this is a Chimney
height, so normally this is close to 200 meter, it is a very tall structure and there are very limited
number of power plants available in the globe, in Spain they have only one power plant of this
category, but combustion efficiency is very very low about 7 percent or so.
And these are all concentrating collectors and what you can see here this is a central power
receiver system and this is all about evacuated tube collectors and we will discuss more in the
next couple of slides.
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So, this slide shows about liquid flat-plate collectors. So, here what happens, when we talk about
the primary component of a liquid flat-plate collectors, this component is the primary component
where we will have a glass cover here and then we have a absorber plate, so this glass has to be
transparent enough so the solar radiations when it falls it has to reach to the surface of the
absorber plate.
Normally what happens this absorber plates are painted with black, so that maximum solar
radiations can be absorb. So, nowadays selective coatings are also applied to increase the
absorptivity of the incoming radiations and reduce the emissivity of the outgoing radiations. So,
these are some of the developments how people are trying to enhance the combustion efficiency
of a flat-plate collectors.
So, we can also draw a schematic in order to understand this concept, so this is something like a
very simply what we can do this is something like this and then we will have this is the collector
part and maybe we have absorber here and these are the tubes through which heat transfer fluid
transfer takes place and then we will have glass envelope, this is a glass envelope and this glass
maybe toughened glass or sometimes two more glasses are applied and maybe here is our
insulation.
Thermal insulation has to be provided to into reduce the heat losses. So, solar radiation falls
through this glass cover and this is the absorber plate and this is normally made in black colour,
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so that maximum solar radiations can be absorbed and this heat has to be transferred from this
absorber plate this absorber plate to this fluid, this is a tube and this is braised in this absorber
plate. Sometimes this kind of absorber plates are also available, in a single system they made
something like this and fluid flows through these tubes and these are heat transfer fluid and
finally this fluids are stored in a insulated vessel and this can be used as per required time.
So, here what happens solar radiation is falling through this glass cover and received by the
absorber plate and then heat has to be transferred to this working fluid. Finally this fluid is for
different applications like maybe taking bath or maybe doing different activities. And these are
the insulations, so that heat transfer can be reduced. So, this is the very basic liquid flat-plate
collectors, if we say about the developments, so people have developed some kind of selective
coating which is applied over the absorber plate in order to maximize the solar radiation
received.
So, the purpose of the selective coating is to increase the absorptivity of the incoming solar
radiations and reduce the emissivity of the outgoing radiations, because as you know all the
radiation falling on the absorber plate cannot be absorbed in the absorber plate, this is a very
fundamental flat plate collectors, so we will study the advancement and then how this evacuated
tube collectors are evolved and what is the need of involvement that we will discuss maybe in
the next slide.
So, before we summarize this slides, so why this is so important? Because this design is very
very simple and there is no moving parts and requires little maintenance once you install there is
no need to do much maintenance on it, but sometimes for cleaning of glass is important and here
in this figure it shows a cut view as you can see here these are tubes and absorber plate is here
and then these are the insulations at the bottom to reduce the heat losses.
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So, this is a evacuated tube collector and here what happens development is something like to of
course the primary objective is to maximize the solar radiation received by this collector, so how
they are doing these? As you can see here, so there are two glass envelopes this is envelopes
glass, so solar radiation is received on this glass cover and energy is transferred to this absorber,
so this portion is maintained vacuum, so that convective losses can be minimized. So, this kind
of configurations are attached in a single evacuated tube collectors and finally we have a header
and hot water can be stored and that can be applied whenever required.
33
Now, we come to the solar air heaters, because it has got plenty of applications for drying of
agricultural product and drying of some essential products all can be done by using solar air
heaters. So, this configuration is similar to liquid flat plate collectors and only difference here is
heat transfer fluid, here heat transfer fluid is air and one of the very important fact is so here we
need to maintain a very large channel through which air flows, because this air pressure has to be
made larger because the pressure drop has to be maintained properly, otherwise this pressure
drop is not maintained then it will be difficult to operate the system.
Again these are related to power consumption. So, as you can see at the top we will have a glass
cover through which solar radiation penetrates and then we will have absorber plate and then we
are inlet will be there and outlet will be there and then we need to have a some kind of trace for
drying if we want or if we can if we can utilize this air for other applications then we can do it.
So, this slide shows about the solar air heaters, so air heaters are very very important for drying
of agricultural products or similar kind of products.
And as you can see it has got different layers, the first layer is glass cover through which solar
radiation penetrates and we will have absorber plate where solar radiation is absorbed and then
we can see this air inlet holes and then outlet holes and then outlet is attached with the system
where hot air is required. So, these air passages have to be made larger in order to keep the
pressure drop across the collector within manageable limit which is very very important because
this is related to power consumption of the system.
34
Now, come to the cylindrical parabolic concentrating collectors. So, the configuration as you can
see it is something like that and this portion is known as concentrator and this is known as
absorber. So, there are primarily two components, one is concentrated other one is absorber. So,
solar radiation is falling on this concentrator and it is focusing on to this absorber. So, in order to
expose or get maximum solar radiation throughout the day this has to be rotated, the concentrator
has to be rotated. So, this is rotated with time, so that all the energy received by this concentrator
can be focused to this absorber component.
So, as far as this absorber is concerned, so here absorbers are made of like steels and then over it
there is annulus tubes and the chain the chain annulus tube and there are two tubes because
convicted losses need to be minimized and because of that we will get a high temperature
operation, so what I mean to say, so there is one absorber, this absorber is made of steel and over
it there is a annulus tube and then vacuum is maintained to use the convective losses, the kind of
heat transfer fluid what is flows toward this absorber is something called synthetic oil to generate
superheated high pressure steam.
So, once this heat transfer fluid flows through these and that is know this heat transfer fluid has
to be now it has to be exchanged with water and then finally what you can generate is a high
pressure steam and that can be expanded in a turbine and we can generate electricity and that will
work in a cyclic manner. So, what we can summarize in these slides so as far as cylindrical
35
parabolic concentrating collectors are concerned, we can go up to 4000 Celsius temperature and
the primarily it has got two components, one is concentrator, this is the concentrator part and we
have absorber, this is the absorber part.
And synthetic oil is used as heat transfer fluid and this fluid heat will exchange with water and
steam will be generated and that will be expanded in the turbine and finally electricity can be
generated. So, details discussions will be done when we take the module which includes
concentrators.
So, now come to this paraboloid concentrating collectors, when our temperature requirement is
more than 4000 C, then we will go for this kind of arrangement. So, here what happens this is the
concentrator part and then solar radiation falls on this concentrator and is focused on this this
absorber system. So, normally here Starling engines are used when we talk about no parabolic
this concept and this is also known as this Starling system because Starling engines are used. So,
Starling engine means that is external combustion engine, so heat of the system is utilized to run
this Starling cycle.
So, also we can go for another concept called central receiver concept also known as Power
Tower for generation of high temperature operation. And this Central Power receiver systems
will be discussed at the end of this presentation, so when we discuss a solar power plant and for
this kind of systems when you talk about parabolic this concept, this is not so much of
36
installations is there across the world because of cost and reliability. So, cost of the system is
very very high, so if cost can be bring down, then of course this usability and then each
installations will be very very high. Again, we will discuss these issues when we discuss the
respective modules on concentrating collectors.
Now, let us take one very important example on solar water heating system. So, I hope that you
will really enjoy this problem and also you will understand why this kind of subject is very very
important indeed real life. Let us, take a problem of something like this, a solar water heater of
capacity 100 litre is there and then solar radiation falling on a particular locality is 5.5 kilowatt
hour/meter2 and collector efficiency is about 52% and absorber area is 2 meter2, normally this
absorbers are 2 meter by 1 meter so it becomes 2 meter2 area and water inlet temperature is about
230 C, because water it is the ambient temperature, so water cold water will be introduced and
hot water will be collected once it passed through this solar water heating system.
And also as you know specific heat of water is 4.18 kilo joule/Kg/Kelvin and geyser efficiency is
96% and unit cost of electricity that is, 1 kilowatt hour is rupees 6. So, as you can understand the
different components of this solar water heating system, so there are tubes through which heat
transfer fluid follows and then we have absorber plate and this is the glass cover and there are
many categories of solar water heating system and one category is passive water heating system
and the other category is active solar water heating system.
37
So, in passive water heating systems due to this temperature difference there will be density
difference and because of that mass movement of the fluid will be there and this is the reason
why this cold fluid introduced and then when heat is supplied from the sun, then this heated fluid
will go up and then occupy at the top portion of this reservoir or storage and then finally this can
be collected based on the applications.
Also, this figure shows about the efficiency of various types of collectors as a function of
operating temperature. So, at this point what we can discuss you can see that, what is the
variation of efficiency with respect to temperature of FPC and then evacuated tube collectors
then line focussing system where only single tracking is possible and in paraboloid dish so both
the tracking's means two axis tracking’s are required to capture normal radiations.
So, we will learn different kind of radiation what is normally radiation, what is diffuse radiation
and what is global radiation maybe in the next module. So, for the time being you consider that
the radiation. So, now come back to this problem, so problem statement is here, that is capacity
of the solar water heating system is 100 litre and solar radiation is 5.5 kilowatt/meter2 and area of
the collector is given to you and collector efficiency is 52 percent.
So, now how we are going to solve this problem? So, we will use energy balance, so how we will
do this? Like equating the energy absorbed in the collector during the day to the enthalpy change
of the water, so this is something like solar energy incident maybe what I will write this It, It is
the solar energy incident on the collector per unit area per day, so this has to be multiplied with
this area of the collector this maybe we can represent by Ac and also this efficiency is given to
you collector efficiency is given 52 percent, let us write it as C is the collector efficiency which
has to be equal to mass of the water mw, mass of the water multiplied by CpW specific heat of
water and then we have temperature rise is ∆T.
So, how are you going to solve this problem? Because you see this It how much is given? It is
5.5 kilowatt hour, so what I will do I will convert it to 3600 so that in unit what we will write
here that is kilo is there because we are not doing unit kilo and then joule per second is watt and
then watt we have converted is second. So, this is something like that and then we have Ac is
absorber area is 2 then we have collector efficiency is 0.52 and this is equal to mw. Now, we
need to calculate what is mw, mw then Cp W and ∆T. So, now how to calculate this mw?
38
Because what information is given to you in the problem that is volume, volume of water is
given to you as 100 litre, 100 litres and then we need to convert to 100 multiplied by 10-3 this
becomes meter3. And also we know mass is equal to ρXv, ρ is density of water, so what I can
write, this maybe we can write w and this maybe we can write w and here we can write w.
So, here mass density of water is 1000 or 103 and volume of water if we multiply this it will
become 0.1, 1 to 3, this is 0.1 it becomes kg, because this density unit of density is kg/meter3 and
then you have meter cube, so meter cube meter cube will be gone finally will have kg. So, finally
what you will have it is a 100 kg.
So, this 100 litres is nothing but 100 kg, so this is mw. So, this is known to you now, so this mw
will be 100 and cp is a specific heat of water is 4.18 kilo joule, this is kilo joule per kg per degree
Kelvin, so this is ∆T. So, here you need will be kg multiplied by we will have kilo joule per kg
per degree kelvin and then we have kelvin, so delta T is in kelvin. So, this kelvin kelvin got
cancelled, kg kg got cancelled, so it will be in kilo joule.
So, if you see here second second cancel, it becomes kilojoule, so dimensionally it is correct. So,
from there what we can study or what we can calculate is delta T, so if we do this simple
calculations, then ∆T is found to be about 49.263, this is the temperature ∆T, since ∆T is nothing
but Th that is Th Th and this may be a Tc or maybe this is equivalent to Ta because this is
equivalent to ambient temperature, so Th minus Ta is 49.263 and then if we substitute this value
Ta is 23, then what will have Th will be so we do not need this Th will be 49 plus 23 so it will be
72.26 degrees C.
So, this hot water temperature is 72.26, so when we are not collecting the fluid, so that is the
stagnation temperature, we will introduce the concept of stagnation temperature and then the
condition at which we will get the estimation temperature, so when we discuss this thermal
collectors we will discuss in details about those parameters. So, here what we got Th is 72.26
degrees C.
Now, what we are interested about the savings, because already geyser efficiency is given to you
as 96 percent, so temperature rise here we can write is 49.263 at any unit we can give degree C
and now we will calculate what is the monthly electricity bill savings, let me rub this part now
39
this is not required, now how to calculate this? Now, we need to calculate this monthly electricity
bill savings.
So, in order to calculate this we need to use this geyser efficiency and the electricity saved per
day say maybe what I can write, I can write E is the electricity saved electricity saved per day
then how we are going to calculate it? It is already we know 5.5 is the amount of radiation falling
on that particular locality and we also know this area of the collector is 2 and also we know the
efficiency of the collector is 0.52 and then we know the efficiency of the geyser is 0.96, so this is
the energy saved because this much is the energy and efficiently of the collector is 0.52 and if we
multiply and since efficiency there is no inefficiencies associated with the geyser then we need to
consider otherwise, this should be 1 if geyser efficiency is 100 percent.
And if we do this simple calculations though this is found to be 5.72 kilo watthour. Also, it has
been given that 1 kilo watt hour is this is something like 1 kilowatt hour is 1 unit. So, what
happens if we have to convert in terms of money, then what you need to do, money saved per
day money saved per day it will be 5.72 into multiplied by we have 6, then it will be about
rupees 34.32, so this is saving for a day. So, if we talk about savings for a month, so money
saved, money saved in a month will be rupees 34.32 multiplied by we will have 30 days.
So, this will be about rupees 1092.6. So, here saving of monthly electricity bill is rupees 1092.6.
So, which is a significant saving, if we talk about monthly saving of electricity bill. So, from this
analysis what we can conclude, so straight way we can replace our conventional or electrical
geyser by using the solar water heater and if we do so, then how much benefit we will get that is
clear to you now. So, if its capacity is a 100 from that we can save really significant amount of
money. So, let us move to the next slides
40
So, here I would like to introduce the different applications like it is thermal applications
primarily in solar thermal applications, so water heating that maybe naturally circulated system
or maybe forced circulatory system, when you use pumps to circulate the fluid that becomes
forced circulation and when we use only thermo siphon effect that is called natural circulation.
And we can use space heating that is active and passive methods, then space cooling and
refrigeration, so we can do refrigeration here, we can use vapour absorption refrigeration cycle
because we can generate heat from solar thermal and that can be used for vapour absorption
refrigeration cycle.
And of course we can generate power may be low, medium and high temperature, so there are
different categories of power generation, of course you will have lower thermodynamic
efficiency if this temperature difference is low and if this temperature difference is high, of
course thermodynamic efficiency will be higher. And also we can use for distillations, so we can
we need to generate distillate for different applications maybe when small solar PV units are
operating with storage system, so in those batteries distilled water is also important, so in those
cases, so if we suggest a distillation unit that will be very much helpful.
And drying, of course you have seen some of the things, so there are different categories of
drying maybe cabinet, direct, indirect, force circulation dryer or tunnel dryers, so there are many
development of dryers, so we will discuss some of the important development of dryer and
41
which are having higher applications in different agricultural field that will be discussed when
we take that particular module and this cooking, so the primary two different types of solar
cookers are used like box type and scheffler cookers.
So, box type is individual and it takes somewhat longer time to cook, but in scheffler cooker is
very very efficient and we can see different applications in community cooking. As you can see
here this is a figure for scheffler solar cooker, so as we can see this is a figure like 4,000 kg of
steam part they can be generated at 180 degrees C and at 10 bar and its capacity is about 15000
persons food can be prepared per day.
So, it is a very reliable technology and already people have demonstrated its workability. And
this is box type solar cooker and this is also used but it is cooking time requirement is somewhat
higher and this figure what you can see this is for space cooling and refrigeration, so once we can
generate low temperature fluid that can be circulated to maintain the particular area or particular
site.
And also what you can see here this this figure is for drying so air injection will be there and the
glass cover will be here air will be heated up and that heated air will circulate through (())(38:32)
and finally humid air will pass through this exit pipe and we can we can dry the samples.
Sometimes optional heating elements are also install because of this bad weather continuously
will not receive the solar radiation. And this is a figure for solar distillation. So, solar radiation
falls through this glass cover and then water evaporation takes place and then finally it is
condensed and this condensed it is collected.
And this kind of technology is also useful for removing ground water contaminants, like heavy
metals. So, like we have fluoride contaminated water, if we place here, so fluoride can be
removed 99 percent by using this very simple technology, but only disadvantage is capacity is
very very low, of course we need to invest more in order to increase the capacity.
42
So, as far as PV generator is concerned it has got different components like we have to produce
the electricity then you have to store it and then transform it and then finally we have to provide
the power. So, this is how a PV generator works and there are two primary families of the PV
generator, one is stand-alone system and the other one is Grid-connected system.
In stand-alone systems are applied in water pumping or other maybe solar street light lighting
system and grid-connect systems may be in household level or maybe you know in institutional
level in different categories this can be applied or also there are there are some technologies to
connect different sources like diesel and solar, so how to connect these? So, these are different
possibilities of utilizing the solar PV for power generation.
43
So, in Stand-alone systems, let me draw some plots, so maybe for example if we talk about direct
feed solar pumps, so what we have, we need to have some kind of solar modules, so this are the
solar modules. So, these modules are maintained at a certain angles based on the locations and
solar radiation is falling on this module and current is generated and then we need to convert
these DC current to AC current, so by using this inverter, inverter then we will have to supply
these energy to this motor pumping system, so we will have motor and generator together.
So, I will say motor then generator these are submersible pump, so water is here, so water is here
and motor generator is there. And then finally we need to store this water somewhere in a vessel
from where we can collect the water, we can distribute, we can distribute, so this is the water
level we can store water here. We can do many more calculations, so we will do it when we
discuss the solar thermal systems specifically. So, this is PV modules, so we can design the
number of modules to meet the requirement of a single plant this kind of problem we will solve
later on. And how many modules are required to meet the demand for a particular site.
So, here what I have drawn, this is a PV module assembly and then DC energy is generated here
at this point and then there has to be converted to AC, so this is your alternating current and this
is applied to run this motor generator these are submerged under water and this water will lift to
a reservoir and that will be stored and that can be distributed based on the applications. This is
44
one application of stand-alone system and also we can have stand-alone PV system with a
storage by battery and that can also be drawn here.
So, maybe we can draw this configuration, there are many modules maybe and we will have
sometimes we need charge controller when batteries are there because battery life is very very
important, so this is charge controller charge controller and we will have DC AC converter again
we have inverter, I will let DC then you have AC this is inverter, this is inverter and finally this
is application and this is a charge controller, again what we need we need a battery, this is a
battery. So, this charge controller plays a key role to maintain the health of the battery.
So, amount of charge to be introduced in the battery is very very important, if sometimes more
charge is supplied to the battery then battery life decreases significantly. So, this is one
configuration, so where we can have a stand-alone systems and battery can also be used. So, this
is a PV part and this is the DC part and we have charge controller and there is a relationship
between charge controller and battery and we will have inverter and finally we will have
application. So, we will discuss these issues when we discuss that thermal system and PV system
separately.
Now, there are certain issues where we can connect two different sources like PV and diesel.
Suppose if you have an institution and in that institution you have two different sources of
energy maybe PV and generator, because diesel generator is very very important, if there is a
45
frequent power cut or if there is a cloudy days then of course you need some kind of backup, of
course, we need to rely on other sources, but these are like very very dependable sources like at
any time we can run the diesel and then we can generate electricity, but cost of generation is
quite high.
And we can connect both the techniques maybe I can draw one figure again here, so maybe this
different modules are connected, this may be 1, 2, 3 modules are connected and finally we are
taking the energy and then of course we will have we will have a charge controller, we will have
this charge controller and then we will have DC AC converter, this is inverter and then we have
application.
And then we will have battery here, we will have battery and if we talk about diesel generator
maybe generator I will write, I will have generator and then we can directly have application
directly have application and of course excess energy we can use it and we can store in the
battery. So, this may be electronic battery charger, this may be electronic battery charger, so
what I have shown here, so we can use PV technology and then diesel generator and then diesel
generator.
So, here what happens, so we already we have understand that how this can this route is applied
and how this charge controllers are used to protect the battery life, so here what happens if
sometimes we do not need the amount of rated amount of power to deliver then some amount of
energy can be used to charges batteries and then finally this this can be connected and then
finally we will have applications. So, there are many applications where we can couple different
sources of energy.
46
So, here it is shown about grid-connected PV system, in the grid-connected PV systems we will
have modules which will be placed on the rooftop of a building and then we have to have a
inverter to convert direct current to alternating current and nowadays one more very important
component is called maximum power point tracking, so this tracker is introduced in the inverter
itself.
So, now this purpose of the inverter, primary purpose of the inverter is to convert direct current
to alternating current and when MPPT is introduced in those inverters, then one more purpose of
the inverter is to maximize the current or maximize the power, maximize the power so that at all
the solar insulation level maximum energy can be extracted. So, we will have inverter AC to DC
and then we have MPPT means maximum power point tracking, this maximum power point
tracking.
So, this is very very important component, we will study in details when we study solar PV
component. So, it has got two purpose one is to convert direct current to alternating current and
second is to operate the system at maximum power point. And then we will have distributor and
feed to the dwelling and then we can provide to the grid. So, if we have some kind of net
metering system, so we can install this kind of configurations in every household and we can sell
when we are not using the power and when our demand is high, then we can take energy from
grid.
47
Now, we will discuss something about storage of energy, which is very very important, see
sometimes what happens we have excess generation of electricity, but we cannot use it, so under
those circumstances, we need to store that energy in different forms, so primarily as far as solar
thermal is concerned we will go for sensible heat storage where that operates over a range of
temperatures, so there will be no change of phases.
And sometimes we will go for latent heat storage and this storage system operates when there is
a change of phase and there is a Noval device called solar pond, in the solar pond this quite
interesting, in the solar pond what happens we can have this kind of pond and this bottom part is
filled with highly concentrated salt, maybe sodium chloride or maybe potassium chloride and
then we will have one more layer, then one more layer, the top layer, middle layer and the
bottom layer.
So, what happens when solar radiations falls and there no heat is transferred to the bottom and if
there is no resistance to the heat flow, it will flow something like it falls here and it will move up
and then because of the wind this heat will carry, but what happens here, so one insulation
should be provided, installations means this convective heat transfer flow is minimized, because
of this application of the salt, so this becomes insulation to the heat flows and because of that this
portion experience a very high temperature.
48
And this high temperature portion is utilized by providing heat exchanger and this can be heat
can be exchanged and it can be stored and that can be applied whenever required. So, this is a
very novel concept and we will study details when we discuss this thermal energy storage part.
And of course sometimes we need to rely on electrical storage system, so for example, if we are
working with PV systems, then of course we will go for lead acid battery storage system.
And of course, this is on off-grid condition, but battery normally not preferred in case of on grid
system and in case of mechanical will go for compressed air storage system or maybe Flywheel
storage system. And under thermo chemical storage, thermo chemical storage is also used for
storage of solar energy, the amount of solar energy to be stored is used to produce a certain
endothermic chemical reactions and the product of the reactions are stored.
So, that way there is a forward reaction and backward reaction and temperature of the forward
reaction has to be more than the reverse reaction. So, that way it will it will work and under
different circumstances these systems are used.
So, now come to the solar power plant, so what are different solar power plants we can make?
Say low temperature solar power plant using flat plate collectors as I say, this efficiency of the
conversion is very very very less, so when we concentrate about low temperature power
generation system. And when we move to medium temperature power plant, we use cylindrical
parabolic concentrating collectors, like temperatures up to 400 degree C. And finally when we
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we have generated our target is to generate higher amount of power, then always we will go for
high temperature applications.
And in this case, we will go for central receiver system, so this figure is for parabolic trough
system where medium temperature is applicable. So, there are different troughs as I explained, so
heat transfer of fluid flows through these absorber system and this is the concentrator, this are the
concentrator upper part and this is the absorber. So, cold fluid introduced and hot fluids are
collected at the single header and finally this is introduced into the system and heat exchange
will take place and steam is generated and that is expanded into turbine and we can generate
electricity.
And they do work in a cycle. So, this is how a parabolic trough or a medium temperatures are
generated, then we can go for this kind of system. And this figure is for central receiver system,
in this system what happens there will be many heliostats like a reflecting mirrors, so solar
energy falls on this mirrors and reflected to this top of this tower, where molten salts are pumped
to the system.
So, heat exchange will take place and molten high temperature molten salts will come down and
then heat exchange will take place with water and steam will be generated and then conventional
Rankine cycles are used to generate electricity. So, we will discuss in details about those
technologies when we discuss concentrated solar power plant.
So, also you can see here there are different temperature at which the system works, so here you
can see it is a 565 degree C, it is a very high temperature operation, this is a molten salt storage
tank and then I can see here this is a conversion of high temperature what is get by this molten
salt to the water, steam will be generated, then once steam will be generated steam will be
expanded in turbine, then we can have electricity generation.
50
So, some of the power plants in India we will discuss in these slides. Here what you can see
number of installations of grid connected PV systems as you can see here in 1819 that the solar
PV capacity is increased up to about more than 25 gigawatt, but this is a cumulative installations,
but in that year about 5 gigawatt installation, more than 5 gigawatt installation were done by
MNREG that is ministry of new and renewable energy, government of India.
And as you can see the off-grid solar PV installations in India till March 2019, we can have solar
lanterns that is installed about 65,17,180 units, then solar pumps which is encouraged by
government, it is about 2,37,120 units solar street lights 6,71,832 units, then solar home lighting
system is about 17,15,639 units, then solar power plants about capacity about 212 megawatt
peak, already we installed.
This this installed capacity of commercial solar thermal power plant in India is about 227.5
megawatt with 50 megawatt in Andhra Pradesh and 177.5 megawatt is in Rajasthan.
51
So, in this presentation, so I would like to summarize what we have learned. So, we have learned
different routes of exploiting solar energy, then method of energy utilization, then devices for
thermal collection storage, then to understand the basic functioning of liquid flat plate collector a
numerical example has been solved and hope this will give lot of understanding why this kind of
technologies are very very important.
Then how does it PV generator work and it is different routes of utilization has been discussed
and introduced the concept of solar power plant and installations of different the solar power
plant are summarized. So, this is the summary of the today's talk and next class we will discuss
about the propagation of solar radiation from sun to earth, what is the physics behind it? So, this
components will be discussed. Thank you.
52
Professor Pankaj Kalita
Centre for Energy
Lecture 3
Physics of propagation of solar radiation from the sun to earth
(Refer Slide time: 00:35)
Dear students, today we will discuss the physics of propagation of solar radiation from the Sun to
the Earth. So before I start to the physics, let us learn something about Sun.
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So, as all of us know about Sun, the Sun is the largest member of the solar system. It carries
about 99 point 68 percent of the total mass of the Solar System. And it is a sphere of intensely
hot gaseous matter. And the Sun rotates its own axis about once 4 weeks. This equator takes
about 27 days. Polar region takes about 30 days for each rotation. If we talk about density and
the pressure at the center, it is tremendously high.
So, density is about 10 to the power of 5 kg per cubic meter, which is about 100 times more
denser than water. And pressure at the center is about more than 1 billion atmospheric pressure.
So it is a very high pressure. And temperature at the center is estimated to be about 15000000
means it is 8 x 106 to 40 x 106 Kelvin. So, it is a very high temperature. And this energy release
is due to continuous fusion reaction. So, as you know how this fusion reaction takes place.
So, if we consider this hydrogen atom and helium atom, if we know the mass difference, delta m
Δm. So, this mass of helium atom is about 0.65 percent lesser than, lesser than hydrogen atom,
hydrogen atom. So, once we know this Δm then we can use this Einstein's famous equation,
which is nothing but E=Δmc2. So, c is nothing but velocity of light which is equal to 3x108
meter/second.
So, if we substitute this Δm and c then we can calculate the kind of energy which is generated in
the Sun. So, it is found at about 0.23 times radius if we this radius of the Sun. So, in this location,
that means, if we draw a line here, and if we take 0.23 times the radius if this is the radius and
this is the (rad) r then 90 percent of the energy is generated here, at this core.
And then this energy generated here is radiated to the outer surfaces. And as you can see, this
portion, this portion, this portion is a convective zone. As you can realize this core temperature is
very very high and this our surface temperature is reported to be about 6000 Kelvin. So, there is
a decrease in temperature from core to the surface of the Sun.
And because of these and from, from here it can be concluded that heat dissipation is taking
place from the core to the surface of the Sun and then the amount of energy which is emitted
from the surface of the Sun is distributed in the solar system and part of the energy is received by
the Earth surface. And if we see this energy, radiation from the Sun is about 3.8 x 1026 watt. And
this Earth receive energy about 1.7 x 1018 watt. And also we know the distance between the Sun
and Earth, which is mean distance.
54
So, let us see what we can learn about Earth. So this Earth came into existence in about 4.6
billions years ago. Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptic shape once per year. This Earth is
inclined at 23.50 and rotates about its own axis. This inner core is a solid mass made of iron and
nickel. And this outer core of the Earth mantle comprises solid rock. And also we know that 70
percent of Earth is covered by water, and remaining 30 percent is land. And this black body
temperature of Earth is about 288 Kelvin. So, we will learn why it is called black body and what
is the spectrum at this temperature.
55
So now we will learn something about radiation. So, there are many theories available for
understanding the radiation propagation, but no theories give accurate information about the
radiation propagation. So, most important theories coined by two researchers, one is Maxwell's
Electromagnetic Theory. This radiation in this theory, radiation is treated as electromagnetic
wave and Max Planck's concept where radiation treats as Photon or quanta of energy.
Both the concepts utilized to describe the emission and propagation of radiation. The result
obtained from electromagnetic theory used to predict radiation properties of the materials. And
the results obtained from Planck's concept have been employed to predict the magnitude of
radiation energy emitted by a body at a given temperature. So, these 2 theories are primarily
utilized to understand the radiation propagation from Sun to the Earth surface.
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Let us take an example on radiation heat transfer. So, here what I meant to say how this thermal
radiation is propagated? If your body temperature is more than absolute 0, then that body will
start emitting thermal radiation. So, for example, if we consider an object having a temperature
Th, which is more than absolute 0 temperature, absolute 0 and also greater than the cold surface
Tc. So, this hot object is placed in a medium that is in the vacuum and will show how this hot
object is cooled when a cold surface is surrounded by these hot objects.
So, what happens since these hot object temperature is more than the absolute 0 it will start
emitting thermal radiation and because of this heat exchange, radiative heat exchange, so, this
object temperature will reduce and only mode of heat transfer will be radiative heat transfer.
Because no medium is present, this is kept in vacuum, no convective heat transfer will take
place, only radiation exchange will be there. So, because of that this object will, will be cooled.
And same thing happens when radiation is propagated from Sun surface to the Earth surface.
And from that what we understand, we do not need any intervening medium for transferring
energy from Sun to the Earth. So, this Sun will emit thermal radiation at about 6000 Kelvin and
this bulk thermal energy emitted by a body lies in wavelength between 0.1 to 100. So, most of
the thermal radiation is emitted at this wavelength is 0.1 to 100 micron. So, this micron we can
represent as μm also.
57
And if we have to learn about radiation, there are theories but no theories give clear information
about radiation propagation. So two most important theories coined by Maxwell's and Max
Planck's, are utilized to understand the radiation propagation. As per the Maxwell's
Electromagnetic Theory, radiation is treated as electromagnetic wave. And as per the concept
proposed by Maxwell's, this radiation treats as Photon or quanta of energy.
Both the concepts are utilized to describe the emission and propagation of radiation. The result
obtained from electromagnetic theory used to predict radiation properties of the material. And
the results obtained from Planck's concept have been employed to predict the magnitude of
radiation, energy emitted by a body at a given temperature. So, what we have learned these 2
theories are primarily used for understanding the radiation propagation from Sun surface to the
Earth surface.
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Let us learn something about the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. So, when the radiation is
treated as electromagnetic wave? The radiation from a body at temperature T is considered at all
wavelength. So, that means lambda λ will vary from 0 to infinity. So, we learn black body and
then how this radiation spectrum is important. We will learn in the later slides. Now, our concern
is, if we consider this wavelength spectrum, here what we can see from 0.1 to 100 μm, this
portion of the spectrum is known as the thermal radiation.
So, most of the radiations and most of the engineering applications this thermal radiation is
applied and also solar radiation is fall under this thermal radiation. The Sun emits radiation at a
temperature, which is black body temperature is about 5760 Kelvin or we can say it is close to
6000 Kelvin. So, at that temperature, we get solar radiation and that wave length fall in the range
of point 0.1 to 3 μm. And under this solar radiation spectrum, we will have visible range which
falls in the wavelength 0.4 to 0.7 μm.
And when we talk about infrared, so, its range is 0.7 to 1000 μm and in ultraviolet it is about 0.4
to 10-2 μm. So these informations are important because the kind of radiation with what is
coming from the Sun and then what happens in the Earth atmosphere, and then the kind of
radiation we received at the Earth surface and the radiation goes back reradiated from the Earth
surface. So, this information is required.
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So, short wave radiation is coming from the Sun surface and in something happens in the Earth
atmosphere. And then this long wave radiation, which is reradiated from the Earth is like infrared
radiation. So, that actually retains in the Earth atmosphere. We will discuss these issues in the
coming slides. And also there are information like different kind of radiations can be applied in
different applications. So, for example, X-Ray, as we know, this X-Ray machines are applied in
many of the applications to take the image.
So, its wavelength ranges from 0.01 to 100 nanometer and of course, it is used in radiography.
And for ultraviolet its range from 10 to 400 nanometer and it is mostly used in water
purifications. And in visible range, its wavelength varies from 400 to 800 nanometers that
means, 0.4 to about 0.8 μm and this is for daytime vision and photosynthesis applications. And
near infrared ranges from 800 nanometer to 10 μm. So, it is used for nocturnal vision, at night
visions to work at night.
In thermal infrared wavelength varies from 10 μm to 1 mm and it is mostly applied in heating

and cooling applications and micro wave wavelength varies from 1 millimeter to 10 centimeter.
And of course this is used in microwave ovens. Already we know what is microwave oven and
most of the household this microwave oven is present. And radar waves, it is very long wave, 10
centimeter to 1 meter. And it is used for mobile, telephone and speed detectors. And for radio
waves, where wavelength is more than 1 meter. So, the use of this wave is in radio, television
and communications.
60
In this slide, we learn Sun-Earth relationship. So, Sun is here at the center and Earth is here. So
Earth rotates along this path and also Earth rotates about its own axis. Sun is here, Sun also
rotates about its own axis. So this is in 24 hours, 1 revolution, 1 revolution in 24 hours. And is
about 4 weeks. 1 revolution in 4 weeks and distance between the center of the Earth and the
center of the Sun is varying, because this is eccentric, this is not fixed. So when we have to tell
the distance between the Sun and the Earth that is the average distance between the Sun and
Earth.
Sometimes you know Sun-Earth distance is very long and sometimes it is short. So, we must
know which day is very very close to the Earth and which day is very very far from the Earth.
So, this information is always known to you and this will be more clear when we solve problems.
And also Earth subtends an angle of 0.53 degree. Here this angle is 0.53 and the distance
between the center of the Sun and center of the Earth, this is the average distance is about 4.96 x
1011 meter.
And since we understand that because of this eccentricity of Earth's orbit the distance between
the Sun-Earth is varies and this variation is about + 1.7%. And also one more information we
must know the angle this is, this is Earth and this part is equator, and this is the vertical line and
this angle is 23.5, this always makes an angle of 23.5 and each rotates about its own axis.
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Now, we need to learn about solar constant, which is very, very important to understand why this
is important in understanding solar radiation propagation. So, what is solar constant? This solar
constant is defined as the radiant flux received in the extraterrestrial region of a plane of unit area
kept perpendicular to the solar radiation at the mean Sun-Earth distance. So, this value is about
1367 watt/meter2.
So, this is a solar constant value and this value will vary. Maybe if you consider in the month of
June, this value will be about 1322 watt/meter2 and in December 21, if we consider it will be
about 1411 watt/meter2. This is due to the variation in distance between Sun and Earth at
different times. So, these variations can be considered. So, this variation is about 0.33%.
So, if we have to calculate the extraterrestrial region solar flux then we need to apply this
equation, Iext = Isc (which is nothing but solar constant, solar constant and then this part)
[1+0.033 cos (360n/365)]. So, this need to be considered. So, this variation is due to the elliptic
orbit of the Sun's motion around the Sun. So, this need to be considered otherwise this value
1367 which is the recent time this constant is used.
Earlier people have made many calculations and there are variations like people sometimes
claimed that this value is 1357, 1357 watt/meter2. But in the recent times we use this value 1367.
So, this is the precise value normally we use in our calculations. So, what my intention is in this
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slides, we need to consider this parameter, this parameter 0.033 cos (360n/365) in order to
calculate the extraterrestrial region for any day.
So n represent the nth day of the year. Suppose if I am interested to calculate the extraterrestrial
region or extraterrestrial solar flux received on January 1, then this value of n will be n is equal
to 1, ok. So if we substitute the value of n is equal to 1 in this expression, then what we will have
Iext will be Isc which is nothing but 1367x(1+0.033 cos 360 x 1/365).
Then we can do small calculations and we can calculate the amount of extraterrestrial region
received on day 1 or January 1. So if I am interested to calculate this Iext for say February 1,
then what would be the value of n? n will be your, because January will be 31 days plus 1 which
will be your 32. So, if we substitute this value 32 in n here, then we can calculate what will be
the radiation flux received on February 1. Of course, this radiation is extraterrestrial radiation
which is above the Earth atmosphere.
So, let me summarize these slides, what we have learned. We have learned two very important
parameters, one is solar constant and second one is extraterrestrial radiation. So extraterrestrial
radiation, extraterrestrial radiation. So, we have not yet learned, what is terrestrial radiation. So,
we will learn after 2-3 slides, what is terrestrial radiation, and what is the difference between
extraterrestrial radiation and terrestrial radiation. So, this Isc will be required in many of our
calculations. So, let us move to the next slides.
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Now, we will study how radiation is propagated from Sun to the surface of the Earth. So, if we
draw Sun here, this is Sun, and we will have Earth atmosphere here and Earth is here. So, this
part already you know, I will write extraterrestrial region is ET, and terrestrial region is (E) TR,
terrestrial region and extraterrestrial region I will write R here, ok. So, already you know the
relationship, how this Isc and Iext is related, extraterrestrial region.
So this solar radiation, so Sun's surface temperature is about 6000 Kelvin and the short wave
radiation is moving through the space. And we will have all the molecules here, like particulate
matter and we will have oxygen, ozone, then you have H2O, it is water vapor and maybe NO2,
maybe carbon dioxide, maybe CO. So, what happens when this solar radiation is coming from
the Sun surface and it has to pass through this Earth atmosphere.
So, when this solar radiation is passing through this Earth atmosphere. So, the two things happen
one is absorption of solar radiation and second one is scattering. These two phenomenons will be
discussed in the later slides. So, these two phenomenons happens because of that we receive a
low intense solar radiation at the Earth surface. So, here in this slides my concern is we need to
know how this solar radiation is propagated from the Sun’s surface to the Earth's surface.
So, shortwave radiation is coming through the space and it has to travel through this Earth
atmosphere. So, we go and already you know, this atmosphere is very thick about 30 kilometer
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and here what happens as soon as it strikes the Earth, so, it reradiates some kind of long wave
radiation, long wave radiation. So, these long wave radiations are something called infrared,
infrared radiations.
So, this long wave radiation reflected back from the earth surface and it retains in this Earth
atmosphere and which leads to the contribution of heating up of the earth atmosphere. So, what I
tried to explain here, we have Sun and Earth and then short wave radiation travels from the space
and then that has to pass through this Earth atmosphere and it is received by the Earth surface.
So, some of the radiations are reflected back, these radiations, they are long wave radiations and
that retains in the earth atmosphere. Because these are absorbed by the carbon dioxide and it
retains and this leads to the greenhouse, or increase in earth atmosphere. Because internal energy
of this Earth atmosphere is increasing and because of that, we are having temperature rise,
temperature rise.
So, next slides we will learn about solar radiation, what is terrestrial radiations, and then what is,
then in this slide we learn solar spectral irradiation, this is extraterrestrial and terrestrial radiation.
So, it is known that approximately 99 percent of the Earth atmosphere is contained within a
distance of about 30 kilometer from the Earth's surface, ok. And let us look into this figure. So,
what it represents, it shows irradiance versus wavelength.
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So, different wavelength, what is the spectrum for extraterrestrial region, and what is the
spectrum for terrestrial region? So, this dotted line represents the solar spectrum outside the
Earth atmosphere that is extraterrestrial region. And this solid line represents the solar spectrum
on ground under clear atmosphere. As you can see, this region, this region is UV, this region is
visible region and then this long region is infrared region.
So, this UV region is the most important for us, as far as solar PV conversion or portability
conversion is concerned. So, what you can see from this figure is solar intensity is very high in
case of extraterrestrial region and this is different or it is lower in case of terrestrial region. So,
what happens, why this is so, because this radiation has to pass through this Earth atmosphere
while radiation is traveling through this Earth atmosphere attenuation takes place.
So, radiation what we received that is in attenuation form and this attenuation is due to
absorption and scattering. So, here this ozone is concentrated in a layer into 30 kilometer from
the Earth's surface. And it is strongly absorbed UV ranges in the wavelength of 0.2 to 0.29
micron, and relatively strongly in 0.29 to 0.34 micron. So, here this scale is in nanometer, so, we
can convert very easily. So, this 200 means about 0.2 micron. So, 200 nanometer means 0.2
microns.
So, because this is 1 nanometer is something like 10-3 micron. So that way we can understand the
scale. And this oxygen absorption occur in a very narrow line centered at 0.76 micron, so it is
about here. So, this oxygens are absorbed here and this part is ozone. And water absorption takes
place in the wavelength range from 0.7 to 2.2 micron and carbon dioxide absorbed in the
wavelength more than 2.2 micron. So, this information is very, very important and what we
understand from this figure, the why this variation of radiation compared to extraterrestrial
region.
The kind of radiation we received at the Earth atmosphere is different than kind of radiation
which is available above the Earth atmosphere, because of this absorption and scattering in the
Earth atmosphere. Also we will learn what is these things like emissive power. So this amount of
radiation per unit wavelength if we integrate it for all the spectrums, then what we will get is it is
called solar constant. So, this information will be more clear when we do some kind of numerical
problems.
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And this is also similar curve. It shows the spectral irradiance versus wavelength. So as you can
see, wavelength, UV visible wavelength range, then visible wavelength range and infrared
wavelength range. And we learn what is air mass in the, in a couple of slides later and which is
also very very important. And the finally, what our concern is like solar radiation reaching the
Earth surface is contained in the wavelength between 0.29 to 2.5 micron. So, this range is very
important for us.
See the wavelength as we learn the solar irradiation has peak intensities in the shorter
wavelength. So, when Sun ray is coming from the Sun surface, so, what we observe at this
wavelength we will have peak and then it is decreasing. So, this visible range is very very
important for us, and most of the solar PV is based on this visible light.
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And here as we can say, when solar radiation is, so this is our atmosphere, this is Earth. So, this
long wave radiation is going back. So, this long wave radiation is a long wavelength radiation.
The peaks will be about at 10 microns and then is decreases. So, this is so about long wave
radiation, this is about short wave radiation, ok. And this is at 600 Kelvin from the Sun surface
and this is at Earth surface which is at 288 Kelvin. So, hot Sun radiates at shorter wavelengths
that carry more energy and fraction absorbed by the polar surface is then reradiated at longer
wavelength, which is shown in the figure.
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Now, we will discuss about the mechanism of absorption and scattering, which is very, very
important for understanding what is diffused radiation and what is normal radiation. Because,
after this lectures, what we are going to learn is different kind of instrument used for radiation
measurement, and then how these two radiations are different, and what condition we can make,
what kind of conversion devices?
That means, which radiation is important for say, concentrator and which kind of radiation is
important for other applications. So, we will discuss the mechanism of absorption and scattering
in the slides, which is very very important to understand the kind of radiation received by the
Earth's surface and why this is so. That means, what is normal radiation and what is diffuse
radiation. That idea we can generate by studying these two facts is absorption and scattering.
This absorption occurs primarily due to ozone and water vapor present in the Earth atmosphere
and lesser extent to the other gases and particulate matters. But, scattering occurs due to all
gaseous molecules, as well as particulate matter, present in the Earth atmosphere. I will draw the
thing, same thing again here. So, this will be something like this. We will have aerosols, aerosols
in particulate matters and all the gaseous molecules.
Like we have O3, we have oxygen, we have H2O, we have CO, we have CO2, all the gases and
this radiation is coming short wave radiation. So, what happens this radiation, some of the
radiation is absorbed here, so UV is absorbed here then at different wavelength this will be
69
absorbed at in the different molecules. And what happens there are some radiations which are
unaffected, unaffected by these Earth atmosphere and it falls directly on the Earth surface.
And some radiations which is diffused and it travels in all the directions and its intensity is
reduced. So, the kind of radiation which is unaffected by this Earth atmosphere is known as Ib,
Ib is a beam radiation or direct radiation. And the kind of radiations which is received after
scattering is known as Id, this is diffuse radiation. So, if we add these two, Ib plus Id is nothing
but In or Ig. So, this is Ig is nothing but Global Radiation.
So Ib is beam radiation or direct radiation, beam or direct and this is diffuse, diffuse and this is
global. So, here shortwave radiation is coming from the Sun surface and this travel through the
space and then and it has to pass through this Earth atmosphere. So, while this radiation comes in
contact to the Earth atmosphere, so, what happens, absorption of solar radiations takes place, also
scattering takes place. So, based on the wavelength, so, different elements are present.
So, directly they are absorbed here, like UV is absorbed in ozone layer and then you have
oxygen also absorbed in different wavelength and then water vapor then H2O. And some of the
radiations which is no strike on the aerosols and its directions are sensed, it radiated in all the
directions and some of the radiations is received under Earth surface. Sometimes what happens
there is a parameter called release scattering. So, since air molecules are present, because of this
air molecules this release scattering also takes place.
So, this scattered radiation, so, when it receives on the Earth surface its intensity is reduced and
this reduced intensity is designated by I d, that is diffuse radiation. So, what we have learned
here? We have learned the mechanism of absorption and scattering and then, we have learned a
different kind of radiation that is beam radiation, diffuse radiation and global radiation. So, these
radiations are very very important when we do calculations related to the radiation geometries.
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And we need to learn black body radiations. So, for a given temperature and wavelength, no
other body at same temperature can emit more radiation than a black body. So, we need to
understand what is a spectral black body emission or emissive power and a Stefan Boltzman
constant. Because we can demonstrate it, Sun is a black body or Sun's surface temperature that is
close to 6000 is a black body temperature. So, we can demonstrate it. Let us start as we know
this Planck's law of spectral emissive power, how we define I,t E bw.
So, at certain temperature is expressed as C1/λ5{exp(C2/ λT)-1} and then you have E,
exponential of C2 by lambda T minus 1. This may be equation 1 and this C1 and C2 are
constants and C1 is something like = 2πhc2 = 3.7431x108 W.μm/m2 which substitute the value of
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Planck's constant and value of c which is something like 8 W.μm4 / meter2 and C2=hc/K, which
is equal to 1.4387 x 104 μm K.
And T is the absolute temperature and λ is in, λ, λ is in μm and T is, this wavelength in μm and T
is in Kelvin, this is absolute temperature, absolute temperature. So, this is the spectral emissive
power and this is defined by Planck's, Planck's and also you know the Planck's law. So, this
equation is 1. Now if I am interested to calculate the emissive power, what we will do? We will
integrate this Planck's constant from wavelength 0 to infinity.
Let us see how we can do it. So if I am interested about emissive power, Eb(T), this is called
emissive power. Earlier one it was a spectral emissive power. So if I am interested to find out
this emissive power, what we will do, we will integrate this equation 1 from λ 0 to infinity. And
this equation was something like this C1/λ5{exp(C2/ λT)-1}. And this is the lambda. So if we
integrate, so I am not going to do the derivation.
So, what I will write, what you will get here finally σT4 which is W/meter2. So, what is λ? λ is
Stefan Boltzman constant, Stefan Boltzman constant, Boltzman constant and its value is 5.67 x
10-8 W/meter2Kelvin4. So, this is a black body emissive power so, also we can say this is a black
body, black body emissive power, emissive, emissive power. So, it is the black body radiation
flux emitted from a surface at an absolute temperature T.
So, in order to show the radiation emitted by the Sun, essentially black body radiation, we
substitute the value of solar constant. So, if we have to show that radiation emitted by the Sun is
essentially black body radiation. So, if then what we need to do, this is equal to 1367= (r/R)2σT4,.
So, how I have calculated it because pi, 4 π R2 square is equal to, we have this area and then we
have, Isc x 4 π R2 = 4 π r2σT4 r is the radius of the Sun, R this is the distance between the Sun-
Earth. So, of course this is a mean distance, so mean distance. So, that is how we can calculate.
So, if we substitute the value of 1367 here, and this Isc is equal to like small r by capital R square
by sigma T to the power of 4. So, if we do this calculation, then we can calculate what is T,
because these values are known to us, small r and capital R. And this T will be about 5777
Kelvin. So, if we use this T and if we go back here and if we substitute this value of T here, then
we can calculate Eb that is spectral emissive power at different wavelength. And it is found that
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if we generate this Eb value at different lambda, it is quite close to a black body radiation. That is
why you can say the solar radiation emitted from the Sun surface is a black body radiation.
73
So, now, we can solve this problem, since already we have all the data, already we have given
the hint how to solve this problem. So, temperature of the sun, straightaway we can calculate
what is T or if we know solar constant Isc is something (r/R)2σT4 and if we substitute these
values we can calculate what is T. So, students I request you to complete this work, so that you
involve how this kind of problems can be solved for better clarity.
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So, here we will introduce one concept called Air Mass. So, which is very, very important
parameters in testing in a solar flatplate collectors, we, we need to understand very carefully. So
most important parameters that determines the solar irradiance under clear sky condition is the
distance that the sunlight has to travel through the atmosphere. Because we have atmosphere, we
have atmosphere.
This is the atmosphere and then suppose if we, we are here, so, maybe Sun is at our overhead,
then distance travel by the Sun ray is very very short, and if we take here then distance travelled
by the solar ray is very very long. So, this angle is very very important for us. So, this is maybe
A this is B, this is C. So, how we define, AM is something like = AB/ BC. So, this is something
like 1/Cosϴ. So, this distance is the shortest when the Sun is at the zenith and is directly
overhead, as we understand from this figure.
And the ratio of an actual path travel or is a path length of the sunlight to the minimal distance is
known as the optical mass, what we have defined here. When the Sun is at this zenith, the optical
Air Mass is unity and the spectrum is called the Air Mass 1. So, so ϴ, if ϴ is 0, that is 1, that is
called AM will be 1 if ϴ is equal to 0, so m will be 1. So, this spectrum is known as AM1. In
case of extraterrestrial radiation or extraterrestrial region, it is defined as AM0, AM0 because the
radiation do not have to travel in the Earth atmosphere.
So, because of that it is AM0. And here this figure shows the spectral irradiance variation with
respect to wavelength, as you can see, this radiation at the solid line is for 6000 Kelvin black
body solar radiation and this is at AM0 in, in case of extraterrestrial region and this is at AM 1.5.
Why this AM1.5 is so, important? Because all the experiments, all the testings are done at
AM1.5, at an angle of 48.2 degree.
So, this is, this is very very important because solar testings are normally done at AM1.5. We
can do very small numericals, so how to calculate this ϴ if we know AM is 1.5. So, if we have to
do any experiment, then we have to and that has to be validated, then we have to perform the
experiments at AM1.5 and at the solar radiation of 1000 watt/meter2. So, that is very very
important as far as testing of solar collector is concerned.
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So, we will summarize what we have learned today. So, we have learned how solar radiation is
propagated from the surface of the Sun to the surface of the Earth. And also we have learned
what is atmospheric absorption and scattering, primarily the mechanisms, how does absorption
takes place, absorption of solar radiation takes place, and at what wavelength that molecules are
absorbed, solar radiations are absorbed by the molecules and how scattering takes place.
And because of the scattering how this radiation intensities decreases. Also we have understand
the distinction between extraterrestrial region and territorial region. And also we have learned the
relationship between Sun-Earth and how it travels, and what is the average distance between Sun
and Earth. And how this distance is varying with respect to the particular day. And also we have
learned the radiation variation with respect to the days and in case of extraterrestrial as well as
terrestrial region.
And also we have understand the different kind of radiation, what is global radiation, what is
diffused radiation, and what is normal radiations? So, when solar radiation is striking on the
Earth surface without disturbing in the Earth atmosphere that is called normal radiation or direct
radiation. And if it is scattered or scattered radiation is received by the Earth surface, so that is
called diffused radiation. And if we add direct radiation or normal radiation plus diffused
radiation then it becomes global radiation.
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So, this is, these are very very primary or fundamental things we have studied today. And also
finally, we have studied what is Air Mass. So, Air Mass 0, Air Mass 1, Air Mass 2, Air Mass 1.5.
So, Air Mass 0 means that is radiation spectrum that is received above the Earth atmosphere. So,
Air Mass 1 means, when solar radiation is at the zenith, that is our overhead and different
situations may arise.
But, AM 1.5 is important because all the solar experiments are performed at Air Mass 1 point 5
and at a solar intensity of 1000 watt/meter2 and also this is signifies in terms of watt peaks. If we
have performed this experiments at this condition, so that is the rated test and we represent this
as watt peak. So, what you can see in the modules that is watt peak, maybe 35 watt peak. So, that
represents that is a standard test condition. So, thank you for watching this video.
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Professor. Doctor. Pankaj Kalita
Department of Centre of Energy
Lecture No. 04
Solar Radiation and Sunshine Measuring Instruments
Dear students, today we will discuss about solar radiation and sunshine measuring instruments.
So, before we start our topic, let us summarize what we have discussed in the last class.
In the last class, we are discussing about propagation of solar radiation from the sun surface to
the earth surface. So, how solar radiation is propagated? So, there what we have discussed, so we
have this earth atmosphere and then earth is here and sun was here. Sun emits the short wave
radiation and this is the earth atmosphere, aerosols, H2O, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
oxygen, then we have ozone, all the elements will be here and then particulate matter.
Then some of the radiations which is unaffected by this earth atmosphere and it is directly
striking on the earth surface. And then some of the radiations when it travels, then it scatters in
the earth atmosphere, and then this radiation is redirected in all the directions and then intensity
of this radiation decreases. And then from the earth surface, this long wave radiation is
propagated and it is captured in the earth’s atmosphere.
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So if we draw this spectral emissive power Vs λ for extra-terrestrial region, so the region which
is above the earth atmosphere is called extra-terrestrial region, extra-terrestrial region. And just
below the earth’s atmosphere, we will have terrestrial region, terrestrial region. So here, if we
draw this curve, this will be something like this. So, this is maybe 10 8, then we have W/m2-µm.
And this plot is for short wavelength radiation and at 6000 K. So, this is the radiation of
spectrum when radiation is coming from the sun surface. And this value is 5 and this is of course
in micron and maybe we have 10 here and it goes up to 30. And in this case when we draw this
spectrum curve for long wavelength radiation after re-radiating from the earth surface, then we
will have something like this kind of profile. So, these peaks will be at 10 µm and this will be at
288 K.
And this may be at 30, and of course this is spectral emissive power, unit is W/m 2-µm. So here,
solar radiation is propagated what happens in the earth atmosphere? Some of the radiations is
unaffected by this earth atmosphere and it is directly striking on the earth surface. So, the kind of
radiation what is directly striking on the earth surface is known as normal radiation. And when
this radiation is scattered, because of this aerosol present in the earth atmosphere, intensity of the
radiation reduces.
So, this radiation intensity is known as diffuse radiation. So, when we add this diffuse radiation
plus normal radiation it becomes global radiation or we can represent in capital IG. So, two kinds
of radiations we are getting at the earth surface, one is normal radiation and other one is diffuse
radiation. If we combine both then what we call is global radiation. So, we will study the kind of
instrument used for the measurement of diffuse and global radiation and normal radiation.
Also we have studied in the last class the relationship between sun and earth. So, how solar
radiation is propagated from the sun to the earth and we also studied the distance between that
means average distance between sun and earth. Also we know the radius of the sun and radius of
the earth. So, by utilizing this concept what we can able to calculate is black body temperature of
the sun, by utilizing the concept of energy emitted by the sun and then the amount of energy
received by the earth surface. So, this has been demonstrated in the last class.
Also we have studied a very important parameter called air mass, so air mass is very, very
important and we must know the significance of those AM0, AM1, AM2, AM1.5. So, what does
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this AM0 indicates, that means that is the spectrum, the solar energy radiation spectrum above
the earth atmosphere that means in extra-terrestrial region where radiation is not affected by the
earth atmosphere. So, it is represented by AM0.
So, first let me write the expression for air mass, so this will be something like 1/cos θ, what we
have discussed in the last class, for example if we consider this plot and if we represent these as
A this point and this is B and this is C, that means AB by BC is 1/cos θ. And this is known as air
mass, what is written here. So, if theta is 0o means this angle is 0, this angle is 0, means what will
happen then cos 0 is 1, so AM will be 1. That means this spectrum is known as AM1.
And AM0 already we have defined, so in this plot what we can see here, this red colored line is
for AM0 which is this spectrum is available in the extra-terrestrial region and blue colored
profile is for AM1.5. Why AM1.5 is very important? Because at this air mass normally all the
solar devices are tested. Of course we need to consider the radiation, so at what radiations
normally this is tested, this is normally tested at 1000 W/m2, but AM1.5 need to be maintained
for standardizing these solar devices.
Also let us summarize the monthly variation of solar radiation flux in the extra-terrestrial region,
already we have studied this expression and we understand how this extra-terrestrial region or
extra-terrestrial intensity is varying with number of days. We can also plot this variation, so for
example, say for January, starting from January to December, so here January, maybe I will say
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January here, then I will write February F, maybe March here, April, May, then we have June,
then we have July, then we have August, I have September, then we have October, then we have
November, then we have December.
So, January line maybe here, so this vertical line is for extra-terrestrial region, so I will write Iext
this is something like this here. So, if we used January 1 or end of the month, may be n = 31, so
there are some recommendations, so sometimes what happens, we need to analyze daily, how
this addition is varying, what is the extra-terrestrial region, extra-terrestrial radiation on day 1,
may be first January for this the extra-terrestrial radiation, second January what is the extra-
terrestrial radiation, so that way you can calculate.
But know people have recommended that, if we take a particular day of a particular month as a
representative day, so on that day we can calculate what is the extra-terrestrial radiation for the
particular month? So, here may be at the end of the month, maybe we can consider, we can see
how this extra-terrestrial radiation is varying. So, of course unit will be W/m2, because solar
constant is also W/m2, its value is 1367. It is a modern value normally we use.
So, these variations already you have understood why the variation is happening, so may be scale
I can start from 1300 and we can go up to 1420, so I will just write a qualitative curve here. So,
this moves something like June will be June, July, June will be lowest, so June will be lowest,
this will be something like this. So, here every point we can get that extra-terrestrial value, so
this plot will be something like this. Sometimes we are not bothered about the variations, only
we take the ISC value but when we are doing very precise calculation, of course we need to know
how this extra-terrestrial radiation is varying with month.
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Now let us discuss our today’s topic is solar radiation and sunshine measuring instruments.
So, here in order to understand the mechanism of absorption, scattering and attenuation
coefficients, people have done extensive research, but still it is very difficult to predict the
radiation on a particular day at a particular time. So, the designer has decided to do something
else, so that they can design their equipment for a particular region.
So there are many options, one of the option is make measurement over a period of time, so we
can get long term data, maybe 10 years data, maybe 20 years data, if we extend the duration of
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the data, then of course we know our accuracy level will increase. And second option is use the
available data for some other locations having reasonably similar climatic conditions.
So, if we know some of the locations, where you know climatic condition is similar to the
climatic conditions of where we are planning to design or install some kind of solar equipment.
So, we can take those data and we can do the analysis. And the third option is we can use
empirical predictive equations. So, there are numerous correlations available to relate
metrological data and radiation data.
Metrological data means like what is the sunshine duration, what is the precipitations, so if we
get those data we can relate with the radiation data and then we can calculate what is the or we
can estimate the kind of global radiations following on a particular location at a particular time.
So, these are the considerations normally designers adopt for designing an PV system or maybe
solar thermal system.
So, as far as atmosphere at the earth surface is concerned, primarily there are two atmospheres.
So, an atmosphere without clouds that is cloudless, so sky is very clear. And another category is
an atmosphere with clouds, that means partially or fully clouds. But this mechanism of scattering
and absorption are same for both the cases, but of course intensity of solar radiation will be
higher in case of an atmosphere without clouds that is in clear sky. So, these considerations will
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be studied and based on these classifications, there will be many more correlations we will study
one by one in the later slides, once we finish this part of the course.
So, now come to the solar radiation received on a clear sky, when sky is clear the way you are
expected to get these kind of profiles. So, in the sunrise, radiation will be very very low and then
it will slowly, it will increase and will reach a peak at the noon and then it is decreases. When it
reaches to 0 when sunset occurs. So, this profile is a very standard profile and this kind of profile
if we get that is very good, that is very good for solar installations.
Here what happens, this curve maybe holds good for both diffuse and normal radiation. So, of
course, if we consider this is for normal if irradiation, so diffuse component will be something
like here. So, there are many things to be studied in this curve. So normally what happens we are
sometimes telling like what is a solar radiation? So, solar radiations maybe solar irradiance or
solar irradiation.
So, solar irradiance is instantaneous, so what is the value of say normal radiations at this
moment? Maybe something like 700 W/m2 that is instantaneous values. But this instantaneous
word is valid for 1 hour. So, since these solar radiations is not varying much in 1 hour duration,
so this solar irradiance is hold good for 1 hour variation. And of course we are interested for
daily variations, what is the daily sunshine variation or what is the daily global radiation
variation? What is the daily diffuse radiation variation?
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These informations are of course required when we are doing that kind of calculations. So, now
my concern is, so one is solar irradiance and second one is solar irradiation. So, instantaneous
value is solar irradiance and when we integrate over the time that becomes solar irradiation. So,
this plot is for clear day when no cloud is covered, so sky is clear.
In this case, this is partially cloudy sky, what you can see there are lots of peaks and valleys. So,
there is no uniform patterns, so under this condition it is very difficult to design a solar collectors
that maybe PV collectors or maybe solar thermal collectors. So, this kind of irruptive behaviors
are observed. So, red color indicates global radiation, a sum of diffuse and normal radiation and
this yellow color is direct radiation and this blue color is for diffuse radiation. We can see the
variations of this irradiance, of the day.
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Now, since we have already accustomed about different kind of radiations, direct radiation then
diffuse radiation and then reflected radiation. So, let us learn something details on those
radiations and we will learn how those radiations are measured by using different instruments.
So, if we have to measure direct radiations then we have to use pyrheliometer. For diffuse
radiation we have to go for pyranometer and of course reflected radiations can be measured by
using different instruments.
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So, these are the different instruments used. This plot is for pyrheliometer which is very, very
costly and it will give normal radiations falling on the earth surface. And this is pyranometer,
pyranometer is mostly used in many of the experiments and other applications. And of course
same instrument pyranometer can be used for diffuse radiation measurement by using a shading
ring.
So, we will discuss this in the next couple of slides. And of course we need a sunshine recorder
to know that duration of the sunshine, which is important how long our sun will retain. So, this is
a special kind of instrument called sunshine recorder used for measurement of duration of the
bright sunshine.
So, now come to the pyranometer, so which is used for measurement of both global and diffuse
radiation. So, here as you can see this is the instrument used for measurement of both global and
diffuse radiation. So, here what happens, one black absorber is used here, as you can see here
that is a black absorber, it is a black absorber. And these are the glass, semi-hemisphere glass.
Normally, if we draw line here, so this diameter is about 50 mm, outer diameter and this is about
30 mm and this is a circular disc kind of absorber, so its about 25 mm diameter.
So, when solar radiation is exposed here in this black absorber, its temperature rise will be will
be there. So, this will rate of rise will continue till the heat loss by convection, conduction and
reradiations are or reradiations are equal, so this mass transfer has to be there. So, in order to
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measure these, thermopiles are used. So at the beneath of this absorber one thermopiles are
attached, these are thermopiles.
Then if we write very clearly, so this is a black cover and then there is one and here we have
absorber and this is a thermopile or say sensor and this is a gurd plate, one gurd plate will be
here, gurd plate. So, here I hope that you know the thermocouple principle, principles of
thermocouples, so when we have two dissimilar metals, so this is one maybe one material and we
will have, I will use some another color, maybe this one, so we will have two different materials
and we maintain at two different temperatures, two different temperatures, maybe I will remove
this and maybe I will use this.
And if we connect 1 mV and this is at, this maybe T 1 and this may be T2. If maybe T1, these two
are different, T1 and T2 are at different temperatures. And if these two are at different
temperatures then EMF will be generated. So, this is a principle of thermocouple, thermo
thermocouple. So, how does a thermocouple work? If we have two dissimilar metals, and we
keep the junction of both at two different temperatures then EMF will be generated.
So, here what happens same principle is applied here, so thermopiles are used, thermopiles are
nothing but if we use many thermocouples in series that becomes thermopile. So, these
thermopiles are connected at the beneath of this absorber plate and then when solar radiation is
exposed then this part, black end surface will be heated up and then heat will transfer to this
sensor that is thermopiles.
And one bit is maintained here or one junction is maintained here and that is some kind of
spherical or say circular junction. And other junction is maintained just below this gurd plate and
this bit is maintained in such a way that this is not exposed to the solar radiation. So, a value of 0
to 10 mV is generated and this is accumulated with time and then finally that can be converted to
W/m2 by using some kind of fitting coefficient.
So, principle is very simple, so we use the concept of thermocouple that means thermopiles are
used to measure the rise in EMF, so this is calibrated and finally we can calculate in terms of
W/m2. So, the kind of radiations we will get is called global radiations. If we save this, this part,
we will not allow a semi-circular strip, we use to save this glass envelope so that direct radiations
cannot come and strike on this black surface.
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So, only radiation will come from the other side, this is a scattered part or diffuse radiation. The
kind of radiations we will get under this condition is called diffuse radiation. So, have to save
this glass envelope, so that direct radiations cannot be, cannot strike this glass envelope. And
there is a procedure how to install this shading ring, so this is called shading ring, shading ring.
So, this shading ring is used for measurement of diffuse radiations. There are many applications
of this radiation like material testing research, assessment or efficiency of solar collectors and
photovoltaic devices.
Now, let us learn something about pyrheliometer. So, this is a very good instrument and very
costly instrument and normally this is used for measurement of beam solar irradiance. So, this
sunlight enters as you can see here, sunlight enters through this tube, so I can write or I can make
this kind of arrangement how this can be measured, so we will have absorber and then we will
have one more, this is absorber and then we will have thermopile. This part is thermopile.
And I will have some kind of support here and then radiation will come and then strike and then
this radiation will come and this will be here. And this is absorber and of course we need some
kind of arrangement, so to see whether it is aligned or not. So, we can see from here and we need
some kind of tracking device here. This kind of tracking device.
And this angle is called acceptance angle, angle. So, what happens if you see this figure, this
structure is something like that, solar radiation pass through this and this is a tube through which
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solar radiation penetrates and there is a absorber. So, special kind of materials are applied here in
order to increase the absorptivity and this thermopile is attached here. So, this one as as
discussed in the in case of pyranometer, so one junction is maintained here and other junction is
somewhere here, which should not be exposed with solar radiation, so we can get the mV
generator or EMF generation here.
So, once we know the EMF, then we can calibrate and finally we can get in terms of W/m 2. So,
in order to here, what is the difference between pyranometer and pyrheliometer, so here we need
to track the normal solar radiations, only normal solar radiation is allowed to enter in this tube
and we can measure the intensity of the normal solar radiation.
Of course, some amount of diffuse radiation also penetrate but that’s a very negligible amount.
So, the kind of radiation what we will get by doing these calculations or measurement we will
get normal radiation. So, this is two axis tracking, so two two axis tracking two axis tracking. So,
what happens we can access in the 2 dimensions, one is this way, another is this way. So, two
ways we can track it in order to capture the normal radiation.
So, this as I have written here, sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed
on the thermopile which converts the heat to the electric signal that can be recorded. The signal
voltage is converted via a formula to measure W/m2. And of course we need to use solar tracking
devices to track the normal radiations. And already we have explained what are the components,
we need the sensors like thermopiles and protecting cap.
And as far as applications are concerned, this kind of instruments can be used in meteorology,
material testing research, assessment of the efficiency of the solar collectors and photovoltaic
devices.
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Now, let us learn the other instrument which is used for measurement of duration of sunshine
hours in a particular day. So, here we used CAMPBELL-STOKES recorder. So, in this
measurement we will have one spherical bowl shape structure and we will have some kind of
strips, so solar radiation is focused by using this glass sphere to a point on the paper strip which
is held concentrically with respect to this glass envelope and there is a groove where we can fix
this paper strip.
Whenever there is a bright sunshine, so that image form is intense enough to burn the strip, so as
the sun is moving in the sky, then these burnt trace will also move from the original focal point
or burning point till burning takes place. So this burnt trace, this length of the burnt or burnt trace
is directly proportional to the duration of the bright sunshine hours. So, that way we can measure
the duration of the bright sunshine hours.
So, this device that records the amount of sunshine durations at a given locations and a burnt
trace whose length is proportional to the duration of the sunshine is obtained on the strip. So,
once we know this burnt trace then from that we can calculate the duration of the bright sunshine
hours.
So, this is very, very good instrument, so basically what it does, though this sphere is used to
form a image here and this strip is time specific. So, same strip cannot be used for throughout the
years. So, there are many strips, so which can be applied for particular duration, maybe so
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January to February one strip, then February to say April one strip, so that way there are different
kind of strips can be used for measurement of brightness of the sun for a particular month.
So, this slide shows the different kind of sensors used for radiation measurement, so we can have
heat flux sensors or thermopile detectors. So, structure of those sensors can be seen, so this is
something like that and heat flux sensors are something like that. And there are sunshine duration
sensors which is available in the market, these kind of sensors are also used for measurement of
brightness of the sun or sunshine duration.
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So, now let us discuss something about solar radiation data because we must know the unit used
for measurement of solar radiation and then what is the source of solar radiation data. So,
normally we use W/m2 as a standard unit for solar radiation flux but one very interesting or very
renowned scientist Samuel Langley who made the first measurement of the spectral distribution
of the sun. To honor his contributions, there is a unit called langleys, which is also used to
represent solar radiation or radiation flux, which is also used to represent solar radiation flux.
That is 1 langley is equal to 1 cal/cm2 and if we convert to kWh/m2, it is something like 1.163 ×
10-2 kWh/m2. So, that means 1 langley = 1.163 × 10-2 kWh/m2. So, if we see in terms of langleys,
the amount of energy received in Indian context, so this is about 450 langleys/day for summer
season, if we consider global radiation.
So, that means that the global radiation received in India is about 450 langleys/day and peak is
about 600 langleys/day and this is maybe in the month of May-June and of course the place like
Rajasthan and Gujarat are mostly exposed to the sun, so they are receiving more langleys per day
compared to rest of the countries. And in winter months this average global radiation is found to
be about 300 to 400 langleys/day.
And when we talk about diffuse radiation, so annual average diffuse radiation received in India is
about 175 langleys/day and maximum is about 300 langleys/day and this is may be in the month
of July and Gujarat is the place where we get maximum solar radiation. And we get minimum of
values 75 to 100 in the month of November and December that means 75 to 100 langleys/day.
And of course, there are many sources from where we can get the radiation data. There are
institutions where they generate radiations data and they compile it and if we buy it then of
course we can get the, all the spectrum radiations. So, as far as Indian map is concerned we can
see here so which portion is having higher intense radiations as we can see this portion is very
deep or say very highly intense radiation fall in this region.
And of course this locations, this part like southern part and other part as you can see 5 to, 5.5 to
6 1.163 × 10-2 kWh/m2-day is received in those locations and about 5 to 5.5 is about these
locations is about, this is about 5 to 5.5 kWh/m 2-day. So here, it is somewhat higher, it is about
6.5 is very good for solar kWh/m2-day. And we can see these portions are very erratic because of
climate is somewhat different and so here about 3.5 to 4 kWh/m 2-day is received.
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So, that way it’s very difficult that same instrument cannot be or same product we can install in
all the places but you cannot expect that same efficiency we will get, throughout the locations, so
which a radiation specific. So, radiation data we can get from many sources and we can we can
do our calculations and we can design our solar components based on the radiation data.
And one very interesting things we need to discuss about instantaneous and global diffuse flux,
so normally we use Ig and Id. So, this is the instantaneous global flux and this is the instantaneous
diffuse flux. And unit is W/m2. So, as already we have discussed this instantaneous nomenclature
can also be used for hourly variations. So, it is assumed that in 1hour time, this radiation is not
varying much, so that’s why we can use the same terminology for representing hourly values of
global and diffuse flux.
So, these expressions are hold good for both instantaneous global and diffuse flux as well as
hourly values of global and diffuse flux, and Id. Sometimes we are interested to know that daily
global and diffuse flux incident over a whole day. So, under that conditions we use this kind of
terminology Hg and Hd. So, this all about daily global and diffuse flux incident over a whole day.
So, if we see precisely these units, so these two units are something like kWh/m 2-day or kJ/m2-
day.
And here what we can write unit of these hourly values of global and diffuse radiations are
something like kWh/m2-hr or maybe kJ/m2-hr. On the top of it sometimes maybe researchers are
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interested about average values of hourly values of global and diffuse radiations. Under that
conditions, what we will use? We will use I g and I d . So this is for average values of hourly
global and diffuse radiation flux. Also sometimes researchers are required average values of
daily global and diffuse radiation.
If we are concerned about average of daily global and diffuse radiation, then what we will use
H g and H d . These two are very, very important because most of the cases we need to use the
average values because in a single day data we cannot design a solar system, so we need a long
range data and we need average values of those data. So, once we have those average values,
then we can use it for calculations, for amount of radiation what is received on a particular
locations and which is finally useful for design of collectors.
So, what influences the solar radiations? That is first thing is earth sun distance, this has been
demonstrated, how this is influence this solar radiation. Because we can see the variation of
extra-terrestrial radiation with respect to the days. So, it varies with time and relative tilt and time
of the day.
So, these are the parameters which influences the solar radiations and of course we define
irradiance and irradiation. So, irradiance is rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface
per unit area of the surface. And irradiation is, when we integrate this irradiance over time what
we get that is irradiation. And sometimes we use insulation also, the terminology insulation is
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used which apply specifically to solar energy irradiation. So, these terminologies are used in
most of the cases when we deal with radiation studies.
Now, come to the summary of this lecture. So, today what we have learned about different
instruments used for measurement of solar radiation. So, pyrheliometer is used for normal
radiation or direct radiation and pyranometer is used for diffuse and global radiation. By using
shading ring, we can measure diffuse radiation or without using shading ring we can measure
global radiation.
And of course we have learned how duration of sunshine is recorded by using a sunshine
recorder, so sunshine recorder is very important instrument for understanding or measuring the
brightness of the sun or sunshine duration. And also we have studied the concerns of solar
equipment designer, so what condition solar designer has to adopt for the analysis because there
are options. So, we have to use the appropriate options for designing the system and designing
the components.
And also we have studied the units and units of radiation, so this is W/m 2, so sometimes we have
to represent average of hourly, sometimes we have to represent average of daily and sometimes
instantaneous values we need to measure. And of course radiation data, how this radiation datas
are applied and from where this radiation data can be obtained for further analysis. So, thank you
for watching this video.
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Department of Centre for Energy
Lecture No. 05
Geometry, angles and measurement - I
Dear students. Today, we will discuss solar radiation geometry. So, before we start solar
radiation geometry let us summarize what we have discussed in the last lecture. So, we are
discussing about different instrument used for measurement of solar radiation and duration of
sunshine hours.
So, we have learned how these different instruments work. So, for measurement of normal
radiation we have to use pyrheliometer and for measurement of global and diffuse radiation
we have to use pyranometer.
And for measurement of duration of brightness of the sun we have to use sunshine recorder.
So, these 3 instruments are very, very important for measurement of radiation parameters.
Also we have studied the different units like langleys, what is W/m2. So, how these
parameters are represented if we are dealing with instantaneous values? We will use only Ig if
we are interested for global radiations.
Then Id in case of diffused radiations, then In is for normal radiation. And if we are interested
about hourly average then we will put a bar on the top of these parameters. And sometimes
we are also interested to know the variation of radiations in daily basis. So, under that
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conditions what we are going to use is Hg, Hd then Hn. So, again if we are interested to know
the average values say for example monthly average value if we are interested.
Then monthly average of daily radiation if we would like to know then we will use a bar on
the top of it. So, these parameters we have learned in the last class. Also we have studied the
radiation patterns on a clear sky and on a cloudy sky. So, in cloudy sky, lot of peaks and
valleys are observed, but in case of clear sky or cloudless sky, so these variations is
something like like this. So, normally maximum radiation is observed at the noon. So this is
about 12 noon.
So, these parameters were studied and also we have studied the radiation map. So, sometimes
radiation maps are used to know the radiation spectrum of a particular region. So, we have
studied for example for the country like India.
Now come to our today’s lecture, so radiation geometry we need to understand very clearly,
then only we can do lot of calculations which is required for estimation of global radiation,
diffused radiation or normal radiations. So, first thing we must know what is beam flux and
equivalent beam flux? So, if we have to know this beam flux, suppose this is the Earth
surface and solar radiation is coming.
So, solar radiation may come from any direction, so this may be In. This is the beam flux or I
should write Ibn Ibn is a beam flux; b stands for beam radiation. So, this is the beam radiation
falling on a particular place. So, if I am interested to convert the equivalent beam flux then
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what we need to do? Then this is the orientation of the radiation and then we have to draw a
line which is normal to the surface.
So, let this angle be θ and this is Ibn. So, equivalent value will be equivalent beam flux will be
Ibn cos θ. So, for all the calculations we need to do this. So, this is nothing but this is normal
to the surface. So, solar radiation may come from this side also, maybe from this side also. So
we have to convert it with respect to the normal to the surface. So that’s why it is called
equivalent beam flux.
So, this theta is a functions of many angles like declination, tilt, solar azimuth angle, altitude
angle and so on. So, we need to understand how this cos θ is varies with respect to different
angles.
So, let us see what are different angles are present. Angle of incidence this θ what we have
studied in the last slides. So, this angle is something like this is the Ibn, this is the surface, this
is the solar radiations and this angle is θ. So, for example here what we are considering is the
horizontal surface. So, this is the beam radiation falling from the Sun and is striking on the
surface which is horizontal and this is your normal to the horizontal. This is normal normal to
the horizontal normal to the horizontal.
So, there are some cases where we have to study when it is inclined. So inclined at an angle
say β and β may vary, β may vary. So, we will learn how it varies. So, this angle is β, this is
known as slope or tilt angle. So, first case what we have studied that is horizontal surface and
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second case, it is inclined surface. So, if it is inclined then our things will be something like
this. This is the normal and solar radiation maybe here.
So, this is your normal to the horizontal surface. And already we have studied what is zenith
angle. If it is horizontal surface and its normal to the horizontal is this and solar radiation is
falling here, so this angle is θz. So, if we consider a inclined surface and if solar radiation is
falling here and normal to the inclined surface is something like this.
So, this angle will be θ, but when we are concerned about normal to the horizontal and when
this Sun beam makes an angle with the normal to the horizontal, that is called zenith angle, so
this is θz. These things should be clear when we draw many angles and with time you will
understand the importance of those angles and how these angles are different and latitude.
Let us learn what is latitude? So, this slide shows different pictures to represent latitude and
longitude. So, this parallel planes these are the parallel planes, parallel to the equator are
latitude and if it is perpendicular to the equator are longitude. So, this latitude and longitude
are used for coordinate system. Of course we need elevation as well to specify the coordinate
completely.
So, here if we have to define latitude say for example, let us consider a place here. I am
interested to know the latitude of that location then what I will do? I will draw a line from
this location to the center of the Earth and we will project it project this line on the equatorial
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plane. This maybe our equatorial plane now. So this will be something like this and this angle
will be phi. Of course we can write this and we can have this observer’s meridian.
This maybe observer observer’s meridian or meridian and this is the position of the observer
maybe position of the observer. So, I hope you understand this. So, this is the position of the
observer and we will connect the center of the Earth to the position of the observer and we
project it on a equatorial plane. This maybe P I can say, this maybe Q and this angle is ϕ. So,
this ϕ is nothing but latitude of the location.
So this ϕ we need to calculate in many of the occasions for calculations of many radiation
parameters. And also we can see these lines, these lines are longitudinal lines. So, as you can
see this, this is the prime meridian where our longitude is 0 and then we can see the
coordinate system and this is the equatorial plane what we have explained here this is the
equatorial plane and this ϕ varies from -90 to +90. This is the variation of ϕ.
So, let us discuss the other angle like declination. So, what declination signifies or defines
like the angular displacement of the Sun from the plane of the Earth’s equator. So, if we have
to present or we have to define, let us draw this sun here and maybe Earth here and we will
connect the center and maybe we will draw this as north, south and of course we will have
east and west here and this is this is equatorial plane.
This is equatorial plane and if here if we have to define declination δ, so what we do? This is
Sun, this is Earth. We connect the center of the Sun and center of the Earth and this line will
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project on the equatorial plane. So, this angle is δ. So, when we connect center of the Sun and
center of the Earth and that line will project on the equatorial plane and that angle is known
as δ or declination.
So, declination is very, very important and how this declination varies we will discuss now.
So, for example, if we have to show the variation of declination throughout the year that is
variations in such declination we can study. So, maybe we can show it here 0 then we have
this maybe -10, this maybe -20 and this maybe -30 and here we will have 1, 2 and 3 this is
maybe 10, this is 20, this is 30.
And we will have this maybe June this is maybe December 21 and we need 1 then we have 2
and 3 we need 4. So, how this will vary? December 21 then we have March I will write M 21,
this maybe June 21 then we have September 21 and we will have again December 21. So,
declination will vary, so this is delta and this is the month and this will vary. So, this will be -
23.45 here 23.45 will be somewhere here and in March 21 it will be 0.
And June 21 it will be +23.45, it will be here somewhere and in September 21 again it will be
0 and because these two are equinox; winter equinox and summer equinox. So this is winter
equinox, this is summer equinox and here again it will be -23. So, if we plot these variations,
this will come something like this. So variation of the Sun’s declination is something like
that.
So if we have to find out the declination of any day, we can calculate it by using δ is
 360
23.45 sin  284  n  , n is the nth day of the year. So, we can use this plot or we can
 365 
calculate by using this δ if we know which date we are doing the calculation. So, n is the n th
day nth day of the year of the year. So, as you can see from this plot, this variation of δ is
varies from -23.45 degree which appears in December 21.
And maximum is +23.45 which appears in June 21. So, that’s why this variation is from -
23.45 to +23.45. So what we can summarize here, so declination is very, very important. It
defines the angular displacement of Sun from the plane of the Earth equator. So, this is the
Earth equator, plane of the Earth equator, this is the δ and this is the angular displacement.
And also another way we can define, this is the angle between the line joining the center of
the Sun and the center of the Earth and projection of that line on the equatorial plane.
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That angle is nothing but δ or declination and declination varies from -23.45. So, -23.45
appears in December 21 and maximum is found to be +23.45 which appears on the day of
June 21. And also we can calculate declination and this will be in degree or I should write in
degree degree.
 360
So,   23.45 sin  284  n  . So, n is the nth day of the year. So, for example for example
 365 
if we have to calculate the δ for say January 1. Say January January 1, so n will be 1. So
under that condition, we can calculate what will be the value of δ or for example if we are
interested for February, February 1; then what will be n? n will be (31+1), it will be 32. So, if
we substitute the value of 32 here in place of n, then we will get the δ for February 1. So,
that’s how we can calculate the declination on a particular day.
Now let us study hour angle. So, hour angle is very, very important. So we need to calculate
local apparent time for calculation of hour angle. So hour angle we represent like ω. So, it
represents the angular displacement of the Sun, east or west of the local meridian due to the
rotation of Earth on its axis at 15o /hour. That means it signifies like 1 hour is 15 o or 15o
represents 1 hour.
So, if we plot it like this way and maybe we can write this and I can write a line here. So this
is ω is 0 and this is called solar noon at 12:00 hour and if we divide maybe this is 11 or this
maybe 10, so this angle is 15o. When this difference is one hour so one hour is 15o this is also
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15o. Total hour angle will be here this angle will be 30o. So, this way we can measure and it
measures the angular displacement of the Sun.
East or west of the local meridian due to rotation of Earth on its axis at 15o /hour. So one hour
is 15o. We will do lot of calculations how to calculate ω and what happens in case of sunset
and what happens in case of sunrise? So, all the things we need to calculate and here we can
say ω is positive in the morning. This part is forenoon, this is forenoon and this is afternoon.
In case of forenoon ω is positive, for afternoon ω is negative. We normally this sign

conventions normally considered and here ω is +90 at 6:00 hours solar time and this will be ω
will be -90 at 18:00 hours and this is also solar time. So, what we need to learn here that is
solar hour angle is very, very important for solar calculations and 1 hour is 15 o.
And how we have defined this hour angle? Like it is a angular displacement of the Sun and it
varies from -180 to +180. So, we will learn details when we solve some numerical problems
related to this hour hour angle.
So, now let us learn something about solar azimuth angle and inclination angle. So, this solar
azimuth angle is represented by γs and inclination is αa and this is related to horizontal
surface. Let us draw one horizontal surface something like this and maybe we will find out
the center here. This is north, this is south, east and then we have west. So, normal to this
horizontal surface is something like this and solar radiation is falling from here.
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So, this angle is always known, this is zenith angle θz. Please remember that this is horizontal
surface so we are not talking about inclined surface. This is a horizontal surface and normal
to the horizontal is this, this is normal to the normal to the horizontal surface horizontal
surface. And this is the incident radiation incident beam radiation. So, if this is projected here
and of course we we need not to explain to this.
So, maybe we can extend this somehow and this angle this angle is γs, that is solar azimuth
angle. So, this angle is angle made in horizontal surface, this is due South this is due South
due South. So, this is the angle in the horizontal plane. So what happens this is Sun so for Sun
beam radiation is falling on this horizontal surface and we have drawn this normal to the
horizontal here, this is normal to the horizontal and this angle is always zenith angle.
And then if we project this beam radiation on the horizontal plane and this angle is this
projected line and the line towards due South, this angle is γs and this angle is inclination
angle or αa. So, this is the angle on horizontal plane between the line due South and the
projection of the Sun’s ray on the horizontal plane. This is the horizontal plane and it is
positive when it is measured from south or west.
So, it is positive when when measured from south towards east. So, please keep in mind that
these things are happening in horizontal surface. So, we are not talking about the inclined
surface. So, when we deal with inclined surface then we will talk about surface azimuth
angle. So, this angle γs is the angle on a horizontal plane between the line due South and the
projections of the Sun’s ray on the horizontal plane.
So, this is important and this angle is inclination angle. So, these informations are also
required while calculating these solar radiation parameters.
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Now, let us learn about solar azimuth angle, so this azimuth angle is important because most
of the time we will be dealing with this γ and this γ is nothing but surface azimuth angle. So,
this is related with inclined surface. So, let us make an horizontal surface and maybe we will
take some kind of this and maybe we can have this kind of inclined surface. So, this maybe
this angle is β.
So, normal to the horizontal we can draw this way and this normal to this inclined surface
will be something like this. So, solar radiation normal solar radiation is falling here, so this
angle is θ, but this angle is θz. So, now I think you can understand what is the difference
between θ and θz. Now, if we project this normal to the horizontal surface on this horizontal
plane and this angle is γ.
So, how we can define this? So this is Sun, so it is the angle in the horizontal plane, this is the
horizontal plane between the line due South, this is due South because this is N, this is S, this
is east and this is west. So this is due South and the horizontal projection is a projection of the
normal of the inclined surface. So, this is the normal of the inclined surface and this is the
projection. So this angle is γ which is nothing, but solar azimuth angle.
So, this angle is very, very important because most of the time we are going to use this
gamma for our calculations. And variation of γ can be seen, its -180 to +180. Also there are
certain cases like slope towards the south if we say slope is towards the south, then value of γ
will be 0 and slope towards the north will be 180, then slope towards the east is -90.
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Slope towards west is +90, then slope towards the southeast is - 45o, slope towards the south
west is +45o. So, these are different angles we need to understand and we can use it for
reducing calculations.
So, slope is already defined. So what is slope now? So, if we maybe we can draw again this
surface and maybe horizontal surface and if we draw this kind of systems, so this angle this
angle is β or maybe if we draw this kind of system if we consider horizontal surface and
maybe inclined surface. So, this angle is β so this is β. So, it varies from 0 to 180 and
sometimes its β > 90.
That means the surface has a downward facing components. So this slope also we will learn
and let us combine all the angles and let’s see how it look like.
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So, again I will draw one horizontal surface and we will write this is the north, this is south,
east and west. And we will draw this draw this and that makes an angle this is an angle so this
if we see this is the angle this angle is β and this is normal to the horizontal and we will have
normal to this inclined surface. This is normal to the inclined surface and we will have solar
radiation will fall here and already you know this angle is θ.
I will write here and this angle is θz, cos θz is zenith angle and θ is incidence angle. So,
incidence angle already we have defined and if we project it on the horizontal plane and we
will write here. So, this angle is azimuth surface azimuth angle γ and if we project it, this one
here on this plane and the kind of angle what we will get this is solar azimuth angle and this
is αa.
This is your altitude or inclination angle αa. This is Sun or we can write this way because Sun
is radiating this beam energy and is falling on this inclined surface. So, now we can learn the
different angles like in this surface we have introduced many angles like β then θz, θ, αa, γ, γs.
So, now what we will study, we will study the cos θ, how this cos θ is a function of many
angles.
So, we are not going to derive the expression how this angles are related with cos θ, but
finally we will use the result of this geometry. So, how this cos θ is a function of different
angles? So, as you understand so briefly what we can discuss in this slides, so this is a
horizontal surface. Let us let me write this is horizontal surface horizontal surface and this is
inclined surface inclined, this is inclined surface. And this is normal to the horizontal this is
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normal to the horizontal horizontal surface and this is normal to the inclined surface normal
to the inclined surface inclined surface.
So, also for your understanding and this is zenith. So, these are different angles involve and
this is the inclination, β is slope and θ is zenith and θz is zenith angle and θ is incidence angle
and α is altitude angle, then γs is solar azimuth angle and this γ is surface azimuth angle.
Now, I will relate this θ with respect to all these angles.
So, how this can be expressed? I will I will write

cos   sin  sin  cos   cos  cos  cos  sin    cos  cos  cos  cos   sin  cos  sin    cos  sin  sin  sin 
So, this is an expression which relates cos θ with different angles. So sin ϕ then cos we have
this and then we have. So this is maybe equation A. So, every time we need to do this kind of
calculations if we know this δ, β, ϕ and ω, then we can substitute here and we can calculate
what is cos θ. Because for all the cases, we need to find out what is cos θ, that is equivalent
beam flux. This has to be calculated.
So, now we will study different cases like we can say these are special cases. What happens if
β is 0, what happens if γ is 0, what happens if β is 90o? So all those cases we will study and
then later on, we will solve numerical problems to strengthen your understanding. So, we will
study some cases, maybe in case 1, for vertical surface. So, in case of vertical surface that is
beta is 90o.
So, if we substitute β value 90o in equation A then what will happen? So we will go back to
the slide and if we substitute β is 90o. So, if we substitute β 90o so here I can substitute here
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so cos β will be 0 and sin 90 will be 1 so this will be 1. So, this will retain and here and this
will be retained, so this will be 1 and this will be 0, this part will be 0 means this expression
will be 0, this will be 0 and then this will be 1.
So, if we simplify then what expression we will get here; so I can write if β = 90 then cos θ
will be it will simplify to a expression of something like this.
cos  sin  cos  cos  cos   cos  sin  cos   cos  sin  sin  . So, this will be the expression. So,
for a vertical surface, β is 90o. So we can use this expression to calculate cos θ.
This equation maybe we can name as B and for horizontal surface where β = 0. So, again we
can substitute the value β = 0. So, β = 0 means here it will be 1 cos 0 one then this part will
be 0, this part will be 0 again and this part will be 0, this part will be 0 and this part will be 1.
So, if we simplify then what expression we will get, we can write here
cos  sin  sin   cos  cos  cos  . So this is equation C so this is the equation C.
So, if the surface is horizontal then we can use this expression to calculate cos θ. For inclined
surface facing due South, so due South means what we can do we have γ = 0 and inclined
surface maybe at certain angle β, so only γ will be 0 here. So, if you substitute γ then we can
simplify this and we can get an equation of something like this, sin of or get an expression of
something like this. cos   sin  sin      cos  cos  cos    . So, this expression we can
name as equation D. Now, come to the case 4, for vertical surface facing due South, so
vertical surface means β = 90o and due South is γ = 0 0o 0o and β degree here. So, if we
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substitute this value, then this equation or maybe equation B will simplify something like
cos  sin  cos  cos   cos  sin  .
So, we can name this equation as E. So in the last case or there are many more cases so as per
my formulation. So for inclined surface facing due South, so here what happens we have γ is
180o. So, this is facing due North, so our expression will be
cos   sin  sin      cos  cos  cos    .
So, this equation will be something like this. So, this will be F. So, these are the special cases
we have formulated. So at different conditions, we can use different expressions. But straight
away we can use the original equations this equations which is good for all the cases just we
need to simplify. We need to consider say for example vertical surface β is 90, for horizontal
surface β is 0.
If it is due South, then γ is 0 degree so that way we need to consider and we can simplify this
expression and we can get different equations. So, once we simplify it then it is very easy to
calculate the value of cos θ.
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So, now let us discuss about sunrise, sunset and day length. So, at sunrise, the Sun’s rays are
parallel to the horizontal surface. So if this is the case if we take this Earth. So, when Sun is
here, sunrise is taking place. This should be something like this. So, it is something like
parallel to the horizontal surface. So, under that conditions, angle of incidence will be so for
this sunrise, angle of incidence angle of incidence that is θ or θi.
I can write θ or θi or so maybe θz will be 90o; because this will be 90o. So, for sunrise, the sun
rays are parallel to the horizontal surface and hence θ or θi or θz is equal to 90o. So, if we
substitute this value in the original equation A, which is functions of all the angles, so what
we will get, we will get something like cos i  0  cos  cos  cos  s  sin  sin  .
So, how we can simplify now? So we can take sin δ, sin ϕ in this side and then we can keep
cos of ϕ, cos of δ, cos of ωs on other side and we want cos of ωs which will be minus sin δ sin
of ϕ and then we will have cos of δ. We can interchange multiplicative and cos of ϕ. So, this
part sin δ by cos δ and sin ϕ by cos ϕ is nothing, but tan δ and tan ϕ.
So, now  s  cos 1 tan  tan   . So, we can calculate what is ωs which is nothing, but hour
angle. So, what we have calculated this is hour angle hour angle. So, this expression maybe,
we can write G. So, this angle between the sunrise and sunset will be how much? So, this
angle is 90 and again sunset, it will be 90 it will be 90o. So, if it is ωs for the sunrise, from
here to here then it will be just 2ωs.
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So, the angle between the sunrise and sunset will be 2×ωs. This will be 2  cos 1 tan  tan   .
So, this maybe we can write equation one equation number GH, I can write here. So, since
we know this 15o of hour angle of hour angle is equivalent to equivalent to 1 hour, then what
we can write, the duration of the duration of the sunshine hour will be, so if we represent td,
 cos 1 tan  tan   .

2
this will be t d 
15
So, this is the duration of the sunshine hour. So, if we know δ as declination and latitude of a
location, then we can calculate what is td which is nothing but duration of the sunshine hour.
So, this is very, very important findings. So by using this equation, we can calculate the
duration of the sunshine hour. So, what we have discussed in the slides, we tried to calculate
the day length.
So, while doing so, what we have done we have done angle of inclinations is 90o for sunrise
and sunset. So, if we substitute the value of 90o here in the cos θ, cos θi. So, we can simplify
this and finally what we can calculate is the hour angle for sunrise and same expression hold
good for sunset as well and also we know this 15 o of hour angle is equivalent to 1 hr.
So, this knowledge we can apply and we can calculate what is the duration of the sunshine
hour. So, as per calculation, it is found to be something like this. Like
 cos 1 tan  tan   . So, let us summarize here about this and in the next class, we will
2
td 
15
discuss some of the numerical problems related to the content we have covered in this present
video. So, thank you for watching this video.
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Lecture No. 06
Geometry, angles and measurement - II
So, in the last class, we are deriving the expression for ω s, it is hour angle. So, for horizontal
surface, the expression for hour angle is  s  cos 1  tan  tan   . This expression was derived and
we can calculate the day length here by using this expression. Since, 15 o is 1 hour, we apply this
knowledge to find out this day length and for forenoon for forenoon, this ω s will be positive and
for afternoon, this ωs will be negative.
So, these conventions will be used for calculations of ω s. So, finally, we can have this day length,
2
td; we can express in terms of td or maybe Smax which is equal to  s . So, if we substitute the
15
expression for ωs, this entire expressions the entire expression will look like this. So, let us study
what will happen in case of other surfaces.
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Say, for Inclined surface facing due south, so as you understand when we say due south, this γ =
0; that is surface azimuth angle is zero. So, the expression derived from horizontal surface will
hold good for inclined surface facing due south if the representative day lies between September
22 to march 21 and the location is in northern hemisphere. So, if this condition is applies, then of
course, we can use this expression for calculation of hour angle.
And here in this case, declination is negative. So, under this condition, these expressions can be
used for calculation of hour angle for inclined surface facing due south. The second case will be
something like if the day, the representative day considered between March 21 to September 22,
then we need to use this expression. So, these expressions can easily be derived by considering
theta is 90o, substituting the original equations A, what we have understood that cos θ is a
function of many angles.
So, accordingly we can know simplify the expressions and we can have this expression. So, here
what happens this declination is positive and for this case as a whole, if we interested to calculate
ωs then what we will do? We will do a  st is equal to minimum of both the expressions, this
and this then only minimum will be selected for the calculations. So, what we can summarize
here for inclined surface facing due south where γ = 0, that is surface azimuth angle is zero.
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Under that condition straightway, the expression which is hold good for horizontal surface, we
can apply straight way. So,  s  cos 1  tan  tan   if the day, the representative day lies between
September 22 to March 21. And the location is in northern hemisphere.
So, under that condition, we can use these expressions. In the second case, if the representative
day considered between March 21 to September 22, then we have to use this expression. And
finally of course, we will use the minimum of both the expressions for the calculation of ω st. So,
let us also learn something on more surface called inclined surface facing due north.
 
So, in this case what will happen, this  st  min cos 1  tan  tan   , cos 1  tan    tan   . In
earlier case, it was (ϕ-β). So, these expressions can all very easily derived from the original
equation by considering cos θ = 90o.
So, let us take one example to understand say for example, if we take an example to calculate ω st
for Inclined surface facing due south. So, this is the case for due north, so we would like to
exercise one problem to understand the concept how this can be calculated? So, this ω st you can
write Modulus so, earlier expression that is minimum of cos 1  tan  tan   .
So, then we have cos 1  tan    tan   . So, here if we take β is say 10o and if we consider the
day, one maybe June 21 and another maybe we have say, December 21. And if we know this
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June 21 and December 21, we can straightway calculate what is δ here for June 21. So, we can
use the graph what we have discussed before. So, δ will be -23.45 o, sorry this will be positive
and for this case it will be -23.45o.
 360
Or also, we can calculate the value of δ by using this equation   23.45 sin  284  n  . So, n
 365 
value, we need to calculate, because if we have to calculate for June, so n will be so January is, if
it is non leap year, January is 31 then February will be 28 for non leap year, then March will be
31, April may be 30, May again 31 and then June one. So, if we add it, 8+1=9+1=10+2=12 4,
4+3=7, then we have 7+3=10 12 and then 15 152 if we substitute these values, then we can
calculate what is δ.
So, we can use this expression for calculation of δ, otherwise we can use the plot what we have
discussed before. And if we know these values and also we need to know the location if we
consider the locations having latitude is 19o07’. So, that can be converted into degree; 19o +
7/60. So, this will be about 19.12o. So, this will be ϕ. So, now, if we substitute this value of ϕ
then δ and β in the expression, maybe here we can write A. So, A implies for, for the case 1 for
case 1, that is on June 21. So, if we substitute the value then we will get a value something like
ωst will be minimum, if we substitute those values here.
Then, based on the calculations will get 98.6o and will have 93.99o which is equivalent to 94.
Since we need to use minimum of these two expressions what we get, so, finally, our result will
be 93.99 which is equivalent to 94o. So, this ωst, this ωst because it is modulus it involves ±. So, it
will be ± 93.99o. And for if equation A, equation A for case 2, that is on December 21, ω st which
is modulus, what we will get based on the calculation that is minimum of is minimum.
So, if you substitute those values in expression A here, then what we will have, we will get 81.4 o
and then we will have 86.0o. So what we will get finally, it is 81.4o. So, this will be ± if we say
ωst. So plus is for forenoon and minus is for afternoon. So, this is the procedure how we need to
calculate ωst for this kind of situation, when inclined surface facing due south. And this variation
is due to declination as you can understand from this numerical exercise. So, if declination is
varying then our values of ωst is also varying.
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So, now, let us discuss something on solar time. So, this solar time is very, very important
because when we need to calculate hour angle then we need to use this solar time. So, how to
calculate the solar time is very, very important. So, what is this solar time? This is passage of
time with reference to the position of sun in the sky. We take help of this clock time by using
two correlations.
The first correlation is, the time difference between the longitude of a location and the meridian
on which Standard Time is based. So, this is very, very important. First case, we should
remember the time difference between the longitude of the location and the meridian on which
Standard Time is based. So, every country so, a standard time is based on certain meridian, so
that is fixed. And for your information, the so correction has a magnitude of 4 minutes for every
degree difference in longitude.
So, this is very, very important. And the second correction is arises due to the length of the day.
That is known as equation of Time correction is due to the fact that Earth’s orbit and the rate of
rotation are subjected to small variations and the difference in minutes between the Solar time
and Standard Time. So, let us learn mathematically. So, this Solar time or Local apparent time is
Solar time / LAT  S tan dard time  4 Lst  Lloc   E .
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So, when to use this plus sign and when to use minus sign? So, minus sign is for the eastern
hemisphere, if the location is located in the Eastern Hemisphere, then we will use negative sign
and if the location considered is in Western Hemisphere then we will consider positive sign. And
this Lst is the standard meridian for the local time zone. For India, it is 81o44’. So, we can
convert it like 81o and then if you have to convert it to the degree again 44/60.
So, this will be something like this. So, finally it will be degree, so we can remove this. And L loc
is longitude of the location, so that is known to us. And this E is the Equation of time. So, this E,
equation of time can be calculated by using this equation. It is a long equation. So, if we
substitute the value of B here, so how to calculate B? B is something like B  n  1

360
.
365
So n is the nth day of the year. So, for example, if n = 1, say for January 1, then what will be the
value of B? It will be (1-1) ×360/365. So, this will be equal to 0. So under that condition, cos 0 is
1, so sin 0 is 0. So we can substitute here and finally we can calculate, what will be the value of
E on January 1. So, accordingly you can know, use this for calculation of solar time.
So, for example, if we have to find out this E value for February 1, then what will the value of n?
For February 1, so its value will be 31 for January is 31+1, it will be 32. Then we have to
substitute the value of n as 32 and then we can calculate B and then we can substitute the value
of B here in this equation and then we can find out what is E. So, the value what we will get for
E will be in minutes.
If we are not liking to do the calculations, we can use this plot for calculation of this E value. So,
this horizontal axis shows the number of days and vertical axis shows this minutes or E value.
So, on a particular day, we need to choose this point and then correspondingly, we get the value
of equation of time correction or E value. So, that way we can calculate. So, once we are done
with this E and we know these values Lst and Lloc, and we know the for which place we are doing
the calculation and if we know the standard time, then straight way you can calculate what is
Solar time.
And also we can define one term called Solar day. So, its nothing but the duration between two
consecutive solar noons, is not exactly 24 hours. So, it should be hours hours throughout the day.
So, this variation is there and this variation is taken care by this E. So, because of that, we need
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to know, consider this E value. So this is very, very important because most of the cases, or most
of the time, we need to calculate the value of ω, that is hour angle. So, if we have to calculate the
hour angle, then of course we need to calculate the solar time and local apparent time.
So, in order to calculate this local apparent time, we need many parameters, like standard time of
that locations. Then we have standard meridian for the local time zone, and then longitude of the
location, and then E value or equation of time. And this can be calculated by using the equation
here, or maybe we can use this plot. Also we have defined Solar day. So, this variation is always
there throughout the day, so we need to take care of that.
So just for your information, we would like to list the difference between Local time and
Standard Time. So, meaning is like local time implies the time of a place determined on the basis
of apparent moment of the sun and Standard time refers to the fixed time for places falling in the
same meridian set in a country by law.
So, that is important. And in case of local time, it changes continuously with change in longitude.
And for standard time, it remains constant for a particular country. And for local time, the places
on the same longitude have same local time. And for standard time, this places of the same
longitude have different time zones. And finally, this is reckoned local time is estimated by
shadow cast by the sun and standard time is estimated by time zones.
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So, these are the differences between Local time and solar time. So, these informations are
required while know, classifying these two timescales.
Also we must know, see for, for a particular month, if we have to calculate the radiation
spectrum, then every day we need to calculate. Say for January, we need to calculate it for 31
days. So, what researchers have done, they have identified one day in a particular month, which
will represent the entire month.
So, there are many recommendations like Klein's recommendations. People have done a lot of
studies. Based on the result of the studies, they have identified those important dates. So, for
January, the researchers have identified 17th of January will give you the representative figure of
the radiations or other calculations. For February, it is 16, then March it is again 16, April is 15,
May is 15, June is 11 and then July is 17 again, August is 16, then we have September is 15 and
October is 15, November is 14 and December is 10.
And also we can see, how this n varies as nth day of the year. So, n is 17 for January, then it is 47
then 17, then that way we can calculate. And declination of variation is also shown here, how it
varies? So, January 17, it is 20.9, then minus 13.0 for February then minus 2.4 for March and
then you see 9.4 is for April and is increasing and again decreasing. Because already you know,
the variation of δ with respect to the months.
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So, this value of δ is 0 for 2 Equinoxes, Summer Equinox and Winter equinox. So, summer
equinox will be on September 21 and winter equinox will be March 21. And is minimum on
December 21 and is maximum on June 21, which is equal to 23.45 o.
Now, let us solve one very interesting problem. So, this will give you a lot of understanding
about what we have discussed so far; as far as angles presence in a solar geometries are
concerned. So, problem goes something like this. Determine the angle of incidence of direct
irradiance or solar irradiation on an inclined surface at 45o from the horizontal with orientation of
30o west of south and located at Mumbai. Latitude is given as 72 o49’ East and 18o54’ North at
1:30 hours, this is 1:30 hours on December 15, 2019 say. The standard longitude for India is
81o44’ East.
So, if we have to start this problem, then we will start with the data. So, solution goes something
like this. So, here first let us identify that date n. So, what is the value of n here? n is on
December 15, 2019. So, if we calculate the way I have shown like 31 and 28 because there is a
non leap year month, so it is 28. So, for leap year month, it will be 29 and then you have 31 then
we have 30, that will go on.
So, if we add it, then finally we will have n is equal to so, it will be 349. So, that I have
calculated. So once we know n, then we can calculate what is declination, δ. So, declination
angle is 23.45 is sin 360/365. So, I will remove this. Then we have (284+349). So, this value, we
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can calculate and this is found to be -23.33o. So, declination we can find out here. Also we need
ϕ okay. What is latitude?
So, latitude is given as 72o49’. So then 72o + (49/60), that will become degree because we need
to convert it to degree. Then this ϕ will be as per my calculation, this phi is 18.9 o. And β value is
given as 45o and it says that this surface is oriented at 30o west to the south. So, if we remember,
so if we make a plot of something like this and this is north, this is south, this is east, this is west.
And this is west to the south. So this angle, so this is γ, this is γ and this is surface azimuth angle.
This gamma is given as 30o. So these values are given. Now, what we will do, we will calculate
the value of θ. Before we calculate the value of θ, we need to calculate what is E value? So, once
you know E, then we will calculate what is local apparent time. So, once you know local
apparent time, then we will calculate what is ω.
So, this way we will proceed and finally we will calculate what is θ. So, how will calculate now,
let us see.
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So, δ, what we have calculated now, its value is -23.33o. And this E value, we need to calculate,
because n is known now, so n value is 349. If you substitute here, then we will get a value of B,
which is equal to 343.23. And if we substitute this B value here, in here and here and what we
will get, this E value. And its value as per my calculation, it is showing 4.9341 minutes.
So, students can verify this result. And now we will calculate what is solar time? Already you
know, solar time is Standard time. Standard Time, Standard Time. We need to use minus sign
here, because the place what we have considered is Mumbai and this Mumbai is located in
eastern hemisphere. So, this minus then have standard time longitude, Standard Time longitude,
then we have minus longitude of the location, longitude of the location then plus E.
So, standard time is 13:30. 1:30 is the time then 13:30 is the hours I can write here then Standard
time longitude is we can go back.
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So, here so standard longitude for India is 81o44’, so what we can write; it will be 81o + (44/60).
So, if we do it, then it will be about 81.733. So, this is important. So, we got from here.
So, if we substitute this value 81, we missed one term here 4. So, 4 multiplied by (81.733-
72.816). So, again we have E value already known to us 4.9341. So, this will be equal to 12.9926
and this is something like 12 hours, then you have 59 minutes. So, since we know 1 hour is 15 o,
so from that we can calculate what is ω? So, ω will be 14.75o. Because as you can understand
this ω, so this variation will be something like this.
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So, this part is positive and this is negative. So this is about 12 hours, so this is 1 o'clock here. So
if it is one o'clock then it will be 15o, so this angle, so this angle is 14.75o. Since this angle is in
afternoon, so we will use the convention ω = - 14.75 o. So, now what we will do, we will
substitute the value of ω in the original equations.
This cos θ, this θ is a function of many angles. So, if you substitute all the values here because all
values are known to us now, ω value is known to us, then β is known to us, so β = 45 o, then ϕ we
have calculated 18.9o, then γ is 30o and δ = - 23.33o. So these all values are known to us. If we
substitute here, then we will get a value of something like 0.826258. Just we need to substitute
the values and finally we can have θ is equal to 34.28o.
So, this is a very interesting problem. So, it includes many components like how to calculate δ,
how to calculate E, how to use this E for calculation of Solar time or Local apparent time. And
then finally, how this ω can be derived from this Solar time and then finally, we can use all the
values given in the problem for calculation of θ. This θ is nothing but Incidence angle.
So, I will just recall what is θ? So, this if sun rays here, it makes an angle this θ. And if we start
from here and maybe sunrise, so this will be your θ or this θ is nothing but θ z. So, this is the
Incidence angle. So this angle is 34.284 for this case. And this is the procedure we need to know,
calculate the value of θ for this kind of situation.
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So, again let us solve one more problem. This problem goes something like, calculate the number
of daylight hour, that is sunshine hour in Guwahati on January second and July second. And
latitude of the Guwahati is given to you as 26.15o north. So, if our problem statement is
something like this, then we can solve. Say for, for January second, what will be the value of n?
n will be 2.
And accordingly, we can calculate, what is δ? Because already we know the expression for δ is
  23.45 sin 
 360
284  n  . So, if we substitute this, the value of n is 2 then we can have δ
 365 
value, which is equal to -22.93o. And for July second, so n will be 183. So, δ will be about
23.04o, since these δ values are known to us and also ϕ is known, this is 26.15 o north.
So, if we substitute these values in this expression or S max  2  cos 1  tan  tan   . So, if you
15
substitute the value of ϕ and δ here, then what we will have that daylight hours. So, this will be
the daylight hours for January second will be 10.40 hours. And for this case, t d or Smax will be
13.51 hours. So, in this problem, what we have discussed; how to calculate this day length on a
particular day.
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So, for January second, the value is found to be 10.4 hours and for July 2, this t d or daylight
hours is found to be 13.51 hours. So, this is the procedure, how to calculate the day length on a
particular day ok and particular place.
Now, let us learn something about Sun Path diagram. The Sun Path diagrams are used to define
the position of sun with respect to any geographical location on Earth at a given day and given
time throughout the year. And there are many applications. Out of the many applications, 3
primary applications are Number 1, Optimum orientation of solar panels for installation. So, we
need to maintain that optimum angle and orientation, so that we can get maximum exposure to
the solar radiation.
And second point is very, very important for architect. They normally follow this Sun Path
diagram for designing buildings to maintain thermal comfort. And the third concern is Solar
thermal energy devices installation, planning by shadow determination. So, this is also one of the
important aspects of the Sun Path diagram.
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So, the Sun Path diagrams determines the solar azimuth, already we have learned what is Solar
azimuth and how this can be calculated? And solar altitude angles to study the position of sun
from Earth. So, now we are concerned about the position of Sun from the Earth. So, how to
identify the position of Sun? So, we will discuss how this can be done and the solar azimuth and
altitude angles are the functions of latitude, hour angle and declination.
So, these are all are familiar with you now; what is latitude, what is hour angle? What is
declination angle? So, this figure, if you see this figure very minutely, what you can understand?
So, this is a north, this is south, this is east and west. So, Sun will always move from east to west,
so there are 3 lines. So, if we consider a location in the Northern Hemisphere and if we are
interested for say, winter.
So, how this Sun path will look like? For winter, this will move something like this and for
summer, it will move something like this. And in the solstice, this movement will be something
like this, where day length are same. So, here what my concern is, so this East West line is
intersecting this East West line of this observer when Sun Path is on March 21 and September
21. Otherwise, it will deviate because of this declination.
So, this is important and already we have explained what are the different angles associated with
them.
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Let us now see how this can be calculated. For different locations, we will have different this
Sun Path diagram. So, for any arbitrary location if we consider, and if we try to locate the sun's
positions on a day at a particular time, that can be done. So, this scale, outer periphery, this scale
is for Azimuth angle and this scale ok this scale is for altitude angle. And here, this is the month
representing in the left hand side and these are the months representing in the right hand side.
So January, February, March, April, May, June and then July, August, September, October,
November, December. So these months which are placed in the left hand side; so these are
representing by solid lines and the months present in the right hand side, they are representing by
dotted lines, blue lines. If I am interested to see the position of the Sun on first April at 8 o'clock,
then how to do it and what are the angles like is azimuth and altitude angle?
So, what you will follow, will follow this line, this solid line for this April 1st and we will find
out this point of intersection here. Because these, these are the timings. So, this may be 6 o'clock,
7 o'clock, 8 o'clock, 9 o'clock ok. So this 8 o'clock time is here, and this path moves and intersect
here. Then what we will do? We will draw a line to the center of the circle and we will extend it
to the periphery here.
And this scale will give you Azimuth angle. And if we trace this circle, and we will move on,
and we will get a intersection point here, so this is the scale. So, once we identify the scale then
we can get what is the Altitude angle. So, by doing so, we can calculate Altitude and Azimuth
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angle. So, these variations like this pattern will be different for different locations. Let us see
how it varies with different locations.
So, this is Cartesian Sun Path diagram and then Polar Sun Path diagram. So, this can be
generated. So, what we have discussed, this is nothing but the Polar Sun Path diagram and we
can draw it in Cartesian coordinates also.
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See what happens, so, different Sun Path diagram can be seen if the location is varied. So for
example, if we consider Arctic Circle, this variation will be something like this. And for tropic of
cancer, variation of Sun Path diagram will be something like this, and for equator it is somewhat
symmetrical. And for Tropic of Capricorn, this will be something like this.
So, the Sun Path diagram will be different for different locations and that’s what we have shown
here. So, this is very, very important for designing and for solar equipment installation.
Now, let us summarize what we have discussed in this lecture. So, primarily we have discussed
all the angles required for calculation of Solar Geometry; like what is declination, What is
Latitude, what is Longitude, what is Solar Azimuth angle, what is Altitude angle, what is Surface
Azimuth angle, what is Zenith angle, what is angle of Incidence, what is Slope? All the angles
were studied and discussed.
And also Solar Radiation Geometry, we are discussed for horizontal and tilted surfaces. Local
Apparent time was discussed and we have solved some problems to strengthen our
understanding. Then Sun Path diagram is discussed and also we solve numerical problems which
is very, very relevant for calculation of Incidence angle or maybe Solar time and also we
understand what is Eastern Hemisphere, what is Western Hemisphere. Because sometimes, we
need to consider for Eastern Hemisphere, sometimes we need to consider for Western
Hemisphere.
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And what is equator and then how we have defined this ϕ if we consider a place here, if we draw
a line to the center of the Earth and if we project this line on the Equatorial plane. So, this this
angle will be ϕ and is at observer’s meridian. So, these aspects were discussed. So, I hope that
you have enjoyed this class and these informations will be required further for doing numerical
exercise, and this will be applied for designing of Solar equipment. Thank you for watching this
video.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Centre for Energy
Lecture 7
Solar Radiation Estimation
Dear students, today we will discuss estimation of solar radiation for different climatic
conditions. So, before we start our today’s discussion, let us summarize what we have discussed
in the last class. So, in the last class, we have studied different angles and then how this angle of
incidence theta is related with different angles like declination, latitude, then tilt, then surface
azimuth angle and hour angle and we have developed this expression for theta.
So, as you can see this θ, is a function of different angles and for calculation of ω, that is hour
angle, we have to understand how this local apparent time can be calculated. Once we calculate
this local apparent time then only, we can calculate what is ω. So, that also we have discussed.
And we have discussed sun path diagram, how sun travels in the sky from the observer and how
this variation takes place, in case of summer in case of winter and in case of equinox. And we
have studied the solar radiation geometry for horizontal as well as vertical or tilted surfaces. Also
we have estimated the day length by using the calculations and we have solved numerical
problems to strengthen our understanding.
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So, in today's lecture, we will concentrate on estimation of solar radiation under different
climatic conditions. Primarily, we will emphasize the monthly average of daily global radiation
estimation.
So now, before we start the empirical relationships or correlations, we must know why this kind
of correlations are very, very important. The first thing, why we need empirical equations for
predicting the availability of solar radiation. So, if we have enough solar radiation data by using
some kind of devices then it is well and good, then we can straightway, use those data for
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calculations. If this data is not available for a particular location, so where we are targeting to do
the calculations, then we look for some kind of places, which is having similar climatic
conditions and geographical conditions. So, if this criteria is also not meeting, then we look for
correlations, which can give approximate values of the targeted value of the radiation.
And sometimes what happens even though we have solar radiation data, we cannot take straight
way because our requirement will be something else. For example, suppose if we get a data from
some sources and that is maybe daily variation of global radiations. So, it might so happen that I
need hourly variation of global radiation. So, for that we need to do something. And sometimes
what happens we have global radiation, but we need to know the percentage of diffuse radiation
and percentage of normal radiation in the global radiation.
So, in order to calculate those parameters, we need to depend on some kind of correlations which
relates the radiation data and other meteorological data something like sunshine hours, cloud
cover and precipitations. So that way, we can develop some kind of correlation to estimate solar
radiation data for a particular location. And these correlations what is developed so far by the
researchers, these are not the unique correlations.
We cannot use a single correlation for all the cases or all the places. So, there is a need of
development of correlation for a specific locations, so that accurate estimation of radiation can
be done. So, we need to have different correlations for different climatic conditions and that too
again, cloudless sky that is clear sky and again, cloudy skies. So, there are many correlations for
estimating the radiation under these different climatic conditions.
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Also, some of the researcher claims that we can classify the weather into different classes like
clear day, hazy day that may be fully hazy, hazy and cloudy that is partially and then maybe
cloudy days that is fully cloudy. So that defines this weather can be classified based on the
percentage of diffuse radiation in global radiation. So, if we represent this diffuse radiation is Hd
in a day and global radiation is Hg in a day, if it is less than, this ratio is less than 0.25 then we
can say it’s a clear day or clear sky, no cloud is there.
And at the same time we need to concentrate about the timing and timing has to be greater than 9
hours, that is sunshine hour. Sunshine hour has to be more than 9 hours. So, under that condition
we can consider the day is clear day or cloudless sky. And for hazy day, this ratio is in between
0.25 and 0.5. Sorry, this hour should be here. So, this timing or say sunshine hours should be in
between 7 and 9 hours. Accordingly, for hazy and cloudy day, this ratio is in between 0.5 to 0.75
and this day length or sunshine hour is in between 5 to 7 hours.
And for cloudy day, which is fully cloudy, so this ratio has to be greater than or equal to 0.75 and
this timing sunshine hour is less than 5 hours. So under that condition, we can have different
correlations. So, for the time being what we say, we will classify this as a cloudy day cloudy day
and this we can say clear sky or clear day. No cloud is there. First let us study the correlations
developed for estimation of monthly average of global radiation for cloudy days.
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So, there are different correlations as I have discussed, like monthly average daily global
radiation. Sometimes researchers are required to know for calculation of solar estimations or say
solar device installation, then what is the monthly average of daily global radiation? Then in the
second case, monthly average of daily diffuse radiation and third case, may be monthly average
of hourly global radiation and fourth case maybe monthly average of hourly diffuse radiation.
So, we will study all the four cases. So, let us first consider the first case, monthly average of the
daily global radiation estimation.
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So, there are many correlations developed for estimation of monthly average of daily global
radiations. Among the different correlations, this correlation is developed by Angstrom, which is
found to be very accurate correlation and this is applied to many of the big cities in the globe as
well as different cities of India. And here what are the terminologies used, Hg where we need to
calculate the monthly average of daily global radiation and Hc is monthly average of daily global
radiations on a clear sky or cloudless day, it is completely sunny days. And this a and b are
fitting coefficients and S is the sunshine hour and Smax is the maximum sunshine hour.
So this Hc, it is very difficult to define what is clear sky, so this is monthly average. So, I will
write Hc first, monthly average of daily global radiation global radiation on a clear day. Ok and
these are kJ/m2-day. If I say day, it will be day. So as I say, this is very difficult to define what
represents clear day. So, normally this is replaced by H 0 . This is nothing but monthly average of
daily extra terrestrial region extra terrestrial region extra terrestrial region on the particular day.
So, this unit is also same kJ/m2-day.
So, how to calculate this, this is important. So, we will derive the expression for calculation of
H 0 . How this H 0 can be calculated? So, this is for extra-terrestrial region and as I said a and b
are fitting coefficient. So, how this is calculated? By using this radiation H g data and S data.
So, by using these data, these two coefficients, regression coefficients are calculated.
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Hg S
So, now let us derive the expression for H 0 . ab . As you know that these are
Ho S max
measured parameters H g and S . So, this H 0 and S max need to be calculated. Now, let us see the
procedure how this H 0 can be calculated or estimated. This is H 0 is for a representative day. So,
if as we we are aware that Ho is something like radiation in the extra terrestrial region. So as we
 360n 
know, this ext that is extra terrestrial region is equal to I sc 1  0.033 cos . So, this will be in
 365 
kW/m2.
So, these expression already you are familiar with, why this 0.033 is present here, all the
informations are known to you now. So, now if I am interested on a horizontal surface, what is
the extra terrestrial radiation? So, for this case what happens, for extra terrestrial region on a
horizontal surface it will be Iext cos θz. So, if we represent by Io, so I o  I ext cos  z . So, we can
substitute the value of Iext here, so this will be something like this and finally this will be
multiplied by cos θz.
So, for a horizontal surface what will happen β will be 0. β means slope will be 0. This β is
nothing but slope. So, if for example this is a surface, so this is represented by β. So, β will be 0
for a horizontal surface and of course this θ = θz. What is θ? θ is angle of incidence is equal to
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azimuth angle. So, because of that we can represent this cos θz. So, if we substitute β = 0 and θ =
θz, then our expression will be something like this.
So, here if we substitute β = 0 so cos β = 1, if it is 0 so sin β, this part will be 0 and then again,
this part will be 1, then sin will be 0 and again, this will be 0. So, finally what we will have, this
cos z  sin  sin   cos  cos  cos  , which is nothing but hour angle. So, these expressions will
get when we substitute slope or β is 0 and θ becomes θz. So this is the expression.
Now if I am interested to know the extra terrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface, then we can
substitute this value cos θz, what we have found here in the equation. Maybe we can write this
equation as a. So, if we substitute the cos θ value in the equation a then our equation will be
something like this. So, this equation we will get. So, this maybe we can write as b. And now if
we are interested in hourly values, these values are instantaneous. So, if we are interested to
know hourly values, then what we will do, we will multiply this expression with 3600. So, this
will become like kJ/m2-hr.
And again for a day if we are interested then what we will do, we will integrate this time from
morning to the evening. So, this is what we need to do the calculation. So for a day, what we will
do, Ho, we will represent this by Ho and we will integrate this and then what we will get is the
radiation received on a particular day. So here this expression is for hourly, so we can represent
this equation as c and this equation is for daily, so we can represent this equation as d. So, for
daily radiations, we will follow this expression and for hourly variations we will follow this
expression.
So why this kilo here? So, why we are writing kW/m2? Because this Isc value Isc value, as you are
already aware 1367 W/m2, if we write kW/m2, it will be 1.367 kW/m2. That is why it is
represented in kW/m2, and then, when we multiply 3600, it becomes kJ/m2-hr. And for daily
basis, it will be kJ/m2-day. So, this is how units are used for expressions.
141
Now let us do it for when we integrate. So, we need to integrate over this ω and then we have to

convert this as you know, if we have to convert degree to radian, so 1o  rad and maybe
180
180
1 rad  deg , so this is in degree. So, we know this before and we can apply this concept. And

also we know, 1 hour is 15 degree. That means that an hour angle of 15 degrees is equivalent to 1
hour duration of sunshine hour. So, this knowledge we need to apply here for integration.
So what we did, this t is in hour and ω is in degree, and then we have converted to radian and
then already we know this 15 degrees 1 hour, so what we will get here this part is in hour. So,
 180 12
dt   and then if we simplify it will be d . So, now change of integration, so it will
15  
be -ω to +ω. So, if we use the earlier equations and we do the integration then what we will get,
we will get something like this. So this part is constant. So, we have to integrate over ω, this is
hour angle and then this part will be something like that and this is constant.
So, if we do the integration then finally what will get, this will be
2s sin  sin   2 cos  cos  sin s  . So, we can take out this 2 from the bracket and then we can
24
multiply, it will become . So, this is the expression for calculation of Ho. So, this expression

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we need to use for calculation of radiation received on a particular day in the extra terrestrial
region, if the surface is horizontal.
So, as we know, the recommendations provided by Klein’s that on a representative day that
maybe if we consider January, then 17th of the January is known as the representative day and on
that day, so n will be 17. So, if we substitute the value of n here in this expression, then what we
will get, we will get the monthly average of the daily terrestrial radiation. So, under that
condition, what we can do, we can replace this Ho by H 0 . So, that is how we can get the H 0 ,
otherwise we need to do the calculation from day 1 to the day 31 for the month of January.
So, since people have done lot of research on this and finally they have recommended a day
which represents the particular month, so we can take straight away that month and we can
substitute the value here in the n and under that condition, this Ho will be converted to H 0 and
this will represent that monthly average of the daily extra terrestrial radiation. So, once we know
then we can do the calculations for H g . We can calculate which is nothing but H 0 multiplied by,
 S 
if we use that Angstrom correlation  a  b  . So, we can use this correlation and we can get
 S max 
the value of H g . So, this is the procedure by which we can calculate monthly average of daily
global radiations on a horizontal surface.
143
So, these are the recommendations made by different researchers. So, if we consider January,
then 17th of the day we can consider. On that day, we can say Ho is equal to H 0 . So that way we
can consider for all the other months. Say, for example February, it will be 16th. 16th of February
will give the radiation spectrum of on the particular month. So, that way we can do it. So, this
figure has already been discussed in the last class. So, on particular day how this declination
varies and what is the value of n. So, that way we can do the calculations and we can estimate the
radiation properties.
Now, let us see the other correlations developed by other researchers. This is one of the
correlations developed by Gopinathan. So what he has done, he has taken about 40 cities and he
has collected many informations apart from those radiation and meteorological data, he has
incorporated one more parameter called elevation. So what he has done, he has used ϕ then
elevations EL and then solar, so, this day length or say sunshine hour. So, these values he has
considered and he has used these values for calculation of a1 and b1.
So, by considering this, we can finally calculate what is the monthly average of daily global
radiation on a particular place. So, procedure for calculation of H 0 is same as what we have
discussed before and we can see how this H g varying with time. If we know or we can say, we
can compare the values given by Gopinathan and the results given by the Angstrom correlation.
So that can be compared.
144
So, apart from sunshine and precipitations, what was considered in Angstrom correlations; here
one more parameter, that is EL was introduced and finally, this regression coefficients were
calculated. These are functions of phi, EL and S. Anyway, this is Smax can be calculated based on
cos1  tan  tan   . So, by using this expression we can

2
as we have understand, this Smax 
15
calculate what is Smax.
So in summary, what we can say there are many correlations. Gopinathan has developed one
more correlations by introducing other variables and considering more datas and he has found
this a1 b1 are related with this expressions. And once we calculate a1 and b1, on substitution of
those results here in this expression and since we know this and we have calculated this and this
can be calculated what we have defined just now, then finally we can calculate what is H g .
So, without further delay, we can solve one problem to understand our understanding on how to
estimate monthly average of daily global radiation. So, this chart is required and this chart was
taken from solar energy principle of thermal collection and storage by Sukhatme and Nayak and
these values were reported, so for different locations will have different values of a and b. So,
which locations we are targeting to calculate the radiation or to estimate the monthly average of
daily global radiation, so that way we can take the data and we can do the calculation.
145
So let us take this example, like we need to estimate the monthly average of daily global
radiation on a horizontal surface say at Delhi. So, its latitude and longitude are given and months
for which we need to calculate is March, if the average sunshine hour is given as 7.5. So, here
what we can say so solution goes something like this. So, we will have ϕ, latitude we need to
calculate because 28 degree and then we have 38 divided by 60.
So, this will give you ϕ and its value will be 28.63o as per my calculation. And as it says March,
we need to estimate the radiation or global radiation for the month of March. So, it is not said the
date, so we must know which date we need to calculate. We need to follow this chart if we need
to calculate for the month of March, then that will be on 16th of March and n will be 75.
So, what we will do here now, so March 16th so March 16th and then finally n will be 75 or
otherwise we can calculate what will be n. So, starting from January, January is 31, then we have
28, then we have March 16. So, if we add it then it will be 75. So, once we know n then what we
 360
can calculate, we can calculate what is δ because 23.45 sin  284  75 . So, if we substitute
 365 
this value, then what we will get, δ = - 2.42o.
So, now we know ϕ and δ and S is given, so S what is the value of S, S is given as 7.5 hours 7.5
cos 1  tan  tan   . So,

2
hours. So we can calculate Smax. How to calculate the Smax? We know
15
146
this ϕ and δ is known. Want some solutions, what you will get Smax or day length will be 11.82
hours and this is nothing but day length. Also, this is nothing but ωs. So, what is ωs? So,
s  cos 1  tan  tan   . So, once we substitute the value of ϕ and δ then what you will get is ωs
and as per my calculation it is about 88.678o. And if we have to convert to radian, then we can
convert it to radian, it will be 1.546 radian. So you know how to convert, degree to radian.
So, if we have ω into π by 180, then it will become radian. So, that way we can calculate it. So,
once we do ωs then next calculation will be our H 0 . So, how to calculate this H 0 ? Already we
have derived the expression. So,
 360n 
  s sin  sin   cos  cos  sin  s .
24
H o  3600   I sc 1  0.033 cos
  365 
Now if we substitute the value of n, n = 75 days and all the values of angles are known to us
now, so we can substitute here and here we need to substitute 1.367. So, this will be in kJ/m2-
day. So, if we substitute these values, then what we will get is as per my calculations I got it
31784.37 kJ/m2-day. So, this is H 0 . This is the monthly average of the daily extra terrestrial
radiation on a horizontal surface.
Hg S
So, since we know this value now, we can use this Angstrom correlation, ab . So,
Ho S max
we can put a bar on S and Smax. So, this is a and b values, so this we can use the earlier chart
what we have discussed. So, what will be the values of a and b for Delhi? Let us see this. So, we
find out the Delhi. So, here is Delhi and a value is 0.25 and b value is 0.57. So, if we substitute
  7.5 
these values, so H g  H o 0.25  0.57   . So, this hour-hour cancel, so this becomes
  11.82 
kJ/m2-day.
So, if we substitute the value of Ho which is equal to 131378.37, so if we substitute here, and we
do the calculation it will be 19438.79. This will be kJ/m2-day. So, this is the monthly average of
daily global radiation received on a horizontal surface on the earth. So, this is the procedure how
we can calculate the monthly average of daily global radiation on a particular place on the earth.
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So what we did in the problem? First we try to see what is the latitude and then we have
converted this to degree and n we have calculated because for the month of March, we know
what is the value of n and then we can calculate δ and S is given. So, we can calculate Smax and
we can calculate ωs because ϕ and δ are known, and this Smax is nothing but day length and ωs is
hour angle. Once you know these values then we can use the expression derived before for
calculation of monthly average of daily extra terrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface.
So, we can substitute the values and we can calculate H 0 and finally we can use the Angstrom
correlation for calculation of monthly average of daily global radiation, which is falling at a
place on the earth surface. That has to be horizontal surface. So, this is the solution of this H g .
Now let us summarize what we have learnt today. We have learned correlations, primarily two
correlations we have studied. One is developed by Angstrom, other one is a developed by the
correlations, Gopinathan correlations. So, we have studied both the correlations and we have
derived the expression for H 0 , how this can be derived and at what condition we can use H 0 for
calculation of daily average of global radiation on a particular place. Also, we have understood
how these weathers are classified and what is cloudy days and what is cloudless skies, and we
have demonstrated how this global radiation can be calculated for a particular place.
So, thank you for watching this video. Thank you.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Centre for Energy
Lecture 08
Estimation of Radiation in Horizontal and Inclined Surface
Dear students, today we will learn about the estimation of monthly average of daily diffuse
radiation, then monthly average of hourly global radiation, monthly average of hourly diffuse
radiation and then global beam and diffused radiation for clear skies and then we will learn
what happens to the tilted surfaces. Before we start our today’s discussion, let us summarize
what we have discussed in the last class.
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So, in the last class we have studied the need of the correlations for estimation of radiations.
That means, we have studied the estimation of monthly average of daily global radiation and
the classification of weathers, how these weathers can be classified, like clear sky or cloudy
skies and then hazy, then partially hazy, all the informations we have studied and also we
have done the calculations of monthly average of daily extra terrestrial radiations.
So, how this can be calculated and finally how this monthly average of daily extra terrestrial
radiations can be used for calculation of monthly average of daily global radiation, that was
discussed in the last class.
Let us discuss our today’s topic on estimation of monthly average of daily diffuse radiation
followed by monthly average of hourly global radiation, then monthly average of hourly
diffuse radiation. So, these three falls under cloudy skies. So, we will study the correlations
developed by ASHRAE which is suitable for estimation of hourly global, beam and diffuse
radiation under cloudless sky. Also, we will study radiation on tilted surfaces which is very,
very important because this is more practical.
150
So, as we see the correlations for estimations of monthly average daily diffused radiations.
There are host of correlations developed by many researchers. So, as you can see Liu and
Jordan developed a correlation, which relates monthly average of diffuse radiation to the
global radiation that is monthly average of global radiations is a functions of monthly average
of daily global radiation to the monthly average of daily extra terrestrial radiation.
So, its a cubic expression. So, this sometimes we can represent as monthly average clearness
Hg
index. So, we can represent kT is something like . So, this gives monthly average
Ho
clearness index. So, there are correlations where people have used this expression for
representing monthly average clearness index. And the correlations developed by Modi and
Sukhatme, this is something like Hd/Hg, Hd is nothing, but monthly average of daily diffuse
radiation to the monthly average of daily global radiation is functions of Hg/Ho, that is
monthly average of daily global radiation to the monthly average of daily extra terrestrial
radiation. So, this is something like kT, that is monthly average.
Also, Gard and Garg, they have developed a correlation of something like this. They have
related this Hd/Hg is a function of S/Smax. So, there are lots of correlations to estimate the
monthly average of daily diffuse radiation. So, I would like to show the correlations which is
now available, some of the correlations, which are extensively used for estimation of this
monthly average of daily diffuse radiation.
151
And for estimation of monthly average of hourly global radiations, so these correlations are
reported to be used in many of the cases. So, a, b values are given here, how this can be
calculated. Also, one correlation developed by Liu and Jordan, this is something like that. So,
this Id is something like monthly average of hourly diffuse radiation and this is monthly
average of daily diffuse radiation.
So, this part is known to us so finally we can use these correlations for estimation of monthly
average hourly diffuse radiation and this is for monthly average hourly global radiation. So,
there are host of correlations available. So, what I have shown here, these are some of the
selected correlations which is extensively used for estimation of monthly average hourly
global radiation and monthly average hourly diffuse radiation.
152
And as far as clearness index parameters are concerned, so there are certain cases like hourly
I
clearness index, which is represented by kT. So, there is no bar on it. kT  , which is the
Io
ratio of hourly data of solar radiation in the terrestrial region to the hourly data of solar
radiation in the extra terrestrial region. And the second case, sometimes daily clearness index
H
is also defined by kT  . And which is nothing, but the ratio of daily solar radiation in the
Ho
terrestrial region to the daily solar radiation in the extra terrestrial region for that day.
And finally, since we have already used this monthly clearness index which is nothing, but
H
kT  . This is the monthly average of solar radiation on a horizontal surface in the
Ho
terrestrial region to the monthly average of extra terrestrial solar radiation for that day. So,
these informations are sometimes required as far as correlations in estimating daily global
and diffuse radiations are concerned.
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Now, let us learn one very interesting correlation for estimation of radiation, that is global
and diffuse radiation for cloudless sky, that is clear skies and this is suggested by ASHRAE.
ASHRAE is nothing but American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning
Engineers. They have developed a model of something like this and here before I discuss this
let us learn something this.
So, as we already know Ig is global radiation is sum of beam and diffuse radiation. So, this
beam radiation we can write Ibn cos θ, so this Ibn is the direction of the, this is the solar beam
Ibn is the ray direction, the intensity of radiation or solar flux in the direction of the solar
radiation and this angle is θz. So, this is nothing, but Ib which is Ibn cos θz.
As we know I g  I b  I d and we already developed what is Ib then we can substitute Ib here in
this equation then I g  I bn cos  z  I d . So, this expression we are known now. Now, this
ASHRAE has developed this model and this Ibn is something like A, this is constant. This
value is defined for a particular month, so for 12 months, there are 12 values of A, people
have already calculated.
And of course, if we are very particular about a day, we can do interpolation and we can
calculate the value of A, B and C. So, this is the correlation they have developed and we can
straightway use it for calculation of Ibn. Once we know Ibn, then we can calculate what is Ib by
using this expression; and once we know this Ib then we can substitute here also we can
154
calculate Id from here and we can substitute here, then finally we can calculate what is global
radiation, hourly global radiation falling on a horizontal surface.
You should remember that this correlation is also applied for horizontal surface, radiation
falling on a horizontal surface. But this is for cloudless sky, there is no cloud, this is on a
clear day. So, this A, B, C values are constant whose values have been determined on month
basis.
Why this is so? Because this weather is changing and because in seasonal effect and then sun-
earth distance is varying; because of that, these values are varying.
Let us see the variations of those values. So, for the case of January, its values will be 1201
W/m2 and B value will be something like this, C will be something like this 0.103 and then
February it is 1183, then March 1164 that way we can see the different values of this
radiation. Suppose, if I am interested in between then we need to do say interpolation; then
only we can correctly estimate the global radiation falling on a particular horizontal surface.
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Let us take an example. So example goes something like this. Estimate the hourly global,
beam and diffused radiation at Guwahati. So, this is the latitude and longitude of Guwahati
and we are interested to know this variation between 10 to 14 hours local apparent time on
May 15, 2019 and also compare this data with measured values given in the following table.
So, measured values are given for global radiation and diffuse radiation.
If we know these global and diffuse, of course we can find out what will be the beam
radiation. So, for calculation of this if we write solution here, what do we need, we need ϕ
here, we explain how this ϕ can be applied. So, ϕ will be something like 26o 9‘. So, this will
 9 
be  26   , so which will be equal to 26.15o. Now ϕ is known and δ, if we have to find out
 60 
δ; already we know the equation 23.45 many times, we have written this expression
 360
23.45 sin  284  n  .
 365 
So what is n now? n is May 15, so then what we need to do? January 31 then we have 28
because 2019 is non leap year then we have 31 January, February then we have March then
we have April and May 15. So, if we add it, it will be 135. So, if you substitute this n here
then what you will get and do this numerical and it will be 18.79o. So, delta will be 18.75o
and ϕ is already we have done 26.15o. So, these values are known to us now. Now, we need
to calculate what is cos θz.
156
157
So, we already know this expression cos θz is equal to when β = 0 and it will be in due south;
so sin  sin   cos  cos  cos  . So, if we substitute those values δ and ϕ, δ and ϕ, so this
cosθ will be a function of cos ω. So, if we substitute this value, we will get sin δ value is how
much now 18.79 and we have sin ϕ, ϕ is 26.15. Then we have cos δ = 18.79, then cos ϕ =
26.15 then we have cos ω.
So, if we do the calculation it will be something like (0.141956 + 0.8498 cos ω). So, this cos
θz we have evaluated now; it will be something like this. So, this ω because in this case what
we need to do; we need to take the average hours and before we take the calculation, let us
calculate the value of A, B, C.
So, in our problem it is given in the month of May 15. So, if we go back to this slide this
slide, so which is May 15 so in between so April and May right, these two months we need to
consider. These two months we need to consider and we need to do interpolation. Say for
example, for 15 May 15, what we will do, so we will use this and this for A. Suppose for A
what we will do this is a decreasing trend.
 1130 1106 
So, 1130   24  . So, if we do this calculation then it is found to be 1110.8
 30 
W/m2. So this 30 is, for this difference is 30 and then we will have 24. So, 24 is that
difference in days it is 15 + 9 so this 15 + 9 is 24 so that way we can calculate.
And for similarly, for B, what value we will get is 0.174. This is constant there is no unit and
for C, this value will be 0.128. So, 0.128 then 0.174 and then we have 1110.8. These three
values we will consider in our case. Now what we will do, since we have to calculate for
three omegas. So, what we will do, we will take average of this, maybe 10 to 11 so as you
know ω so the solar noon, this is solar noon.
So, this maybe at 12 o’clock, 11 and then we have 10 then maybe we have 13:00 hours then
we have 14:00 hours. So, this is 15o and then we have this is also 15. So, if I am interested to
measure ω in between 10 and 11 then we will make at the center, so it will be 15 + 7.5. So,
this will be 15 + 7.5 and this will be 7.5 and this will be again -7.5 and this will be +15, sorry
this will be -15, so this will be -7.5.
So, these are the ω values. So at different omegas we need to find out cos θz. So, this will be
we have 22.5 and this will be minus 22.5. So, now if we substitute say cos θz at 22.5, this is ω
158
degree; so this will be in degree. So, I will write here as well this will be in degree, this will
be in degree, this will be in degree, this will be in degree. Now if we substitute this value then
in this value is found to be 0.927 and we can calculate for all the values.
So, cos θz at 7.5 this is ω degree. So, this will be 0.9844 and same values we will get at -22.5
and at -7.5. So, these values will be same; so cos θz at this angle cos θz for -22.5 is again
0.927 and cos θz at -7.5 is again 0.9844. So, we have calculated these values and then what
we need is Ibn. So, already we know how to calculate this Ibn because we are familiar with the
 B 
expression A exp   .
 cos  z 
So, we need to calculate for different cos θ. So, we can use it for say, for example,
  0.117 
I bn at 22.5o  1110.8 exp    917.75 W m . So, we can convert it to kJ/m2-hr.
2
 0. 927 
We can convert it by multiplying this into 3600. So, if we multiply this expression with 3600
 0.117 
then hour unit will be kJ/m2-hr. Then, I bn at 7.5o  1110.8 exp     928.01 W m .
2
 0.9844 
Similarly, if we are interested to get in terms of kJ/m2-hr then we have to multiply this
expression with 3600. Then what we will get in kJ/m2-hr.
And these values are same for minus 22.5o for this and then minus 7.5o of ω or hour angle.
So, these values will be same and we need to know what is Id, we can use the correlations
developed ASHRAE, this C×Ibn. Since, already we have calculated Ibn then we can substitute
this value and also we know what is the value of C that is 0.130 and then we have Ibn is
917.75.
So, ω = 22.5o or - 22.5o. So, this will be equal to this is equal to 119.30 W/m2. And, similarly
for ω is equal to Id is equal to 120.64 W/m2 when ω = 7.5o or -7.5o. So, since we know Id
value now and Ibn value at different angles, then we can calculate what is Ib.
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So next calculation will be Ib. So, Ib = Ibn cos θz. So, if ω = 22.5o or - 22.5o, so value of Ib will
be 850.75 W/m2 and Ib value for when ω = 7.5o or -7.5o, it will be 913.53 W/m2 and ω = 7.5o
or -7.5o. So, once we know this Ib values then finally what we can do Ig = Ib + Id.
So, we get the two sets of values here, so since values of Id at 7.5 and -7.5 is same. Similarly,
at ω = 22.5o and - 22.5o is same then we will get two sets of Ig values; so Ig = Ib + Id. So for,
when ω = 22.5o and - 22.5o and in second case Ig is for ω = 7.5o and -7.5o. So, this value is
1034.17 W/m2 and this value is 970.05 W/m2.
So, now what we can do, we can generate this set to compare the measured results and
predicted results. So, these are the timing in between 10 to 11, so we will have this ω, 11 to
12 will have 7.5, then 12 to 13, -7.5 and 13 to 14, -22.5. So, global radiation which is
measured is given here and estimated values are something like this, these are the estimated
values.
So, this unit is the upper scale unit is W/m2 and this is kJ/m2-hr, it is hour and this is W/m2,
this is W/m2, this is kJ/m2-hr and this is W/m2 and this is kJ/m2-hr. Just to show the
calculation how this can be done since this is in kJ/m2-hr. So, similar things happens in case
of the beam and diffuse radiation.
So, this is the measured values and this is the predicted values, this is the measured values for
diffuse radiation and this is the predicted values for diffuse radiation. So, from this
calculations so what we can see, so if we see the beam radiation what is predicted by this
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ASHRAE model is higher predicted. So, measured was 2500, but this prediction is 3062; so
this is a higher prediction.
And similarly in this case also when ω= 7.5, so it is 2600 its about 3289. So, in case of
diffuse radiation, it is under predicted what you can see here. So, original value is 570 we are
getting 434; that is under predicted. So, this is the reason why we cannot use a single
universal approach or correlation for estimation of hourly radiations on a clear day. We need
a location specific correlations for estimation of those radiation precisely.
Because this concentration of molecules in the Earth atmosphere is not uniform, that is
anisotropic. So, most of the cases isotropic distributions is considered for analysis. So, in this
model, exponential prediction model is used; that means that beam radiation when it travels,
so it take care of that distance travelled by the beam radiation. So, summary of this problem
is that so we need a location specific correlation for estimation of radiation on a clear day.
Of course this is valid for other correlations developed for cloudy skies. So far what we have
discussed about the different correlations used for radiation estimation of horizontal surfaces.
Now we will learn how this solar radiation can be estimated in case of tilted surfaces.
161
So, in order to find out the radiation flux on a tilted surface, we need to consider three
parameters like beam radiation, diffuse radiation and reflected radiations. So, this is the
exception for tilted surfaces. So, these earlier correlations were on the horizontal surfaces,
now it is on tilted surfaces so certain beta will be there or tilt angle will be there. So, now we
will learn how this flux can be estimated.
So, here as I said there are three components like beam radiation, then diffused radiation and
reflected radiation. So, we need to define some kind of parameter called tilt factor. So, tilt
factor for beam radiation, tilt factor for diffuse radiation and then tilt factor for reflected
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radiation. So, in case of beam radiation, how do you define it? So, this tilt factor is the ratio
of beam radiation flux falling on a tilted surface to that falling on a horizontal surface.
So, this is defined as tilt factor so this is something like if we designate r b as tilt factor. So,
this is something like Ibʹ/Ib. So, this Ibʹ is nothing, but Ibn cos θ; so θ here and then we have Ibn
cos θz. So, this is for horizontal surface as we can see what happens here, this is the
perpendicular when sunrays is falling, it is perpendicular to the horizontal surface.
And here in case of if radiation is coming this way and this is the angle and if it is inclined
then it will be perpendicular to the inclined surface. So, this angle is θ and earlier case it was
θz. So, in the horizontal surface θ and θz are same. So, this Ibn cos θ and Ibn cos θz; so this Ibn
is the intensity of solar radiation flux is same, so we can remove this then this will be, finally
the expression will be cos θ to by cos θz, cos θ to cos θz.
So, cos θ is angle of incidence and θz is the azimuth angle. So, if we consider β because
certain β will be there because of this slope, so this angle is β. So, if we introduce there then
sin  sin      cos  cos  cos    
the expression will be something like this. .
sin  sin   cos  cos  cos 
So, if we know β and other angles then straightway we can calculate what is the tilt factor for
beam radiation. Similarly, we can calculate the tilt factor for diffuse radiation, which is
defined as diffuse radiation flux falling on a tilted surface to that falling on horizontal surface.
So, this is how this tilt factor for diffuse radiation is defined. So, this expression is something
1 cos 
like rd  .
2
This is also known as radiation shape factor for the tilted surface with respect to the sky. So,
what assumption is here, this sky sky is isotropic isotropic. So, even though this atmosphere
is different at different locations, but it is assumed that this is sky isotropic and is diffused
uniformly diffused radiation is falling on the inclined surface. So, why this inclined surface
so important because in most of the cases this inclined surfaces are used for harvesting solar
energy.
So, for example flat plate collector, so we have to install it at certain angles. So, that is how
this is very, very important solar radiation on tilted surfaces. And then next parameter is
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reflected radiation. In case of reflected radiations, we will define this rr, so rr can be explained
something like rr 
 1 cos  
, but here radiation shape factor is something like
1 cos   .
2 2
So, this is known as the radiation shape factor, radiation shape factor of the tilted surface with
respect to the surroundings or ground. So, because as you know there are three components
this is the additional component, which is introduced here when we are interested to measure
solar radiation on tilted surfaces. So, what happens here, we need to consider ρ here and also
we need to consider or assume that our reflected radiation when beam radiation when beam
radiation and diffuse radiation falling on the ground and it is reflected, right it is reflected.
So, it is assumed that this reflected radiation should be isotropic and diffused and this
reflectivity need to be considered. When we introduce this ρ, then and we use it here in this
expression, this expression will be something like this and this is nothing, but tilt factor for
reflected radiation. So, now when we are interested about flux on tilted surface, then we have
to follow this expression and which is coin by Liu and Jordan.
So, this is Ib is the beam radiation intensity, Id is the diffuse radiation intensity and rb is the tilt
factor for beam radiation, rd is the tilt factor for diffuse radiation then this (Ib + Id), which is
nothing but global radiation multiplied by rr; this rr is nothing but tilt factor for reflected
radiation. So, now what I am interested is about the ratio between this flux on tilted surface to
that on horizontal surface. Let us see what happens there.
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So, let us see this Ig is the flux received by the surface received by the horizontal surface
received by horizontal surface. Now as we already defined what is IT,
IT  I b rb  I d rd  I b  I d rr and also we know what is Ig, Ig = Ib + Id. Now, if we go back to the
earlier slides, maybe we can name this as equation 1 and this maybe equation 2 and this
maybe equation 3 and finally this maybe equation 4.
Now if we take this maybe equation 5. So, this expression already we know, now if we make
IT I b I I I
something like IT by Ig then what will happen? So,  rb  d rd  b d rr . So, since we
Ig Ig Ig Ig
know this Ib + Id is Ig, so we can get Ig by Ig is 1 and here Ib is nothing but Ig - Id. So, this Ib =
Ig - Id.
 I 
So, if we divide this by Ig then what will happen, this will be 1  d rb  I d rd  rr . So, this
 I  Ig
 g 
will be equation number 6. So, this equation says that the total radiation received on a
inclined surface to the horizontal surface. So, sometimes what happens, we might be
interested to investigate this daily or say what is called monthly average of hourly radiation
flux, which are interested sometimes.
So, that can also be calculated. So, if we, so this equation what I mean to say, so this equation
will give instantaneous solar radiation flux and same equation can be used for if we are
interested about hourly radiation. But, sometimes we are interested to estimate the radiation
on average basis maybe monthly average of hourly radiation flux received by the inclined
surface.
So, under that condition, what we will do, we will put a bar on it here and then we will have
IT  I 
 1  d rb  I d rd  rr . So, this maybe equation 7 and this will give monthly average of
Ig  I  Ig
 g 
hourly radiation and this will give hourly radiation hourly radiation. We should keep in mind
that if we are calculating for hourly and then if we consider maybe 10 to 11 o’clock then at
the mid of the time, we need to consider for maybe 10:30, we need to consider for evaluation
of ω or hour angle. That we should keep in mind.
And this expression is for monthly average of hourly radiation, that is total radiation flux
received by the inclined surface. And on the top of it, sometimes the researchers are
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interested to know how daily variation of solar flux is varying or say daily variation is
required for some kind of calculations.
So, if this is so then what we will do, we will just use HT and Hg and this is for daily. So,
daily this flux which is received by the inclined surface, so that can be calculated by using
H T  H d 
 Rb  H d Rd  Rr . So, this is 8.
this expression, so this will be something like  1
H g  H g 
 Hg
So, now how to calculate this Rb, so this is tilt factor for beam radiation when we are
interested for daily radiation flux.
So, how to do that, we need to integrate this over timing so that earlier equations, so already
we know rb = cos θ /cos θz and expression is also known to us.
sin  sin      cos  cos  cos    dt

So, .
 sin  sin   cos  cos  cos  dt
 180 12
Already we know this t   . So, this will be something like t  and this dt will be
15  
12
dt  d . So, using this in this equation we can, what we can get?

We can change the integer and we can integrate from -ωs to +ωs, -ωs to +ωs. So, this is for
sunrise, so ωs is for sunrise and sunset for inclined surfaces and this is for horizontal surfaces.
So, if we substitute here and do the integration then what we will get,
2s sin  sin      2 cos  sin  cos    
.
2 sin  sin   2 cos  sin  cos  
So, this 2 is common. This 2 we can take common we can take common here and we can rub
this and this will be something like this and again we can take this and we can rub this. So,
s sin  sin      cos  sin s cos    
finally what we will get, Rb  .
 sin  sin   cos  sin  cos  
So, this ωs is for sunrise or sunset when the surface is tilted and this is for horizontal surface.
This ω stands for horizontal surface. So, this Rb can be calculated by using this expression.
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1 cos 
And what about Rd, so Rd  . This will not change, only it will vary with respect to,
2
but for other case Rb so depending upon the inclination, expression will vary. So,
 1 cos  
Rr  and this expression is for daily. Sometimes it may so happen that researcher
2
want to know how this monthly average of daily radiation is varying.
So, under that condition, what we will write, so the expression will be
H T  H d 
 Rb  H d Rd  Rr . So, this R value so this Rb will be Rb on a representative day
 1
H g  H g 
 Hg
on a representative day and this Rd is equal to Rd and Rr is Rr. So, what we understood by
using this expression, what we can calculate is the monthly average of daily radiation flux
received on a tilted surface.
So, these different conditions we need to understand, then only we can calculate as per our
requirement.
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So, let us take one example to strengthen our understanding on calculation of say monthly
average hourly radiation falling on a flat plate collector. So, we will discuss those flat plate
collector when we study solar thermal systems, so this will be installed at a certain angles.
So, if we consider this is a flat plate collector, this will be installed at certain angles. So,
always we need to maintain that and of course this angle will be different for different cases
or different locations.
So, now let us solve this problem. So this example goes something like, calculate the monthly
average hourly radiation falling on a flat plate collector and this facing is due South. So, if it
is facing due South than γ = 0. That is obvious, we have discussed this matter why γ = 0 and
slope is 26o. Given data are something like location is New Delhi and October, so when we
say month October so we should consider 15th of October as per Klein’s recommendation.
And time is given as, so we need to find out the radiation in between 11 to 12, so we will
consider means 11:30. So, reflected radiation ρ= 0.2 normally this is considered for glass
surfaces and Ig value and Id values are given to us. So, what we need first, we need to know
what is n? So, we know how to calculate n. If you start from January, so it is 31, then we
have 28, then we will have 31 so January, February then March and then we have April, then
we have May, then we have June, July July, August, then we have September, then we have
October 15. So, this is October.
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So, if we add it, then this is found to be 288. So, this n is known to us now, this is 288. So,
once we know n, then what we can calculate? We can calculate declination,
 360
  23.45 sin  284  n  . So, this n is now 288.
 365 
So, if we substitute it then what we will get, it is about -9.599o. So this is something like this.
Now since we know n and δ and what we need again, it is ϕ. So, what will be ϕ? This 28o 23ʹ,
so it will be (28 + 23/60); so which will be equal to 28.38o. So, now we know ϕ also and once
we know δ and ϕ, then we can calculate what is rb; so rb we can calculate.

So, rb already we know the expression, rb  . And then
sin  sin   cos  cos  cos 
what is ω here, we have not done this; so ω will be 7.5. Because this is solar noon and every
one hour is 15o.
So, if it is 12 o’clock and this is 11, so this is 15o. So, as we said since we need to consider in
between these two then it will be 7.5o, so ω = 7.5o for this case. So, we substitute the value of
δ, ϕ, β and ω and we will get a value of rb = 1.242, this is rb. And rd value, rd value rd value we
1 cos 
can calculate; how we can calculate? Already we know, rd  .
2
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1 cos 26
So, β is known, rd   0.94393 . So, this is nothing but rd. So, rd is also known, now
2
 1 cos  
we will calculate what is rr. So, rr  ; this is equal to 0.0101. As you can see this
2
contribution of rr is very, very less. So, reflected radiation is very, very less. So, most of the
cases this can be discarded, but if reflected radiation is somewhat significant, then of course
we need to consider this.
And now we will apply our, that relationship for calculation of monthly average of hourly
IT  I 
radiation for this tilted surfaces. So, expression was something like  1  d rb  I d rd  rr .
Ig  I  Ig
 g 
So, what happens in this case, this rd is equal to rd . This is nothing but rd and this is nothing
but rr and on representative day, this is nothing but rb . So, we can utilize these values and we
can do the calculations now. So, this will be something like (1 - Id/Ig) values are given, so it is
986/2350 and then we will have rb is already calculated this is 1.242.
Then we have Id 986, 2350 multiplied by we will have 0.94393 to be precise and we will have
0.0101. So, if we do this calculation, this is found to be 1.1261. So, since Ig is known to us
then we can calculate the radiation what is received on the incline surface; which is 1.1261
multiplied by Ig value is 2350 which is equal to 264644 kJ/m2-hr. So, this IT value is
calculated to be 2646.44 kJ/m2-hr.
So, this is the procedure by which we can calculate the radiation flux received on a inclined
surface. So, there are numerous condition may rises for calculation of this I T or maybe H T .
Accordingly, the researcher should decide the kind of correlations to be used for estimation
of radiation.
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(Refer Slide Time: 1:02:29)
So, let us summarize what we have discussed in this lecture. So, we have studied different
correlations for estimation of monthly average of daily diffuse radiation, monthly average of
hourly global and diffuse radiation on horizontal surfaces and cloudy skies. Also, we
understand how we have calculated H o for those cases, for estimation of all those radiations.
And we have studied correlations for estimation of hourly global beam and diffused radiation
on horizontal surface when sky is clear. So, under this condition, we have studied ASHRAE
model. So, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers.
They have developed a correlation for estimation of hourly global beam and diffuse radiation
on a clear sky and which is applicable for horizontal surfaces.
 B 
So, in this case what we have studied. So, here I bn  A exp   . So, this is horizontal
 cos  z 
surface so this should be always cos θz. This A and B values were calculated from a chart
which is available for monthly basis and this Id was calculated something C×Ibn. So, this Ibn is
known to us because this is the radiation flux which is coming from the Sun in that direction.
So, suppose this is something like this, this is the Ibn, direction of the Sun ray. And also we
know, this Ig = Ib + Id and this Ib is nothing but (Ibn cos θz + Id). So, once we are done with Ibn
and then Id, then we can use this relationship for estimation of global radiation. Also, we have
concluded by solving a problem that this correlation is overestimates the beam radiation and
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underestimates the diffuse radiation. So, we need some kind of correlation for location of
specific correlation, we need for estimating this radiation correctly.
And then finally we have learned, how we can estimate the total radiation which is falling on
an inclined surface. So, there are many cases maybe instantaneous cases, maybe hourly or
maybe monthly average of hourly or maybe daily or monthly average of daily. There are
many conditions which may arise based on the situations. So, all the conditions we have
addressed in this lecture. And also we have solved numerical problems to strengthen the
understanding on the topic.
So, thank you very much for watching this video.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Centre for Energy
Lecture 09
Solar Photovoltaic
Dear students, today we will be learning solar photovoltaic. Basically, we will include basics
of PV cells, its construction, manufacturing processes and working principle of PV
conversion.
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So, let us learn about solar photovoltaic conversion. So, most of the time, we heard the word
solar cells. So, what is solar cells? The devices used for PV conversion are called solar cells.
When solar radiation falls on these devices, it is converted directly to DC current, DC current
means direct current.
So, there are plenty of advantages in using these solar PV technologies. Some of the
advantages are no moving part, there is no thermo mechanical conversion, requires little
maintenance. Only periodic cleaning is required for sustainability and it work quite
satisfactorily with beam or diffused radiation and it is adopted for varying power
requirements.
So, we can edit based on our requirement and the primary limitations of this PV technologies
are efficiency of the cell is low and solar energy is intermittent. So, we need to depend on
some kind of storage systems and cost is an issue. And as we can see for your information, in
the market 90% of the solar cells are made of silicon based solar cells. That means, single
crystalline and multi crystalline solar cells.
So, let us learn something about their applications, there are multiple applications. So, among
all the applications, the prominent applications are space satellites, then remote radio
communication booster stations, marine warning lamps, lighting purposes, then powering
household applications, then powering torches, flashlight, wrist watches, water pumping in
irrigation and street lighting then solar PV power plant for large scale power generation and
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modern uses are something like, solar powered vehicles, then battery charging stations, which
are very, very modern use.
Now, let us learn something on early PV milestones. In 1839, Edmond Becquerel discovered
the photovoltaic effect, while experimenting with a electrolytic cell where, he has used two
metal electrodes and a electron conducting media. So, what he has observed with exposure to
these cells, the rise in current is observed.
And in 1873, Smith discovers the photoconductivity of selenium. Fritts develops first
selenium cells having efficiency 1% in 1883. In 1904, Einstein published his first paper on
photoelectric effect along with a paper on his theory of relativity. In 1921, Albert Einstein
wins the Nobel Prize for his theories explaining the photoelectric effect and this first patent
was filed in the year 1950s from Bell Laboratory and that was known as light sensitive
devices, which is nothing but modern solar cells.
As for your information, that the first PV powered satellite called Vanguard I still orbiting the
earth, which is launched in 1958 and which is the 4th artificial satellite powered by a solar
panel having 0.1W an area of 100 cm2 and cost was very, very high. It was about $1,000 per
watt, it was very, very high.
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Now, let us see the distinction between cells, modules and arrays. In cells, say for example, if
you consider silicon based solar cells, so it can provide a voltage output of 0.5 V and current
density of 20 to 40 mA/cm2. So, for example, if we consider 100 cm2 is the area, if we
multiply with in this current density then, what you will get is the current, which is nothing
but 2 A. And also it is said that so, 1 to 2 kWh/m2-day energy can be generated by using a
single solar cell.
So, there are multiple applications of these cells, like in our calculators; these cells are used
or maybe watches, these cells are used. So, it is very small one and in case of modules, we
will have many cells. These are connected in series and parallel based on our requirements.
So, these modules are used for many of the applications like, say for example, in streetlights.
So, in streetlights our requirement maybe 1 cfl, 1 cfl and then if we are using a battery so,
battery voltage maybe 12 V or maybe 80 Ah. So, this is something like that, so 12 V
batteries. So, in order to power this 12 V battery then we can decide the number of cells to be
connected in series.
So, when these cells are connected in series then what we are doing? We are maximising the
voltages. When the cells are connected in parallel, then we are maximising the current; that
way we can decide. And what is arrays?
So, if we connect many modules that becomes arrays. So, this arrays has multiple
applications. So, maybe household applications if we are powering our houses, all the
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appliances or maybe in irrigations. Suppose one pump will be there to lift water. So, in order
to power this pump so we need to rely on this kind of arrays. And if we are interested for
large scale power generation then what we need to do? We need to go for PV system, which
is very, very large installations.
So, let us classify those cell sizes and its different material. So, when we talk about cell sizes,
there are industries who actually specify the sizes, because they cannot have very big sizes,
because homogeneity will not be maintained if it is a very big size. So, there are some
standard sizes so, like 100 mm diameter, round single crystalline and for again single
crystalline will have 100 mm area is normally now recommend by industry. And in case of
multi crystalline, it is something like 100 mm×100 mm or maybe sometimes 125
mm×125mm.
The thickness of this silicon wafer, which industry normally prefer is in the range of 200 to
400 µm. And this PV cells are classified based on different aspects. So, primarily there are
three aspects like thickness of active material, then type of junction structure and type of
active material used in the fabrications.
So, we will learn slowly, what is active or bulk material and then thin film. So, this bulk
material false maybe we will have single crystalline cells or maybe multi crystalline solar
cells. And thin film maybe organic solar cells. So, thin films we can bend it, but this bulk
material if we have to have more active material then we cannot bend it. So, but thin film can
be bended.
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And for junctions, we will have PN junctions that may be homogeneous or maybe
heterozygous or maybe p-i-n, so p type-intrinsic and n-type semiconductor junction. And,
third category is type of active material used that maybe single crystal silicon solar cells or
maybe multi crystalline solar cells, et cetera.
So, let us see how these efficiencies or conversion efficiency varies with different solar cells.
So, already we have learned the different kinds of material used for conversion of solar
energy to electricity by using different cells, it may be single crystal solar cells, may be multi
crystalline solar cells, amorphous solar cells, gallium arsenide, copper indium, diselanide,
then cadmium telluride cell, then organic solar cells. So, this chart shows about the
conversion efficiencies of the solar cells.
So, in case of single crystal solar cells will have 10% to 17% and of course, this efficiency is
increasing which more manufacturing or precise manufacturing techniques. And
polycrystalline is 10 to 13, then amorphous is 7 to 10, then gallium arsenide is having very
high percentage of conversion, but it is very, very costly; availability of material is an issue.
Then dye sensitised is reported to be 7 to 8, then organic thin film is 2 to 3.
So, these are the efficiency list and here this figure shows the solar cell efficiency and how
this development is taking place. If we consider this the top most figure or top most line, this
is for multi junction concentrator solar cells, having very high efficiency; it is more than
45%. And in case of mono crystalline solar cells, what you can see this is the line. So, it
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varies from may be 23 to may be 26, 27 that range and in case of multi crystalline solar cells,
this variation is may be from 16 to about 22 %.
So, others can be seen here. So, it shows the development how with time and then with new
schemes and new methodology, we can increase the solar cell efficiency. So, these multi
junction solar cells are nothing but combinations of different band-gap materials in the
tandem cell, of course, we will get higher efficiencies in those cases.
So, now see the structure of crystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous solar cells. So, in case
of crystalline structure, this constitutents like atoms, molecules and ions are arranged in a
highly ordered microscopic structure. What you can see, these are highly ordered microscopic
structure and this forms a crystal. And this gives an unique properties, particularly
mechanical, optical and electrical. So, it gives mechanical properties it is very, very strength
and then optical properties, no light can enter and then it has got very good electrical
properties.
And reverse of this system is something called amorphous systems. So, they are not closely
picked and when we talk about polycrystalline, it is in between crystalline and amorphous
systems, amorphous atoms or atomic structures.
So, here number of crystals will be there as you can see in this figure, there is a single crystal,
there is a multi crystal and there are many crystals, grains are there many grains, and
amorphous structure is something like that. So, just to introduce how it looked likes, and we
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will study how these crystals are formed, so these are atoms, so if we combine these then it
will becomes crystals. So, everything will be discussed when we discuss semiconductor
physics.
So, now let us learn about construction of a PV cell and of course, it is a single crystal silicon
solar cells. So, how this can be done? So, before we touch this now, basic concepts, let us see
how, what are different layers exist in the PV cells.
So, we will have back layer, at the backside, you can see some kind of installations is
provided and we must have electrical connections because the kind of energy what is
generated that has to be collected. And then p type silicon wafers, so this is the main thing
first you have to take. So, this p type silicon wafer is nothing but this is the p type semicon, p
type silicon wafers. And this is something like about 250 µm, so this upto this here.
Then we have n type silicon wafer, so this is n type silicon wafer here and it is about 0.2 µm.
So, this diffusion so we have to make some kind of junction. So, this is made by diffusing n
type impurity here. So, this is something called n type silicon wafer and then we have to have
some kind of metal grids or metal electrode fingers, so these are metal electrode fingers. So,
we need to connect, the kind of energy we can generate here, or electron, there has to be
transferred. So, we need some kind of metal connections.
And then we will have non-reflective layer and then toughened glass and then we have frame.
So, now we will come back here. So, now come back to this, our main discussion chart. So,
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we will have p type wafers and this is a single crystal silicon solar cells and it is slice from
single crystal p type doped silicon. So, this is having thickness of 250 µm and then in order to
make junction, we are diffusing n-type impurity here and then we will have metal grids. So,
these are transparent to the solar radiations and then what we have to do?
We have to do some kind of screen printing of paste containing 70% silver organic binder
and sintered glasses, which is laid over this metal electrode fingers in the front side. And the
back side, again we will have metal electrode fingers and we will have to make a paste
containing aluminium. So, this paste is applied here and then we kept this entire system or
entire this wafers and then connections in a furnace and maintain a temperature range of 600
to 700 oC.
So that this metal content in the paste is come in contact with this silicon, what is present
here, for transfer of electrons or generation of electricity. Once this is done then, what we will
do? We will apply anti reflection coating of the silicon nitride or titanium dioxide of
thickness 0.1 µm. So, this is applied. This is anti reflection coating, so that reflection losses
are minimised.
And finally this cells once that is prepared, these cells are encapsulated in a thin transparent
material, what you have seen here. So, this is a back layer, then we have electrical
connections, then p-type silicon wafer, then n-type silicon wafer, then electrical connection,
then non-reflecting layer, then toughened glass or something like transparent material.
Because solar radiation has to pass through and then strike on the absorber right. And then in
order to hold the system, we need a frame; so these frames are made of aluminium. So, this is
how a PV cell constitute, so construction is something like that.
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So, let us now learn how this PV cells are manufactured, which is very, very important.
Because see what we know, this silicon is the second most available element in the earth,
after oxygen. So, the kind of form we will get is a silicon dioxide SiO2. So, once we have
SiO2 then, what we need to do for production of these cells, first this has to be melted in a
furnace, normally this arc furnace is used and at a temperature of 1900 oC.
So, once we maintain this at that temperature, what will happen and also we need to add
carbon so what are sources of carbon, sources of carbons are like coal, coke, wood chips.
This can be added here and this silicon dioxide in the raw form will react with carbon, will
form silicon plus carbon monoxide. So, this CO will be generated and it will goes off and this
silicon the kind of silicon what we will get on doing this is a metallurgical grade silicon. So,
it contains about 1 to 2 % impurity, its purity level is 98% to 99%.
So, this metallurgical grade silicone cannot be used for making solar cells. So, we need to do
something to upgrade the quality of this metallurgical grade solar cell. But there are multiple
applications of this metallurgical grade solar cell, like in automotive engine blocks, in
automotive industries, 70% of these kind of metallurgical grade solar cells are used in
automotive industries. And about 20% to 29% is used in a variety of chemical products
making and only 1% is used for making semiconductor grade silicon. So, how to convert this
so, our concern is now 1% conversion for making cells.
So, what we need to do, once we have this metallurgical grade solar cells or this metallurgical
grade silicon; so this has to be processed by using hydrochloric acid. So, once we process it,
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then what will happen? Si + 3 HCl → H2 + HSiCl3, which is nothing but trichlorosilane gas,
this is nothing but trichlorosilane gas. So, here what happens we have one H atom one H
atom, then one Si atom, then 3 Cl atom Cl atom.
So, you need Si, not H2 and Cl2. So, we have to do some kind of distillation. So, once we do
distillation or purifications, because other impurities which is present along with this
trichlorosilane gas has to be removed by using distillations. Because all the elements are
having different boiling points.
So, we can remove it very easily, once we analyse critically. And once we are done with that,
then, what we will get is a semiconductor grade silicon, which is in multicrystalline form. So,
this is in multicrystalline form, but we need single crystal silicon blocks. So, in order to
convert this multicrystalline to silicon, single crystal silicon blocks, then again we need to
melt it and we have to solidify on a rod containing high purity silicones. So, it will look
something like this, this is called ingot. So, this kind of blocks we can make by using this
process.
And finally, once we make this kind of block, then we have to saw it, so wear saw, so this
sawing machine, the role of sawing is very, very important. Because most of the cases, this
losses are very, very high if we use ordinary saw. So, this is a very precise saw, now
industrial scale this kind of saws are used. So, this has to be sliced and these slices are
nothing, but wafers. So, once these wafers are ready, then what we can do? We can
processing like doping, electrical connections then anti reflection coating. Because this has to
pass through some phosphorus vapour so that phosphorus can be deposited and it will
become p-type silicon cells or wafers.
And then, once we are done with this doping, electrical connections and anti reflection
coating, what we will get that a cell, which is ready for generation of power. So, this is very,
very important as far as production process of monocrystalline silicon cells are concerned.
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So, now let us now learn the principle of working of a solar cell. How does a solar cell
works? So far, we know the construction and then know how the solar cells are
manufactured. Now, we would like to know how the solar cell works. What is the working
principle?
There are two steps working principle, first step is creation of pairs of positive and negative
charges in the solar cells by absorbed solar radiation. So, the material what we consider, that
has to be capable enough to absorb the energy associated with the photons in the sunlight.
And once that is created, then we have to separate it by using a potential voltage, which is
built in it.
So, we will have two principles or two working principles, that is creation of pairs of positive
and negative charges, then separation of positive and negative charges by potential gradient
within the cell. So, it is certain that the material what we use, that material has the capability
to absorb the energy associated with the photons carried by sunlight.
Now, let us see this figure here, we will have two band this is VB means valence band and
CB means conduction band. So, electron will occupy any of the bands. So, this valence band
has electrons at lower energy level and it is normally fully occupied. And in conduction band
has electrons at a higher energy level and it is not fully occupied.
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So, this difference between this minimum energy of this conduction band and maximum
energy of this energy of the electron of this valance band is known as band-gap. So, role of
the band-gap is very, very important. So, if this energy of the photon is hυ and if we represent
this band-gap as Eg. So, if hυ = Eg, then it will be difficult to transfer electron from this
valance band to the conduction band. It has to be something like Hg ≥ Eg, then only electron
can be shifted from valance band to the conduction band.
So, this hυ is something like hc/λ. So, h is the Planck’s constant and c is the velocity of light,
which is something like the value of the velocity of light is 3 ×108 m/s and Planck's constant
is 6.62 ×10-27 erg-s. We can also represent in Joule, so 6.63 ×10-34 J-s.
And also one eV = 1.6 ×10-19 J. So, on substitution of these values here, then what we will
get? e will be something like 1.24/λ and it will be in eV. So, if we know this band-gap
energy, then we can calculate the optimum wavelength to lift or excite one electron from the
valence band to the conduction band.
So, in the first step, we can create positive and negative charges by applying solar energy;
and of course condition is h nu greater than Eg. Now, once it is done then, these electrons in
the conduction band and holes in the valence band are mobile. So, they can made to flow if
we can connect one external load. So, already we know, this p-type semiconductor or if we
consider silicon material and this p-type semiconductors adopt with trivalent impurity
trivalent impurity and this n-type adopt to it pentavalent impurity pentavalent impurity. So,
this will have extra electron and this p-type has extra holes.
Since, in the second case we need to separate positive and negative charges and we have to
create some kind of built in potential. So, how this can be carried out? So, we will make it by
doing sandwiching of n-type and p-type doped silicon cells. So, once we make sandwich,
then what will happen? Then electron, which is the majority carrier for n-type will diffuse to
the holes and recombine; and again holes which is the majority carrier for p-type will
recombine with n-type. That creates built in potential, and this built in potential again create
some kind of electric field. So, that is enough to circulate or generate electricity once we have
external load.
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So, what we can say this silicon p-type is doped with some trivalent atom like boron, and
while n-type is doped with some pentavalent atoms like phosphorous. So, this n-type silicon
has excess electrons and p-type has excess holes. So, when these materials are joined
together, excess electrons from the n-type diffuse to recombine with the holes in the p-type.
Similarly, this excess holes from the p-type diffuse to n-type. As a result, n-type material
becomes positively charged, while p-type is negatively charged. And that creates a built in
potential at the junction, and consequently electric field is capable enough to transfer charges
from the negatively charged p-type to the n-type, and then electricity can be generated. This
is how a PV cell works.
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So, now, let us learn something more about material band-gap. As I said, for insulators that
energy band-gap is very, very high. So, we have conduction band and we have valence band.
So, if we talk about this hυ and if we add this Eg, and this may be hole, this may be electron;
so no excitation of electron will be here, but if hυ ≥ Eg, then what will happen, there is a
creation of pairs of holes.
So, for insulators that energy band-gap, the h nu is something like that, is very very large,
then the electrons in the valence band cannot reach the conduction band, which results in no
conduction of current. So, for insulators this hυ ≤ Eg. For semiconductors, because this
conductivity of semiconductor is in between insulator and conductor. So, for semiconductors,
hυ has to be greater than band-gap energy. The valence electron can cross the gap on
acquiring thermal or light energy.
And for conductor, there is no forbidden, no gap exist, hence the electrons can easily move to
the conduction band. So, this slide shows the variation of band energy band-gap with respect
to temperature. You can see for three different material helium arsenide, silicon and
germanium. See how this is decreasing with temperature. And this variation of band-gap with
temperature can be predicted by using this relationship. And what is a and b? So, these are
constant, these values are given here for silicon, gallium arsenide and then germanium.
So, we can use those values for calculation of Eg at certain temperature. So, at T = 0, at
absolute 0 temperature, ET is Eg. The material behaves as an insulator. So, we should keep in
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mind that in order to excite electron from the valence band to the conduction band, the
temperature has to be more than absolute 0.
Now, let us do some kind of analyses. Say, for example, if I am interested to know the band-
gap energy in a silicon crystal at 50 oC. So, we know the relationship and we know the value
constants a and b, then straightaway we can use this relationship. For Eg at certain
temperature, this temperature is 50 oC. So, (50+273) K, at this K. So, our calculation will be
something like this. So, we know this value Eg (0), what is the value of band-gap and then we
know the value of a and b here. And if we substitute this T value, so what we will get is 1.1
eV.
And in second question, maybe the optimum wavelength of light for photovoltaic generation
in a silicon cell. So, what will be the optimum wavelength of light if we use silicon cells? So,
we can use this relation. Already we know this relation, E = 1.24/λ, which will be the eV and
λ is in µm. So, once we know this E value, then we can substitute here and we can get the
optimum wavelength of light for the photovoltaic generation.
And also maybe now third question is something like that. Calculate the optimum wavelength
of light for photovoltaic generation in a CdS? And band-gap is given to us 2.42 mV. Then
under that condition then we can calculate what is E. And it will be 0.512 µm. You see the
difference, the optimum wavelength of light for photovoltaic generation in CdS cell is 0.512,
but here it is 1.12 µm. See the variations. For solar silicon cells, will have a value of λ = 1.12,
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which is optimum wavelength for photovoltaic generation. But here, it is 0.512 for
photovoltaic generation; that is how we can see. So, this kind of analogies are required
sometimes to decide at what condition your system will work perfectly.
So, there are different classes of band-gaps, maybe direct and indirect band-gaps. So, these
are important for improvement of efficiency of conversion. So, here in case of direct band-
gap, what happens?
So, this figure shows the variation of E and then momentum of the electron. So, this is the E
and energy and then this is your momentum momentum. So, this k vector, there is a term
called k vector that describes the crystal momentum of the semiconductor, like a wavy. So,
even though we have considered conduction band and valence bands are flat, but this is not
so. This is something like that, this is something like that, there is a variations and this is not
uniform always. It will like a some kind of wave form.
So, if the maximum of the valence band and the minimum of the conduction band occurs in
the same k vector, an electron can excite, can be excited from the valence to the conduction
band without a change in the crystal momentum. So, this is known as direct band-gap
material.
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And if the electron cannot be excited without changing the crystal momentum is called
indirect band-gap material. In case of direct band-gap material, as you can see this is peak of
this valence band and then bottom of the conduction band are in the same line.
So, what happens, is photon absorbs much more readily. Here what happens in case of
indirect band-gap material, so peak of this valence band and this bottom of the conduction
band is far away. So, in order to absorb more, then we need to apply many more technologies
like some wavy configuration, so that we can get more solar radiations. So, photons have to
travel more distance before getting absorbed in case of indirect band-gap material. And that is
why, this must be sufficiently thick to absorb the incident light.
So, from this analysis what we can say, in case of direct band-gap material, this thickness of
the active material required will be much lower compared to the thickness of the active
material required for indirect band-gap material.
So, this is something like silicon will have indirect band-gap material or maybe some maybe
gallium arsenide, gallium arsenide is an example for direct band-gap material. So, this is
important and also you must know always these are not flap, this will be something like that
and this is not uniform as well, always will not get this kind of configuration.
So in summary, what we can say this kind of configurations like direct band-gap materials is
photon absorbed most, much more readily and in case of indirect band-gap material, so
photons, the distance travel by the photon is very very high. So, we need to do something to
reduce it. That is why, sometimes other configurations are applied to capture more photons of
sunlight.
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So, let us now discuss something on loss mechanism. So, as far as last mechanisms are
concerned, we will have two most important loss mechanisms in single band-gap solar cells.
Number one, is inability to convert photons with energies below the band-gap of electricity.
And the second one is thermalization of photon energies exceeding the band-gap.
As you can understand, so if this hυ ≤ Eg, that is band-gap energy, we cannot excite electrons
from balance band to the conduction band. And if this hυ >> Eg, then what will happen;
energy will escape and then heating effect will be there. So, these are the two primary reasons
why we get lesser conversion efficiencies in case of single band-gap material. That is why
you can see in one of the slides, we have discussed why multi junction solar cells are
important.
So, slowly you will learn the importance of those aspects. And these two mechanisms alone
account to the loss of about half of incident solar energy in the conversion process. So, this is
the primary losses taking place because of these two phenomena.
Thus, this maximal energy conversion efficiency of a single junction solar cell is
considerably below the thermodynamic limit. So, this single band-gap limit was first
calculated by Solski and Queisser in 1961. That is how it is known as Solski and Queisser
investigations, or cellular limitations or the losses.
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So, these are the primary losses. So, it involves lot of analysis. So, we can sometimes show,
how this can be calculated? This thermodynamic limit and why this is so; and we can
mathematically prove it as well.
So, let us summarize what we have discussed today, we have discussed the importance of PV
conversion and challenges and distinction between cells, modules and arrays and what are
applications of cells, modules and arrays. And also we have learned the construction of a PV
cells. So, we will have wafers maybe p-type doped, then we have to make junction. For
making junction, we have to apply or diffuse n-type impurities and then we have to give
metallic connections and then we have to apply some kind of paste, metallic paste on the top
and the back side. And then we have to keep that entire system at a temperature of 600 to 700
in a furnace in order to have metal contact between the silicon and metal present in the paste.
And then finally, we need to apply anti reflection coating, then we have to keep in an
encapsulation, then the cell is ready for use. And also we have studied the manufacturing of
silicon solar cells. So, how this silicon dioxide is converted to metallurgical grade.
So, we have also discussed the applications of metallurgical grade silicon solar cells and then
the process used for converting these metallurgical grade solar cell to the semiconductor
grade solar cells. So, we have seen the making of ingots and then slicing by using very
precise saws. And then finally, this wafers are generated, then wafers are passed through
some furnace where phosphorous is deposited and then p-type semiconductor is produced.
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And then finally, this all the connections and n-types are also applied and the impurities are
also applied. And then electric connections are provided and then all other things required for
making PV cells are generated. Finally, what we get, that is a PV cells which is ready for
generation of power.
And also we have studied different band-gap energies and before that, we have studied
working principle of solar cells. So, how this solar cell works? Like first generation of
electron hole pair, then separation of those electrons from conduction band, from valence
band to the conduction band. And then, we have studied band-gap energy, then we have also
studied the loss mechanism, what are different losses associated with this system.
So, thank you very much for watching these videos. So, the next lecture it will be on
semiconductor physics.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Centre for Energy
Lecture 10
Semiconductor Physics
Dear students, today we learn Semiconductor Physics. So, before we start, let us summarize,
what we have discussed in the last class.
So, we have studied importance of PV conversion and challenges. Then construction of PV

cells, what are different layers, how different layers are formed, as a whole what is the
construction of a solar PV cell. Then manufacturing stages of a single crystal silicone solar
cells, we have studied. And what is the working principle of a solar cell, that also elaborately
discussed in the class. And band gap energy was discussed. And finally, loss mechanism
were discussed in the last class.
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Now, come to this class. So, we will be covering classification of semiconductors, doping,
fermi energy level, p-n junction, drift current and diffusion current and generation of solar
cell material.
So, what is semiconductor? A semiconductor is an element with electrical properties between

conductor and an insulator. So, best semiconductors are silicon and germanium, having four
valence electrons. And the best conductors are silver, copper and golds. In the conductors,
only one valence electron will be present. For insulators, there will be 8 valence electrons.
Example of insulators are like glasses, are the prime example. And if we talk about silicon
material, as we understand that 90 % of the solar cells are made of silicon-based wafers.
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So, let us concentrate more on these silicon solar cells. The silicon, silicon Si, is the most
abundant material or element on earth, after oxygen. But if we have to use it for solar cell
applications, so we need to do refining process which was discussed in the last class, which is
very very costly. As we can realize, we need huge of equipment and that has to be maintained
at very high temperatures. So, it is a very costly affair while making this metallurgical grade
to semiconductor grade solar cells.
Now, if we look at this picture, what I have shown here, it is a crystal. So, it is a silicon
crystal. So, there are many cells are composed of a crystal or solids. So, we have defined
what is crystal in the last class. So, this, for example, if we consider this is a silicon atom and
this silicon atom has 4 valence electron. And in this atom what happens, they share these
electrons with the neighbouring atoms. So, 4 atoms, they are sharing their 4 valence
electrons. And they make pairs. And this each pair, each pair of atom attracted by them with
equal and opposite forces. So, this will attract this way and this electron attract this way. So,
as a result, they make some kind of bond. That bond is called covalent bond.
So, this covalent bond is very very important. This gives the solidity to this crystal. It gives
the binding, how tightly this crystal is bind? So, when we need to lift this electron, then we
have to have some kind of energy supplied externally. So, we will discuss this matter in the
coming slides. So, what I tried to present here, these atoms, they have 4 electrons and they
share with the neighbouring atoms and they make pairs. And these pairs of atoms attracted by
them with equal and opposite forces and they make a chemical bond called covalent bond.
And this covalent bond give solidity to the crystal.
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So, at absolute zero temperature, a semiconductor is a perfect insulator. No current will flow,
if we maintain at the temperature of 0 degree kelvin or 0 K. With increase in temperature,
vibration of atoms can occasionally dislodge an electron from the valence orbit. So, this
dislodge electron is known as free electrons. So, this is important. And when this happens,
this vacancy which is created in the valence orbit is known as a hole. Thus, it breaks the
covalent bond. And once this breaks the covalent bond, this free electron hole pair produced.
And we can increase this free electron hole pair generation by supplying light and heat. So, in
a pure silicon crystals this thermal energy creates equal number of free electrons and holes.
That you should keep in mind.
Now, let us see this figure which shows the free electrons and holes flow through a
semiconductor. So, what happens, this is a metal strip and this is a metal strip, this is
negatively charged and this one is positively charged. And these are free electrons, these are
free electrons. So, this is positive, this is negative. And flow of electron will be, this is flow
of electron and flow of current will be here, flow of current, flow of current. So, if we provide
some kind of potential to this intrinsic semiconductor, so all the atoms in the crystals are
silicon atoms.
So, here what happens, electron, this free electron will move from this negative side to the
positive side. So, this will travel something like, if we consider this free electron, this will
move here and then this will move here and then this will move here, something like that. But
this hole, this is an hole, which is near to these positively charged plates, what they will do?
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This will try to move in the other way, because electron will move this way and hole will
move this way.
So, what we can understand, this electron will move from negatively charged plate to the
positively charged plate and it flows through this circuit and it completes it. But the holes will
move from here to here, this side. So, electron movement will be from negative side to the
positive side and hole movement will be from positive side to the negative side. So, this is
what we try to understand.
So, in case of silicon crystals, so all the atoms are silicon, no impurities are added here. So,
when we connect it, so electron, this free electron will move from this negatively charged
plates to the positively charged plates and they completes the circuits and they maintain this
scenario. But we must know in a pure silicon crystal, the thermal energy creates equal
numbers of holes and electrons. That we should keep in mind.
So, the free electrons move randomly throughout the crystal and then free electrons will
approach a hole, feel its attraction and fall into it. So, merging of free electrons and the hole
is known as recombination. Already in the last class, we have discussed about the
recombination, but still we need to understand these things because this is one of the
important aspect as far as PV conversion is concerned. So, this merging of electrons and the
holes is known as recombination.
The amount of time between the creation and disappearance of an electron hole pair is called
lifetime. And this lifetime varies from few nanoseconds to several microseconds. So, in
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summary, what happens, when we supply potential to this crystal, then what happens in
summary, some free electron holes are being created, some free electron holes are being
recombined and some free electron and holes exist temporarily and waiting for
recombination. So, in summary, this phenomenon happens when we provide potential to this
crystal.
Now, let us learn about orbits and energy level. So, what I have shown here, it is an orbit. So,
normally we take help of quantum theory to understand properly about the semiconductor
characteristics. So, in quantum theory, what approximation is considered as far as orbit and
energy level is concerned, that each orbit or say each radius of an orbit is equivalent to an
energy level. So, as you understand, in case of silicon atom, what happens, we have 14
protons and then 14 electrons. So, as we know this principle 2n2. So, what happens if for n=1,
so orbit 1, so it will be 2. If n = 2, then it will be to 4 × 2, 8. And then n = 3, so here since it is
14 electrons, so in a valence orbit, we will have 4 electrons.
So, if we consider this is silicon nucleus, silicon nucleus and we have 14 protons. And in this
first orbit, we will have 2 electrons and in second orbit, we will have 8 electrons; 1, 2, 3, 4,
then we have 5, 6, 7, 8 electrons. And in the valence orbit, we will have 4 electrons, 1, 2, 3, 4.
So, we can write, this is the first orbit, first orbit and this is second orbit and this is third orbit,
third orbit or valance orbit, or valance orbit, or valance orbit.
Now, what happens, we will study very critical phenomenon here. So, this is for an atom or
that has to be intrinsic. And this is for crystal. So, as we said, we take the approximation, so
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we use quantum theory and the approximation is something like, each radius of an orbit is
equivalent to an energy level. So, this is energy E here in the vertical direction and these are
the electrons, at different energy level. So, this is the, this is actually edge of the nucleus and
this is first energy level, second energy level, then we have third energy level.
So, normally what happens? In the orbit, an electron is influenced by charges of the atom. So,
any orbit you consider, this so, then electron is influenced by charges of the atoms. So, if we
take an isolated atom, its energy level will be something like that. So, it is defined. So, there
is no variation of the radius of the electrons.
But when we consider crystals, in the crystal, as you can understand now, there will be many
atoms, there will be many atoms. So, and then they have occupied in a certain position. So,
we cannot compare the charges of the each electron or each atom is similar. What I mean to
say, suppose, for example, if we consider this electron, so if we consider single atom, its fine,
its radius will be same. But if there are multiple atoms, then radius of those maybe, if you
consider, this one, this one, this is originated from one atom, one atom and this is originated
from other atom. So, its radius may vary.
So, what happens in crystal, orbit of each electron is also influenced by charges of many
other silicon atoms around it. So, this radius of each electron of the same orbit is slightly
different, hence energy level of the corresponding orbit, orbits are different. So, this energy
level will be different. So, we cannot write a single line here, what I have drawn for a single
atoms or a single silicon atoms. So, this is very, very important. So, one more time I am
reading it that the radius of each electron of same orbit is slightly different, hence energy
level of corresponding orbit, orbits are different.
So, for every orbit, there are millions of slightly different energy levels. You can see, there
are millions of slightly different energy levels that forms a cluster of the band of energy. So,
that is why, you can see this kind of blocks, not a single line for crystals. This is very, very
important. So, these kind of blocks normally we get. So, that indicates there are billions of
different energy levels and that is known as band or say, that is a cluster or say, band of
energy. So, that is why, this is the first band, this is the second band, this is valance band, this
is conduction band.
Now, if we have to lift one electron from this valence band to the conduction band, then what
we need to do? If we represent this band gap is Eg and certain amount of energy if we supply,
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then this energy, if this energy, see may be hυ energy is more than this Eg, then what will
happen, this electron will move from valence band to the conduction band. So, this is how it
works.
But in case of intrinsic semiconductor, where no dopants are presence, all our pure crystals of
silicon crystals, so number of holes and number of electrons will be same. So, if this is
connected to a potential, then what will happen? So, the electrons will occupy in the
conduction band and holes will occupy in the valence band. Then under that condition, no
current flow will be there. So, that is why, we need to do something so that we can make use
of this p-type and n-type semiconductors for practical use. So, let us learn how this p-type
and n-types are created and what is intrinsic semiconductor and what is extrinsic
semiconductor.
So, here, we will have semiconductors, there are two classes one is intrinsic semiconductor, I
have been using this terminology and then second one is extrinsic semiconductor. In case of
intrinsic semiconductor, which is not doped, pure crystals are there, only if we talk about
silicon crystal, only silicones are present, silicon atoms are present to constitute that crystal.
So, these are chemically very pure and possesses very poor conductivity. So, this is one of the
disadvantage. And it has equal number of negative charge carriers and positive charge
carriers.
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So, when we talk about negative charge carriers, these are electrons and positive charge
carriers are called holes. So, small current flow by thermal agitations. So, this is not a
practical applications, so when we talk about intrinsic semiconductor.
So, in case of extrinsic semiconductor, the small amount of impurities are added. So, some
kind of impurity atoms are added. So, there are different impurity atoms. So, maybe we can
use of this our chart. So, from that we can identify which element we need to use for doping.
So, small amount of impurities are added by a process known as doping. And number of
negatives carriers, that is electrons and the positive carriers, holes are not equal. So, this is
very, very important.
And doping gives rise to negative charge conductor, that is n-type semiconductor and positive
charge conductor is called p-type semiconductor. So, how much normally added, how much
impurities are added in a pure crystal, is about 1 part in 10 millions, which are very, very
small. Again, there are certain issues when to add and how much to be added. So, it is related
to resistance of that particular semiconductor.
So, what is shown here, that is, when pentavalent impurities are added, so extra electron will
be generated here. And when group 3 atoms like borons is added, so holes hole will be there.
So, these electrons are actually donors and these holes are acceptors. So, when these group 5
atoms like phosphorus is added, so that material is called n-type semiconductor. If trivalent
atom called boron is added that doped semiconductor is known as p-type semiconductor. So,
this is important classification. So, we will use it for the next analysis.
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So, doping, what is doping? The process of addition of impurity in a, in an intrinsic
semiconductor material in order to alter its electrical characteristics is known as the doping.
So, again we have shown here, it is a silicon, array of silicon atoms and n-type semiconductor
and p-type semiconductor, where in the p-type semiconductor, this boron is used as a impure
atom and here phosphorus is added as impure atom.
So, this impurity ion having valency greater than that of the semiconductor produces an extra
electron. In this case, the electron, electrons are the majority charge carrier and holes are
minority charge carrier. So, as I said, there are different levels of doping. There may be
certain cases where low doping is important and some kind of moderate doping and some
kind of heavy doping. So, you can see the ranges of dopant concentration here. This is a
dopant concentration for three cases. So, for lightly doped semiconductors have high
resistance, whereas a heavily doped semiconductor has low resistance, that you should keep
in mind.
Now, come to the Fermi level. What is Fermi level? Fermi level or sometimes it is known as
characteristics energy and which is represented in eV, for a crystal represents the energy
states with a 50 % probability of its being filled by charge carriers. So, we will understand
when we draw this band diagram. Now, at thermal equilibrium, what happens is
concentration of electrons and holes is same in case of intrinsic semiconductor. So, if this is
the case then what we can write. If we represent the concentration of electrons is ne and
concentration of hole is nh and this is something like, for intrinsic carrier concentration ni. So,
this is the condition.
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And according to Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics, the electron and hole concentration is given
 E  EC   E  EF 
by ne  N C T exp  F  . And then nh  NV T exp  V . So, this EF is the energy of
 kT   kT 
the Fermi level and EC is the energy at the bottom of the conduction band. So, we will see
when you see that slide of band diagram and EV is the energy at the top of the valence band.
So, for intrinsic semiconductor, so we can write, since ne = nh = ni, so ni2 = ne × nh. So, this
will be something like this. Since, this is exponential, so this will be plus. So, this is
something like (EF - EC + EV - EF). So, this will be something like, this will goes off. Then if
we take this minus this side, then (EC – EV) will be there here. And here k is the Boltzmann
constant and T is the temperature in Kelvin. So, these are the coefficients. This expression is
independent of Fermi energy level. If I am interested to express in terms of Fermi energy
level, of course, we can do it. So, how we can do it, let us see in the next slide.
So, we know this concentration factor NC and NV are given by something like this. So, this me
and mh are the effective mass of electrons and hole respectively. And these are the constant, k
is the constant. So, h is also constant, then we have T is the temperature. So, it will vary with
the temperature. So, now, our primary intention is to develop the expression in terms of
Fermi energy level.
So, already we know for intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh. So, we can use those expressions
what we have explained in the last slides. So, expression for ne is something like this and nh
is something like this. And if we take NV/NC, so this, this divided by this part, so this will
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come other side. So, this will be (EV - EC - EV + EF)/kT. So, if we take log, then what we will
have, this will be something like this. And then, if we adjust those values and finally what we
will have, this expression. And if we substitute this expression here what we have, then we
can relate this expression in terms of mh and mc. So, finally, if we simplify, then our
expression will be something like this.
So, what we can understood from here, since for intrinsic semiconductor, mh and mc are
same. So, what happens, this part will be 1. So, ln (1) = 0. So, this part will be 0. So, this EF,
this Fermi energy level is, at the centre of the conduction band and valence band energy. So,
that is what it is derived. So, it is very, very effective to understand why for intrinsic
semiconductor, EF is at the centre of the conduction and valence band.
So, now what happens in case of extrinsic or doped semiconductor? So, if no and po and ni are
the electron holes and the intrinsic carrier of concentration, then the thermal equilibrium will
have no×po = ni2. This is the things normally happens. As we know, this doping in a pure
semiconductor affects the carrier concentration and other electrical properties of the
semiconductor. So, that is how, this expression is different. And straightaway, what we can
use, the expression for calculation of Fermi energy level for n-type semiconductor material.
So, this is [EC - kT×ln (NC/ND)].
This is EC is the conduction energy and NC is the effective density of states in the conduction
band and ND is the donor concentration, it is donor density and k is Boltzmann's constant.
Already we have defined and its unit is eV/K not degree. So, centigrade means it is degree,
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and T is in absolute temperature which should be in Kelvin and EV is the valence band energy
and NV is the effective density of states in the valence band and NA is the acceptor
concentration or acceptor density. These are the terminology used and we can use these two
expressions for calculation of Fermi energy level for n-type and p-type material.
So, as we have explained before, to know this position of Fermi energy level in intrinsic n-
type and p-type semiconductor, it looks something like this. So, it shows the shift of position
of Fermi level in the band diagram. So, here what happens, this is energy, this is energy, this
is energy. So, in case of intrinsic semiconductor, what happens, this Fermi energy level is at
the centre of the valence band and conduction band. So, number of holes and electrons are
same.
So, here in case of n-type semiconductor, this Fermi energy level will move towards
conduction band. Because number of electrons will be more here, majority charge carriers are
electrons. In case of p-type semiconductor, since majority charge carriers are holes, this EF
will shift to towards valence band. So, these are the different configurations. Also, we have
learned why this is thick and what happens. So, this is the energy level for donor and this is
the energy level for acceptor. So, it should not come to, these are valence band, but there
should be very close It is close to valence band and this is close to conduction band. So, if it
comes to here, then it becomes a conductor. It will be no longer semiconductor. If it will
come here, then it will becomes like insulator.
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So, let us solve one problem. So, this problem statement goes something like this. A p-type
silicon has effective density of states in the valence band as 1×1022 cm-3. An impurity from
third group with concentration of 1×1019 cm-3 is added. So, this much of impurities are added.
And band gap of silicon is given you as 1.1 eV. Find the closeness of the Fermi level with
valence band at the temperature of 27 oC.
So, temperature, as I say this temperature has to be in Kelvin, so it will be (27+273), it will be
300 K. So, temperature is 300 K. And also we know this value of k is 8.629112×10-5 eV/K.
So, also we must know the value of k in J/K. And also, we know 1 eV = 1.602×10-19 J. So,
sometimes if we know this value, then and this value, we can convert it as per our
requirement.
So, if we can use this here straightaway, then we can do the calculation, because this value is
known to us. So, NV is 1022 and this is 1019. So, k value is given and T is 300 K. So, if you
substitute here and do this calculation and it is found to be 0.1788 eV. So, this difference is
that much of eV. So, we can generate numerous problem for understanding this phenomena.
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Now, let us come to the p-n junction. So, so far what we have learned is intrinsic
semiconductor and then we have extrinsic semiconductor and then dopant, what are the
dopant used, and then that becomes your n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductor.
Now, what we are doing, these two n-type and p-type semiconductors are joining together,
that becomes a junction. So, why happens when we are joining these n-type and p-type
semiconductors. So, you can see these simulations, what is going on here.
So, as soon as it comes contact with p-type and n-type, what happened, the electron in the n
side will move to the p side and holes from the p side will move to the n side. And they make
a depletion layer. In the depletion layer, again, there is a transfer of electron from n side to
the p side. So, due to this flow of electron, there is a current flow, that flow of current is
known as diffusion current. We will learn this in the next slides. And we have to define drift
current, when it is connected to forward bias system and also breakdown voltage when it is
connected to reverse bias system.
So, now, in summary, let us discuss these points like the electronic in homogeneocity or
homogeneity is the essential need for conversion of solar energy into electricity. The
electronic asymmetry is created by putting the p-type and n-type semiconductor in contact. At
the junction between the p-type and n-type semiconductors, the majority charge carriers flow
in the opposite direction. Thus, creating a positive charge in the n-region and negative charge
in the p-region. This part has already been discussed when we were discussing the working
principle of solar cells. During the flow of charge carriers, the recombination process results
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in the region having no mobile charges. This region is known as depletion region. So, this is
also known as depletion region. So, this part is depletion region.
The steady state is achieved when the built-in potential across the junction opposes the flow
of charge from either sides. So, what happens in case of reverse bias, as you can see, so this
depletion region will increase, but in case of forward bias, this depletion region will contract.
So, that is what, it is shown here. So, as we know, when we connect this, this has to be
maintained in the centre and this has to be almost constant for both the sides.
So, see in case of, say when we are not connecting this p-type and n-type with external
sources, then what happens, when we join this n-type and p-type semiconductor, then this
becomes a junction. So, as soon as we join these two, then negatively charged electron will
move to this region and positively charged electron will move to this region. So, they make
one region. That region is called depletion region, so depletion region. In the depletion
region, again this electron will move to this side and these holes will move to this side. Due
to this movement of the charges, one current is generated that current is known as diffusion
current.
And for forward bias, what happens, this positive terminal of the battery is connected to the
positive side and negative terminal of the battery is connected to the negative side. So, what
happens due to this, these positively charged holes will come this side and negatively charged
electrons will come the side and this region will contract. So, under that condition, the charge
will move, so maybe I can discuss in the next slides.
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So, what happens, if this voltage, if the voltage in the forward bias is above the specified
range, the electrons in the n-region drifts through the junction and migrates to the p-region.
And the hole in the p-region migrate through the junction to the n-region, which gives rise to
the flow of current called drift current. So, drift current is related to forward bias. Diffusion
current is when there is no bias is there.
So, here, we have these are the positively charged holes and these are negatively charged
electrons, positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive side, negative terminal
of the battery is connected to the negative side. And what happens here? It, depletion region
is narrowed down. And then this electron will move from n-side and then holes will move to
the p-side. So, this is n-type and this is p-type. So, this current, when this happens, this
current flow through the circuit is known as the drift current.
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So, now, in case of reverse bias, what happens, this negative terminal of the battery is
connected to the positive side and positive terminal of the battery is connected to the negative
side. So, what happens here?
So, this will repel. So, because of this repel, so what happens, it extends this depletion region.
So, it is very difficult to move now, the electron from this n-side to the p-side, and holes from
p-side to the n-side. So, electrons get attracted to the positive terminal of the battery. This
result in the increase in the depletion layer. If the battery voltage is above the particular
voltage, the electrons and the holes breakdown, that is called avalanche breakdown through
the p-n junction and cross resulting in the current to flow through the circuit.
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So, what happens? This condition is now resemble like an insulation. So, if this is happens, if
we further increase the voltage, then what will happen, so breakdown will occur. There is no
p-n junction, this will melt or say diode, if we say, this will melt. This will no longer work.
So, this is all about this semiconductor physics.
And let us now have some information about different generation of solar cell materials. So,
there are three generations, first generation, second generation and third generation. In case of
first generation solar cells, the solar cells are based on silicon wafer technology, what we
have discussed. And solar cells are single junction with 33 % theoretical efficiency. And it
requires high energy and labour as you can understand. So, we need a lot of equipments and
that will work on very high temperature. And energy conversion efficiency is about 15-20 %.
But, these kind of solar cells are widely used, in many of the applications.
In second generation solar cells, amorphous solar cells are included like cadmium telluride
and then micro amorphous silicon, that kind of cells are included. But efficiency is very very
low compared to first generation solar cells. But cost of production is also very very low. So,
it requires less energy and labour. And this is manufactured by depositing the thin film of
materials on substrates. That substrates maybe silicon, maybe glass or ceramics. And there
are different techniques used among them, chemical vapor deposition, molecular beam epoxy
or spin-coatings are prominent and people have used extensively these methods.
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So, if we talk about third generation solar cells, which are the current generation solar cells,
which primary focus on improvement of energy conversion efficiency and light absorption
coefficient of second generation solar cells, while keeping the production cost close to that of
the second generation cost. So, by maintaining the production cost constant, as far the second
generation solar cell, but conversion efficiency should be higher.
The enhancement in efficiency can be achieved by manufacturing of multi junction solar cell,
as we have discussed in the last class. So, multi junction solar cells are having higher
conversion efficiencies. So, this is the option of increasing the conversion efficiency, and
improving the light absorption coefficient by doing concentration or concentrating the solar
cells and using techniques to increase the carrier collections. So, these are the third generation
solar cells. So, these are primarily emphasized in the current times.
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So, now, let us summarize what we have discussed today. We have discussed about
classifications of semiconductors. What is intrinsic semiconductor, what is extrinsic
semiconductor, what is doping, what is dopant, what is Fermi energy level, then p-n junction,
what is drift current, what is diffusion current, and generations of solar cell materials. So, we
have studied many more terminologies today, starting from conductor, semiconductor,
insulator and we gave some examples of conductor, semiconductor and then insulators. And
what kind of dopants are used for p-type, and what kind of dopants are used for n-type, what
is acceptors, what is donors, what is free electrons, what is free holes? And finally, we have
studied the trend of production of solar cells and what is going on in the current scenario and
what needs to be improved for increasing the conversion efficiency.
So, thank you very much for watching this video.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Centre for Energy
Lecture No. 11
Performance Characterization of PV Cells
Dear students, today, we learn Performance Analysis of Solar Cell. So, before we start our
today's discussion, let us summarize what we have discussed in the last class.
So, we have discussed classification of semiconductors, doping, Fermi energy level, p-n
junction, drift current and diffusion current, and generations of solar PV materials. Of course,
we have studied the working principle of a solar cell.
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So with this background, we will now move to today's discussion on performance

characteristics of PV cells, which includes I-V characteristics, equivalent circuit diagram of a
solar cell both in actuarial and theoretical as well as our conventional equivalent circuit
diagram, then theoretical maximum power, how to calculate theoretical maximum power,
then effect of insolation and temperature on I-V characteristics, and finally, cell efficiency
and band gap will be discussed.
So, solar cell characteristics at room temperature when a junction not illuminated, so how it
will look like? It will be something like this. And mathematically it can be represented by
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 V  
I  I o exp   1 . This is the expression we can use for dark current. So, this Io is nothing
  VT  
but reverse saturation current which is dependent on temperature. Of course, it tells about the
diffusion of minority charge carrier from neutral section to the diffusion layer. And this VT is
something called voltage equivalent temperature, and mathematically it can be represented by
k×T/e, what is k, is a Boltzmann constant. Already we have discussed this Boltzmann
constant in the last class. Its value is about 1.381× 10-23 J/K. And charge of an electron is
about 1.602 × 10-19 J/V. So this VT value is about 26.0 mV at 20 oC. So, its value is 26.0 mV
at 20 oC at room temperature.
Now, we will discuss what happens when p-n junction is illuminated, or light source is
applied. So, what will happen, the shape of this I-V characteristics will change. So, it will go
downward and then you can see how this shape has been changed. So these two figure is for
two different light level. So, this is Isc for one light level; this is Isc for one light level. This Isc
is short circuit drift current. So, we will define how this can be investigated.
So, mathematically when the p-n junction is illuminated, we can express something like this,
 V  
I   I sc  I o exp   1 . So, this Isc what we have got after exposing to the light, so that
  VT  
has to be added. Since it is the 4th quadrant, so this will be -Isc. So, when the junction is short-
circuited at its terminal, this V is zero, this voltage is zero, and the finite current will be I = Isc
which will flow through this junction, from positive terminal to the negative terminal. So, this
current is known as short-circuited current or short circuit current.
Now, if we provide some kind of voltage source to this p-n junction and positive side is
connected to p-side and negative, will be negative n-type, then what will happen? This
voltage will start rising from zero, and then it will increase, so this will also change. And
finally what happens, at certain voltage, this current will be zero ok this current will be zero.
So, these voltages are known as Voc for light source one and Voc for light source two. So, this
Voc at which current is zero is known as the open-circuit voltage. So, if we substitute I = 0 in
this equation, and then we simplify then what we will get? An expression for calculation of
I 
Voc. So, Voc  VT  ln  sc  1 . So, we can calculate the value of Voc by knowing these
 Io 
parameters.
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So, at room temperature, normally if we consider a silicon solar cell, then I sc is about 2 A and
Io is about 1 nA. Hence, if we substitute this value here and we use Boltzmann constant and
charge of an electron, then Voc is found to be about 0.55 V for a single crystal silicon solar
cells. So, what we have understood from here is that when light source is provided to a p-n
junction that can be considered as an energy source. So, now we can understand we can
generate energy out of this junction.
Now, let us learn the I-V characteristics, and in the convention what we normally use. So, for
energy source, by convention, the current coming out of positive terminal is considered as
positive. Mathematically, the characteristics of solar cell may be written as
 V  
I  I sc  I o exp   1 . This is the expression normally we use. So, if I have to draw I-V
  VT  
characteristics, then we need to follow some kind of instrument, I-V tracer or maybe we can
make our own arrangement to know how this voltage and current is related.
So, if I am interested to generate this I-V characteristic curve, then what we will use I-V
tracer we can use, and we can get different values of current at different voltage. So, these are
the points. So, if we join this point, so this will be something like this, and finally it will be
joining at 0.6, if we say open circuit voltage is 0.6.
So, how it varies? Initially, this current will will be almost constant, and then sharply it is
decreasing to zero. So, if we consider this is x-axis, this is y-axis, so intersection of x-axis
will give Voc and intersection of y-axis will give Isc. So, this Isc is very sensitive to solar
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insolation, but not Voc much. Also, if we can generate this I-V, we can also generate PV
curve, power versus voltage curve. So, if we vary power with respect to voltage, then what
will happen? We can join those points, ok and we will get a maximum point and then it will
decrease to this zero power. So, in every cases, what we will have? We will have this kind of
plot, and it will pass through a maximum and then it will reduce to zero. So, this maximum
point is very, very important.
So, if we can operate our system at this maximum point, then we are expected to have higher
power conversion, and of course, we will get higher solar energy conversion efficiency. Now,
combining these two, we can generate this kind of plot. This is the I-V part, and variation of
power with respect to voltage is given here. And if we identify this is the maximum voltage,
and this is the maximum current, so we can form this kind of rectangle. So, this is the area
under the curve. So, area will be Im into Vm.
So, this closeness of the characteristics to the rectangular shape is a measure of the quality of
the cell, which is very, very important. So, this will give rise to a parameter called fill factor,
 
which is nothing but mathematically FF  V m  I m  / V ocI sc . So, this Vm is the maximum
voltage, Im is the maximum current and Voc is the open-circuit voltage, Isc is the short-circuit
current. So, value of this Isc varies from 0.5 to 0.83 for crystalline silicon solar cells. So, an
ideal cell would have a perfect rectangular characteristics that we should remember.
Now, come back to this figure here what is shown, two cells are connected in series for this
case, and two cells are connected in parallel. So, if we are connecting two cells in series then
what will happen? Of course, voltage will rise, and if we are interested about this maximum
voltage, so this may be we can put Vm1, and this may be we can put Vm2. So and this may be
Im1, and this may be Im2. So, here voltage will be at this point Vm1 + Vm2, and if we are
interested in power that has to be multiplied by Im1. And in this case, what will happen, we
will have Vm1 multiplied by Im1 + Im2. So, that way, we can calculate for different cells.
Also, what we can define the instantaneous efficiency, if I am interested to know the
maximum instantaneous efficiency of a solar cell that can also be calculated by using this
simple expression. This Im multiplied by Vm to the solar power means the amount of solar
radiation received by the solar cell. Since, we already know the expression for FF, we can
relate instantaneous efficiency with respect to fill factor.
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So, if we relate this, then our final expression will be something like
i  FF  V ocI sc  / I T  Ac  . So, this Ac is the cell area, and IT is the amount of solar radiation
falling on the particular cell. So once we know these parameters, we can calculate ηi or
instantaneous efficiency. So, here point is, if any system operates less than this power point
or maximum power point, then we are losing the efficiency. So, our attempt is to operate the
system at maximum power point.
Now, let us do some kind of calculations to know fill factor of a solar cell. So, if these
informations are given to us like Voc, Isc, Vm, Im, then straightway we can calculate what will
be the fill factor of a solar cell. So, here based on our calculation it is found to be 0.34, which
is not so good, but still, what we have shown, this is the way how to calculate fill factor.
Now, if I am interested to calculate the maximum power and electrical efficiency of a solar
cell at an intensity of 200 W/m2, how to do that if these values are given. Voc is given, Isc is
given, Vm or V maximum is given, I maximum is given and area of the solar cell is given as 4
cm2. So, straightway you can calculate Pmax is Imax into Vmax. So, this will be 0.84 mW and
instantaneous efficiency by using the expression what is discussed in the last slides, so we
can get an efficiency of 2.7%, which is very, very less. Here, of course, we have used positive
sign because conceptually we need to use a positive sign. So, we can we can have this
instantaneous efficiency as 2.7%, which is very, very less. So, this is a demonstration how
this can be calculated.
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Now, let us learn the equivalent diagram. So, in order to understand the characteristics of a
solar cell, we need to plot this equivalent circuit diagram. Of course, this is an actual
equivalent circuit diagram. So, what are the components involved in this diagram? We will
have a current source, and we will have junction, p-n junction or say diode and we will have
shunt resistance, then series resistance and this is the load resistance. So, current source
supplies current which is equal to Isc and Ij is the amount of current which flows through this
p-n junction and Ish is the amount of current which flows through this shunt resistance, and I
is flowing through this Rs. Rs is a series of resistance. So, this is an actual equivalent circuit
diagram.
This short-circuited current is not equal to the light generated current, but it is less by shunt
resistance or shunts current through Rsh and internal voltage drop Rs. So, normally in
practical situation when we do the calculations, so these are neglected. It is assumed that this
is Rsh is very, very high and Rs is very, very low. So, dissipation of power is very, very less
when current flows through this series resistance. So, in this situations, the mathematically
these characteristics can be written something like this,
I  I L  I o expV  IRs  / VT  1  V  IRs  / Rsh . So, these are the components which are
added, Rs is also here.
So, values of this Rsh for a high quality 1 in2 solar silicon cells is about 200 Ω to 300 Ω, and
Rs is about 0.05 Ω to 0.1 Ω. From here, you can say the how these resistances varies in case
of shunt resistance and series resistance. So, here point is this is IL so cannot be directly equal
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to Isc. So, it involves lot of losses if we connect this Rsh and Rs. So, normally resistance is
very, very high in case of shunt resistance and here series resistance, no resistance is not
much, thats why energy distribution is not much.
So, let us see what happens in case of ideal equivalent circuit diagram. So, we can omit these
two components; shunt resistance and series resistance. So, our considerations are shunt
resistance is infinite, and series resistance is zero. So, here only current source we have, then
we have Ij the junction current, and I is the current flowing through this load resistance
having voltage drop of V. So, now our intention is to calculate this Pmax. So, in order to
calculate Pmax that is the maximum power which can be provided by a cell, we need to
calculate what is Im and what is Vm. Let us see how this can be calculated.
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So, this load current at fixed values of temperature and solar radiation can be related with
voltage. So, this I is related with voltage with this expression which is already defined. So, I
  eV  
is equal to I  I sc  I o exp   1 . So, as we know, for an open circuit voltage I is zero, so
  kT  
V is equal to Voc. So, if we substitute this in equation one, then our equation will be
something like this. So, if we simplify it, then we will have this expression. And once we
have this expression if we take ln in both the sides, then what we will have, we can calculate
kT I 
what is Voc; which is nothing but Voc   ln sc  1 . So, by using this expression, we can
e  Io 
calculate what the open circuit voltage. The power P from a PV cell can be calculated by
using P = I × V, which is known to us. So, if we substitute this I from equation one, then our
equation will look like this, so this equation may be equation three.
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So, as you can understand when we have discussed in I-V and PV characteristics curves, so
combined we can have this kind of plots. Not exactly, so, we will have maximum points
somewhere here. So, this is the maximum point. So, at this point, what happens, dV by dP,
sorry dP by dV is equal to zero, its gradient will be zero. If P is here and then V is here, of
course, dP by dV will be zero at this point. So, this is the point.
So, under that conditions what we will get that we will call Pmax if we know these values, then
we can calculate Pmax. So, if we use the expression what is developed in the last slides and if
we differentiate with respect to voltage, so our equation will be something like this and if we
multiply with voltage and then differentiate with respect to voltage and then finally
expression will be something like this.
So, here what we can do? This V can be replaced by Vm because at this point or here for I-V,
so if you sorry, actually here this will be I, and P may be in the secondary line, P. So, this
maybe Im, this may be Vm, this may be Im. So, once we know Vm and Im, so of course, we can
calculate what is Pm. So, at these conditions here where dP by dV is zero, then what we will
have, we can have this expression for Vm. So, by using this expression, we can calculate what
will be the value of Vm once we know Isc and Io. Since, these values are known these values
are known and we can we can have Vm. And this load current Im corresponding to maximum
power can be determined by substituting this equation one in equation five. So, by using
these and simplifying these, so we can have this expression. Let us continue with the next
slides.
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And by using equation four, then we will have this kind of expressions and if we multiply this
equation, both side of this equation with Io, then what will have is a maximum current. So,
expression for maximum current is something like this. And once we know this I m, then
finally we can calculate what will be the maximum power. So, maximum power is nothing
but multiplication of Im into Vm. So, Im is known here and Vm already we know the
expression. So by using this expression, we can we can calculate what is Pm. Of course, while
calculating Pm we need to do trial and error. So, that way, we can calculate the maximum
power to be delivered by a solar cell.
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So, so far what we have learned is the open-circuit voltage, what is open-circuit voltage, what
is short circuit current, what is the maximum power point, what is fill factor, what is
efficiency? These five parameters we have studied, and we understand now what are those
parameters and how these can be calculated.
Now, again extension of these performance characteristics, as we can understand when solar
radiation intensity increases, so Isc value increases. So, as we can see here, so as Isc increases
again Im and Vm also increases. So, here this is for one intensity, and this is for another
intensity. So, of course, this will be at a higher intensity than this one. So, you can see this
rise in Isc when this solar radiation increases. But, variation of Voc is not much even though
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solar intensity increases. And this Isc is dependent on size of the solar cells and then solar
insolation that we should keep in mind. If we increase the size of the solar cell, then it is
expected to get higher Isc values and also if we increase the solar irradiation, then Isc value
can be increased.
But this Voc, the open-circuit voltage depends on the type of cell and, type of cell or cell
material. So, this is fixed for a particular solar cells. This solar cell output power increases
with solar radiation. The change in short circuit current are essentially proportional to the
change in solar radiation. However, the change in voltage is comparatively less what we have
shown in the figure.
Also, in the very beginning of this class, we have demonstrated how this eta max can be
calculated. So, this expression already familiar to you, so this, with respect to FF, how it will
look like and if we do not have FF only Im and Vm then also we can calculate ηmax. So,
already you know what is IT, is the incident solar flux and Ac is the area of the solar cell. So,
this maximum conversion efficiency of a solar cell is given by the ratio of maximum useful
power to the incident solar radiation. So, this you should keep in mind.
So, for an efficient cell, it is desirable to have high values of fill factor as you can see here.
So, if we can get high values of fill factor and then higher values of Isc and higher values of
Voc, of course, we can maximize our efficiency. So, now interestingly you can notice that
high values of short circuit current are obtained with low bandgap material, while these high
values of open-circuit voltage and fill factors are possible with high bandgap material. So
then, we have to make some kind of compromise. Otherwise, we can see how these
efficiencies varies with bandgap; then we can pick the best bandgap for maximum energy
conversion. That also we will discuss in the coming slides.
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So, in order to understand the concept what we have discussed, so let us take an example of
something like this. The dark current density of a solar cell at 38 oC, as I said this dark
current density is always dependent on temperature. So, it is very, very sensitive to the
temperature. And the short circuit current density is 235 A/m2. Now, we need to calculate the
voltage and current density that maximize the power of the cell. That means, we need to
calculate Im and Vm. Then second case, what do we need to calculate, what would be the
corresponding maximum power output per unit cell area? That means power density you
need to calculate and then corresponding conversion efficiency, if the global radiation
incident on the cell is given as 865 W/m2. Also, in the third case, we need to calculate the cell
area if the output power is given as 45 W.
What is given here is Io by Ac is given as 4.3 × 10-8 A/m2. And Isc by Ac is given as 235 A/m2,
and temperature since we need to convert this centigrade to Kelvin, then we have to add 273,
so it will be 311 K. So, this, our relationships are varied only when we take T is in K or
temperature is in K. So, already we have those expressions already derived.
I sc   eVoc  
 exp   1 . By using this expression, what we can calculate is the Voc. So, open
I o   kT  
circuit voltage we can calculate. So, we substitute these values and taking ln on both sides
and then finally, what we can have is Voc is 0.601 V.
Also, we know this expression, in order to calculate the Vm, we need to use this expression.
Then on substitution of those given data, then we can develop this expression. So, we cannot
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solve these expressions straightaway. So, we need to solve it by trial and error. So, we need
some kind of prior knowledge about Vm, because already you know Voc is 0.601, so Vm has to
be less than 0.601. That way, we can decide what will be the probable values of Vm. Maybe
we can start with 0.5, then maybe 0.55; then we can see which one is closer to these values,
then finally, we can decide what will be the exact values of Vm which satisfies this equation.
So, once this equation is satisfied with this assumed Vm, then we can calculate what is Vm.
So, this Vm will be 0.521 V for this case.
Now, once we know this, then we can calculate maximum current density. So, this expression
we can use. So, the kind of expression what we have used during derivations, there Ac was
not there. So, what we can do? We can take that expression so that expression was Im is
eVm
equal to I m  kT I o  I sc  . And if we divide this expression, this maybe star expression.
eV
1 m
kT
This star if we divide by Ac then what will be the expression is something like this. So, why
we have done it, because these values are given in terms of densities, so that is why we have
done it. So, Im by Ac on substitution of these values, then what we will get is about 223.496
A/m2.
So, now what we can calculate is the maximum power. So, Pm is equal to Im into Vm. So, this
will be the Pm. Since, we know this Im and this will be W/m2; since this Im is in W/m2. So, this
is for maximum current density. So, Pm = Im × Vm. So, finally, what we will have, this is a
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maximum power per unit cell area. So, this is the answer of answer of question b. And and
this is also part of answer b. So, finally this maximum conversion efficiency, we know the
equation Pm/I because this Pm here is density. So, I × A is taken care of this Pm. So, that is
how, we can calculate Imax, so this will be about 13.46%.
So, if we need to find out Ac or say cell area, how to do that? Let Ac be the area of the cell,
and we know this ηmax and P is given as 45, then we use this equation, and from that, we can
calculate what Ac or area of the solar cell. So, this area of the solar cell, we can calculate by
using this procedure. For this case, it is about 0.3865 m2.
So, in this problem, we have first calculated Voc, then we have calculated Vm, then we have
calculated Im, then we have calculated Pm, then we have calculated ηmax, and finally, we have
calculated ηc. So, we have shown how these parameters can be calculated from given data.
So, this kind of exercise is very, very important to understand how these equations can be
used for calculation of all those performance parameters.
Now, let us learn the effect of solar cell temperature on solar cell efficiency, which is very,
very important. A fraction of total solar radiation incident on a solar cell produces electricity,
and remaining radiation is converted into thermal energy. A part of the produced thermal
energy raises the temperature of the solar cell, and the rest is dissipated from the top and
bottom of the cell. The temperature of the cell determines the electrical performance of the
cell. So, if we do the energy balance per unit area, so we can have this kind of equations.
Losses will be there, and then we have efficiency and then amount of energy received by the
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system. So, what is τ, the transmissivity of the cover of the solar cell, then α is the
absorptivity of the solar cell, then ηc is the electrical efficiency, and of course, UL is the
overall loss coefficient which includes top loss and bottom loss.
Also, we will introduce one term called NOCT. So, in the backside of the PV model,
normally you can see this NOCT is written. That is, normal operating cell temperature which
is nothing but the temperature of the solar cell corresponding to 20 oC and 800 W/m2 solar
irradiance and wind speed is 1 m/s under no-load condition.
So, for no-load condition ηc will be zero, no electrical conversion will be there. So, this
expression what we have discussed in the last slides, it reduces to something like this and
from here you can calculate what will be the cell temperature. So, expression of cell
temperature will be something like this. The electrical efficiency is a function of temperature.
So, this electrical efficiency again related with this expression. So, what ηo, is the electrical
efficiency of the solar cell under standard test condition.
So, what is under standard test condition? This solar radiation has to be at 1000 W/m 2; then
wind speed is 1 m/s and AM1.5, these are the minimum requirement for this standard test
condition. And βo for silicon solar cell is about 0.0045 K-1, which is known as efficiency
temperature coefficient. And already we have defined what Tc, which is nothing but solar cell
temperature. So, by using this, we can calculate what will be the electrical efficiency of a
solar cell.
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Now, let us learn how this efficiency of a solar module related with temperature. As
temperature increases, what happens in both the cases, for amorphous cells and crystalline
cells, efficiency decreases. This decrease is more significant in case of crystalline solar cells.
So, as you can see this decrease is about 0.4 to 0.5 % per degree rise in temperature, and for
amorphous cell, its about 0.25 % per degree rise in temperature. So, when the module
temperature rises up, the efficiency decreases. So, we need to have some kind of cooling for
improving the efficiency. So, normally natural coolings are preferred.
But why this is happening? So, let us learn at fixed insolation, if temperature is increased,
there is a marginal increase in the cell current; but a significant reduction in the cell voltage.
And the second cause is, an increase in temperature causes a reduction in the bandgap, which
causes some increase in photogeneration rate and thus a marginal increase in the current. The
reverse saturation current, which was represented by Io, increases rapidly with temperature.
So, it was reported that the cell voltage decreases by 2.2 mV per degree increase in
temperature. And also, it is observed that lighter the silicon resistivity, more marked is the
temperature effect. And last cause is, fill factor also decreases with temperature. So, these are
the causes why actually know this, with rise in temperature, conversion efficiency decreases
significantly.
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Now, here it shows the variation of insolation, as insolation increases, how this characteristics
curve changes. Also, this P Vs V curve changes. We can see the shift of maximum power
point if we trace it from here ok. And this plot shows the effect of variation of temperature on
the characteristics of the solar cell. So, as temperature increases, this I m, Vm also decreases.
So, these are, this is very, very clear. So, this may be for one one case, and this may be for
another second case ok, and this is for at 25 oC, and this is for at 60 oC. See how these
changes are taking place.
Now, let us see how this solar cell efficiency and band gap are related. So, here in this figure,
two curves are considered. So, one curve is generated under a spectrum of AM1.5, and
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another curve is generated under the spectrum of AM0, which is extraterrestrial region. So,
this curve one, is extraterrestrial radiation is incident on the solar cell and curve two, incident
global radiation to the AM1.5 under a clear sky. And it is assumed that intensity of solar
radiation is 1000 W/m2. So, if we plot it then what we can get, so this is for silicon, and this is
for gallium arsenide. So, if we see as we understand, this ηmax is related to fill factor ok, then
Isc, then Voc, then we have here is the IT × Ac. So, this is, this will be more, this will be good
for high values of bandgap, and this will be for low values of bandgap.
So, what we can say, in this range, solar cell efficiency is found to be high. And if we see
this, this is about 1.1, and this is about 1.7, close to 1.7. So, if we consider a bandgap in
between this range 1.1 to 1.7, it is expected that we will get higher conversion efficiencies. Of
course, we can do a lot of iterations by varying this bandgap, and we can optimize, or we can
maximize what will be the maximum efficiency of conversion.
So, this table shows the variation of efficiency with different solar cell material. As you can
see very precisely, this fill factor and efficiency, there is a relationship, see. When fill factor
is more, efficiency is very high. So, fill factor is more, efficiency is high. So, this fill factor
plays a very important role in enhancing the efficiency of a solar cell. And this table shows
the efficiency values of some PV modules. So, this also quite clear. So, for silicon single
crystal module, so we will have higher efficiency of about 22.7 and the same time, we will
have higher fill factor. So, comparison can be seen. For multi-crystalline, it is about 15.3 %
efficiency and fill factor is about 78.6, and the other two cells are also given here.
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So, what we can summarize in this talk, we have understood the performance characteristics
of a solar cell. And also, we have studied how this fill factor can be calculated, Isc can be
calculated, Voc can be calculated, Im, Vm and maximum efficiency can be calculated. And
what is Isc, what is Voc, how this Isc and Voc are sensitive to solar insolation and size of the
cells; that also we have discussed. And also, we have derived to estimate the maximum
power of a solar cell. Also, we have studied the effect of variation of solar insolation and
temperature on the characteristics of solar cell. Finally, we have studied solar cell efficiency
and bandgap. Hope you have enjoyed this lecture. Thank you very much for watching.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Centre for Energy
Lecture No. 12
Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Conversion
Dear students, today we learn solar PV modules, arrays and PV system. So, before we
start today's discussion, let us summarize what we have discussed in the last class.
So, in the last class, we have learned how to develop I-V characteristics curve of a solar
cell. So, here as you can see, this current is varying with voltage, and it reaches zero
value here, and power increases linearly and reaches a maximum value, and then it
reaches a zero value here. This intersection of this line in the x-axis is known as V oc and
intersection of these lines in the y-axis is known as Isc or short circuit current. So, every
curve will have a maximum power point.
Also, we have studied the performance parameter of a PV cell which includes field
factor, which is a function of Isc, Voc, Im, Vm. So, Im is nothing but maximum current and
Vm is nothing but maximum voltage at this this point. We also define how this field factor
can be estimated. In order to analyze the performance of a solar cell, we have to take help
of this equivalent circuit diagram, so which comprises of a current source which provides
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Isc is the amount of current and Ij is the current flows through this p-n junction, and Ish is
the amount of current flows through shunt resistance, and I is the amount of current
which flows through the load resistance having voltage drop of V.
So, normally what happens, this Rsh is shunt resistance is very, very high compared to R L
and this internal series resistance Rsh is very, very low compared to RL. Hence, under this
consideration, this can be omitted, and we can modify this equivalent circuit diagram and
we can derive the expression for maximum power. So that has been done in the last class.
And also, we have studied the effect of variation of solar radiation and temperature on the
characteristics of solar cell. As you can see this I-V characteristics plot, here red line
shows the at higher temperature, and this is at, this curve is at higher insolation. So, as
temperature increases, this our shape of the I-V characteristic curve will change, and we
will get lesser amount of current, efficiency finally we will get very less. If we can
operate at standard test conditions, maybe at 25 oC, then we will get maximum
conversion efficiency. Otherwise, if temperature increases, ambient temperature
increases, then accordingly cell temperature will increase and then we will get lesser
conversion efficiency.
Also, what we have studied if we know Isc value for standard test condition, means at
1000 W/m2 and AM1.5, and at ambient condition, at say 25 oC, then we can calculate Isc
value of other insolation. So, if we know this, then this can be calculated. And also, we
have studied solar cell efficiency and bandgap, how they are related. So, with this
background, let us move to the today's discussion.
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So, solar module classifications we will discuss today, then specification of a module,
then cell matching of a module, then effect of shadowing, maximization of solar PV
output and load matching and finally, maximum power point tracker for the PV system
will be discussed. So, what is PV module?
PV module is an assembly of photovoltaic cells mounted in a framework for installation.

As you can see, this is a single solar cell, this single solar cell or you can say bare single
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cell cannot be used for outdoor applications; because its output is very less. As we can
say, it will give about 0.6 V. So, single cell will provide about 0.6 V, so this cannot be
used for many of the practical applications, if we are proposing for outdoor applications.
And also, it requires protection against dust, moisture, mechanical shock and outdoor
harsh conditions. So, if we combine many cells, then we can convert to a module. So, that
means this workable voltage and reasonable power is obtained by interconnecting
appropriate number of cells. These cells have to be connected in series sometimes and
then we have to connect in parallel, that has to be decided.
Mostly in common modules, have series connection of 36 silicon cells, to make it capable
of charging a 12 V storage battery. So, thats why, most of the cases, single modules are
36 cells are there and which can be capable of charging a battery of capacity 12 V. Of
course, it will have more numbers of cells in the international market.
So, if we see very precisely this module, what are different layers composed of these
modules? Of course, we need a junction box at the end, and this is the back seat, and then
on the top of it, we will have encapsulant, and then solar cells are placed, and again, at
the top of the solar cells, we will have encapsulant then glass, then frame. You see,
different layers are composed of a module.
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Now, let us see how these modules are connected in series and parallel. So, if we talk
about a single cell, so this single cell can provide a voltage of 0.6 V. And if we talk about
current density I, so this, it varies from 200 to 300 A/m 2. So, if these cells are connected
in series then what will happen, current will remain fixed, but voltage will vary. So, since
three cells are connected in series, so if you say (0.6 + 0.6 + 0.6), so it will be 1.8 V. And
if we connect these cells in parallel then what will happen, its voltage will be constant but
current will add up.
So, here current means I1 then we have I2 then we have I3, so this will be added. So, if I
am interested to develop I-V characteristics for these two conditions, then we can
develop. Say for single-cell, we can we can draw this I-V and if we have two cells then
two volts will be there, so this connection is for series, and this is for parallel. Then for
two cells, it will be two Voc and then for three cells will be three Voc, so it will be
something like this.
And in case of parallel connections, as we can understand, this voltage will be fixed, so
this is the one and then if we add second one parallelly and then third one, so this will be
3 × Isc. So, configurations of this I-V characteristics when we are interested for series and
parallel connections, then it will look like something like this. And this figure shows how
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these batteries are connected in series, in a real situation. So, this knowledge is very very
important. In most of the cases, we have to know go through this kind of considerations.
So, how does a module classify? So, classified based on the material used in the backside
of the module. So, if the back cover of the module is made of opaque Tedlar, it is known
as glass-to-Tedlar, and this Tedlar is nothing but polyvinyl fluoride or opaque PV
module. This is known as glass-to-Tedlar or opaque PV module. And the second one, if
the back cover the module is made of glass, it is known as glass-to-glass or semi-
transparent PV module. So, primarily, these two categories are prominently available.
And the amount of light transmitted from a semi-transparent PV module depends on its
packing factor. We will define what is packing factor. It will tell about the density of the
cells in a given PV module. So, we will define this factor. Also, we will study the
efficiency of a module. Since, we have the experience of calculating the efficiency of the
cell, so how does this efficiency will be different for modules that will be studied in the
coming slides.
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So, this is a standard specification of a module. So, here module size is about 119.1 cm ×
53.3 cm is the size, and of course, there are multiple options of fabrication of modules
and these are internationally accepted. But, normally these modules are widely available
and practically used. So, module weight is about 7.5 kg, then cell size is 12.5 cm × 12.5
cm, and the number of cells as I say is 36, nominal output is 80 W, and nominal voltage
is 12 V, then maximum voltage is 17 V, and V oc is about 21.2 V and Isc is 4.9 A.
So, this can be very easily calculated, how this will be? So, 36 multiplied by 0.6 will be
something like this. And here if we consider about 250 average A/m 2 multiplied by we
will have the area, it is about 0.125 × 0.125. So, that way we can calculate Isc values and
conversion efficiency is normally 12.5 %. And these values are found under standard test
condition, where intensity of solar radiation is 1000 W/m 2 and spectrum of 1.5 and cell
temperature of 25 oC.
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So, now let us study the difficulties associated with PV modules. So, problems may arises
if cells are not matched and if these cells of the modules are shadowed. So, these two
phenomenons will be studied. Under the effect of shadowing, we will study two cases,
first case will be for partial shadowing of a cell with series connection and second case is
partial shadowing of the cell with parallel connections. So first, let us study, cell
mismatch in a module.
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So what is cell mismatch? So, if two cells or maybe three cells, we consider, if their
characteristics are not the same, then they are different. So, if they are connected in
series, then then their behaviour will be different. So, what happens when we are
connecting cells in modules in series or in parallel? What happens, these characteristics
of the cells has to be identical. So, what does it mean? This characteristic means V oc, Isc,
Vm, Im or maybe field factor for all the cells must be exactly same. So, any mismatch in
the characteristics of these cells leads to the additional mismatch loss.
So, what happens if we consider two cells? This is for cell one, and this curve is for cell
two. If these two cells are connected in series, what happens, we can generate a combined
I-V characteristics. So, this is the combined I-V characteristics, and combined voltage
will be V1 plus V2. Normally, what happens in ideal case, if we consider this peak power
here and here, if we draw this kind of voltage, this will come something like this.
So, these two values in case of ideal condition, this P combined here has to be equal to
sum of the individual cells, maximum power of the individual cells. So, this maximum
power of this combined I-V characteristics should be same as sum of the individual cell’s
maximum power. But this is not the case in case of actual situation, because they have a
mismatch. So, if we compare two different cells of mismatch characteristics and we
combine it, then what happens? We will have this situation. P combined is is less than
power of sum of the individual cells. So, this is what I am talking about for case one.
When two cells with mismatch characteristics are connected in series, and a load is
applied, both the cells are bound to carry same current. So, if they are different, then what
will happen? One cell will produce power, and other cells will dissipate power. So, for
example, if we short circuit the circuit, what will happen? They will generate two voltage
V1ʹ and V2ʹ; these are, magnitude is the same but in opposite directions. So, what does it
mean? So, one cell will produce power, and others will dissipate power. And as a result
of which, we will have reduced field factor of combined I-V, so that will reduce the
combined power.
In the second case, when two cells with mismatch characteristics are connected in
parallel, the voltage of cells are bound to be equal. So, for parallel case as we have
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discussed in the last slides, so that is obvious. So, when we are connecting two cells of
mismatch characteristics in parallel, then voltage of the cells are bound to be same. So,
similar analogy or similar description can be given here for this case as well.
So, as I said, there are many modules, so what we have considered is a 36 cells composed
of a module. So, there might be some cases, number of cells are very, very high. So,
larger number of cells in a module, more would be the possibility of quantum mismatch
losses; so that we should keep in mind.
So, how to reduce the mismatch losses? So, one option may be modules are fabricated
from cells belonging to same batch. So, when it is manufactured so, we have to collect
the cells from the same batch. In the second case, cell sorting is carried out to categorize
cells having match parameters with specified tolerances, not exactly identical, but no it
should be same.
Now, let us discuss something about effect of shadowing. So, why this is important?
Because, this partial shading can have significant consequences for the output of solar
module. So, if maybe know some plant leafs are fallen on a single cell, then what will
happen? So, this is the case, we have considered here. So, here we have considered 6
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cells and one of the cells are affected by this shadowing of this plant leaf. Then what
happens, let us discuss these issues.
The current generated by shadowed cell is significantly reduced, so what happens if it is

shadowed by some external things? So, what happens, this current generated by these
cells is significantly reduced, that affect the entire system. So, if you consider a case for
series connection, the current is limited by the cell that generates the lowest current. So,
as you can understand, so it will produce some kind of current ok current. So, what
happens when it is shadowed, current generation will be very, very less in case of this 6 th
cell. So, that affect the entire system.
So, this cell dictates the maximum current flowing through the modules. So, amount of
current flows through these cells will dictate the maximum current flowing through the
modules. This shadowed solar cell does not generate energy, but starts to dissipate energy
and heat up, which leads to decrease of PV output. Sometimes wear out and burning off
the cells, and other components are also observed. So, what happens, I will explain in the
next slides, how this happens and I will draw this I-V characteristics.
So, for the time being, we must know, so here it’s a 0.6 V and here is the 0.6 V, is the 0.6
V ok, again 0.6 V here that much of voltage will be there and here also 0.6 V. So, current
will be lower here. So, once we connect a load here, what will happen? Here, current
generation will continue, but here no current will be generated, so it will act like a reverse
bias system. So, the bias voltage on these cells will be very, very high. So, because of this
region, this problems arises, heating up and dissipation of energy.
So, this kind of problems can be solved by installing some kind of diodes. So, these
diodes are called bypass diodes. So, how does this bypass diode works? This diodes
blocks the current when it is under negative voltage, but conducts current when it is under
positive voltage. Let us now, draw the I-V characteristics of this case.
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So, if we draw this I-V characteristics, so maybe I can take this plot, and maybe I can
draw here, so maybe zero here, and we will have this. And so, maybe I can write 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, ok; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 maybe 1, 2, we have 3, 4, 5, 6, this is -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, ok -6.
This is current; this is the voltage. Now, if we have to draw this current, maybe we can
here is zero and maybe here is -1, it is -2, this may be -3 and -4, something like that. So,
what we can draw here, is we have, already we have understand; so this is the voltage,
and then we will have, this voltage is 3 because we have 0.5 into, sorry (0.6 × 5) is 3 V,
so this is in voltage. So, this maybe I can draw here.
So, this may, and this current is current, maybe I can draw is 3 here, so this will be
something like this. And so here, we can understand how this has been calculated,
because cell area is 0.25 × 0.125, 0.125 × 0.125 and then we have maybe 200 W/m 2,
A/m2; so, it will be here about 3 A. So, this current will be in ampere. So, this will be our
curve for 5 5 cells or 5 Voc ok and for 1, so this will be 0.6 right, this will be 0.6. I will
explain, and current will be somewhere here. And we will have this reverse bias system,
so this will be minus; so maybe I will use dotted line here, this will come something like
this, dotted line and it will go something like this.
So, as I said, when this reverse bias, so this is for reverse bias reverse bias. So, now this
part is the dissipation ok, so dissipated energy is this one dissipated energy. So, what I
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have drawn here, for this is 5 V. So, this is an I-V characteristics curve; for this scenario,
what we have discussed in the last slides, so there are 5 cells which are producing energy.
So, for 5 cells, so what will be the voltage? Because, every cell are having 0.6 V or V oc,
and then we have 5, so it will be 3 V. So, this is the 3 V line. And then, current is 3
because if we multiply this, if we take the area of a cell is 0.125 × 0.125 and then, if we
take current density is 200, then it will be 3 A. So, close to 3 A. So, we can we can have
this plot.
And for the shadowed cell, already we know the voltage is 0.5, then amount of current
generation is very, very less. So, its close to here. And as I said, in order to pass the
current through this shadowed cell, then that will act as a reverse bias. So, reverse bias
voltage will be applied on that shadowed cell, and its magnitude will be same as what we
got by connecting 3 cells in series, but in the opposite direction. So, that is the that much
of voltage. And, the amount of power dissipation is shown here.
So, this figure gives an idea, how this shadowing actually know is reducing the energy
generation. So that much of dissipation will be there. And as you can understand, that
minimum current, what is there in the circuit is the maximum amount of current to be
drawn in that circuit. So, if you go back to the slides, this can be reduced by connecting
these diodes. There are rules how to connect those diodes and how many diodes can be
connected in a single string.
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Now, come to the situation, when the cells are connected in parallel. This partial shading
is less of a problem because the current generated in the other cells do not need to travel
through the shadowed cell. This is one important aspect. And for a module consists of 36
cells in parallel, will generate a very high current above 100 A, and combined with a very
low voltage is about 0.6 V.
This combination would lead to very high resistive losses in the cable. So, this kind of
configurations are normally not preferred because of these reasons. And, for your
understanding, so one bypass diode for every 18 crystalline silicon cells is provided. So,
if we have 36 cells, then we need two bypass diodes, which are normally installed in the
terminal box of the PV module.
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Now, let us also learn what happens when we connect many modules in these
configurations. Now, these are modules, not cells; these are modules. So, these modules
sometimes need to be connected in series and sometimes need to be connected in parallel.
So, in parallel connections, blocking diodes, these are the blocking diodes, these are
blocking diodes in all strings normally installed, so that if any string fails, so any of the
string fails, the power output of the remaining, so any of the string fails then power
output of maybe these two strings will not be absorbed by the failed string. So, if this is
failed, then the other two will will be working; this is something like that.
So, this bypass diode, if we talk about now, bypass diode are installed across each
module, these are the modules, so that if one module any of the modules fails, the output
of the remaining module in a string will bypass the failed module. Nowadays, in the
advanced modules, these kinds of diodes are embedded in the system itself.
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So now, let us learn the packing factor of a module. As I said before, packing factor plays
a key role in maximizing the efficiency of a PV module. So, how does packing factor
define? Is defined as the ratio of total area of the solar cell to the area of the module. So,
it is clear that packing factor is less than unity, and it has a maximum value of one when
all the area covered by the cell. So, if we take this module and then cells, then all the area
of the modules is covered by the cells, its packing factor will be one.
And also, we can define the module efficiency. So, electrical efficiency of the module
can be defined something like this, em  g   c  ee . So, β for, if packing factor is 1,
then our expression will be something like this, this τ g is transmissivity of the glass and
ηem, this is module efficiency, electrical efficiency of the module can be something like
this.
And also, we can derive the temperature-dependent electrical efficiency of the PV

module by using this expression. So, this ηmo is the electrical efficiency of the PV module
under standard test condition. So that is 1000 W/m2 of insolation and spectrum of AM1.5
and an ambient temperature of 25 oC and this is the temperature coefficient, βo.
And this expression shows that the electrical efficiency of the PV module is less than the
electrical efficiency of solar cell due to the presence of glass cover. So, this is the reason
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why we cannot take the efficiency of the cell as efficiency of the module. So, we need to
consider this transmissivity of the glass. Since, you understand now, what are different
layers of a PV modules.
Let us take a practical example. How these solar modules can be employed for practical
utility? The problem goes something like; a PV system is utilized to power a DC motor to
produce 2 hp shaft power. The motor efficiency is given as 85%, which is shown here,
and each module has 36 multi-crystalline silicon solar cells arranged in a 9 × 4 matrix.
So, here you can see 9 columns, so here you can get 9 columns, and then we have 4 rows,
so thats how 9 × 4 is equal to 36. The cell size is 125 mm × 125 mm, which is shown
here.
So, for a single cell, size is 125 × 125 mm, and the cell efficiency is 12%. Now, we need
to calculate the number of modules required in the PV array. Assuming global radiation
incident normally to the panel as 950 W/m2. So, this is nothing but I which is equal to
950 W/m2.
So, in this problem, we need to find out number of modules required to run the motor. So,
what are the parameters given? Shaft power output is 2 hp and then conversion efficiency
of the motor is given as 85 %, and cell efficiency is 12 % and then how the cells are
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located, means how many cells constitute the module that is given to us and then the
amount of solar radiation received by the modules is given to us.
Now, let us solve this problem. So, as we know, 1 hp = 746 W; hence for 2 hp, it will be
746 × 2, which comes to be 1492 W. So, this is equivalent to 1492 W. As we know the
motor efficiency, by utilizing these two parameters, we can calculate what the input
power required to run the motor.
So, if we write the expression for efficiency of motor, so ηm we represent, this is power
output, then we will have power input. So, here we need to find the power input, so this
power input is equal to power output divided by ηm. So, if we substitute the value of
power output is equal to 1492 and ηm is 0.85 then this power input which is required to
run the motor will be 1755.29, this will be in W, so here this power required to run the
motor is 1755.29 W.
Now, our next step is to calculate the number of modules. So, let n be the number of
modules required to provide the energy needed to run the motor. So here, what happens
this much of energy is required from the solar modules. So, what we can write here, this
power developed by the PV module or, say, modules is equal to power required to run the
motor. So, let us use the expression, ηconversion is equal to power output power output from
the PV module or PV modules, and then we will have amount of solar radiation which is
falling on the modules is I ×A.
So, this conversion efficiency is 0.12, and we will have I is 950, and this area this area for
a single module is 0.125 × 0.125. So, this is the area of a single cell, and there are 36
cells, and that is arranged 9 × 4 matrix, so it will be 36. And then we do not know the
number of modules required, let n be the number of modules required.
So if we substitute here, this value, so this I can write here again 0.125 × 0.125 then we
have 36. And of course, we need to multiply with n, so here is the power output or the
amount of energy required to run the motor which is equal to 1755.29. So, if we do the
calculation, then n is found to be 27.37, which is equal to 28 numbers.
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So, this problem is very, very practical. So, what we have investigated, so in order to
generate 2 hp shaft power, we need about 28 number of PV modules of size something
like that. So, if the cell size is 125 × 125 mm and its conversion efficiency is 12 %, and it
constitutes 36 cells, then we require 28 numbers of PV modules to generate 2 hp shaft
power.
Now, let us learn about, how we can maximize the PV output? What are different ways of
maximizing the PV output? So primarily, there are two ways; one is mechanically
tracking the sun. So, we can track the position of the sun by operating the PV system, so
that maximum exposure of solar radiation can be obtained. Or in the second case, we can
do by electrically, that is called electrical tracking, by manipulating the load to maximize
the power output under changing condition of insolation and temperature.
Also, we learn what is maximum power point tracker? And, how we can do this load
matching? So, if we see the operation of a PV system is something like this. So, if we
consider, so this is source line this is source line source line, and this is your load line
load line. So, we need to find out the intersection point of source line and load line.
So, what happens, say one resistive load is connected here, so this shows the load
matching with reactive load, so maybe R1 is the reactive load for a particular set of
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operation. So, if we extend this R1 and we get the intersection point here, so operating
point is Q1. If we increase the resistive load to R2, its operating point is Q2. And then
further, if we increase R3, then its operating point is Q3.
So, now what happens? Our primary intention is to operate the system at this maximum
power point. So, what we have observed, so if we can connect this load at this condition,
then what will happen? We can maximize the power output from the PV system. So, that
way, we can do the load matching; different load we can connect, and you can see which
load is giving the best performance. So, this operating point of electrical system is
determined by the intersection of the source characteristics and load characteristics. So,
this has been shown here, and our target is to operate the system at maximum power
point.
So, now let us study maximum power point tracker, which is very, very important to
control electrically, to control the maximum power electrically. So, as you can
understand, this I-V characteristics will change which weather condition. May be, so this
may be say at morning, say maybe at 10 o'clock, this may be at say 11 o'clock, this may
be of 1 o'clock, 1 pm. So, different curve can generated at different times. Also, these are
dependent on temperature, what we have discussed in the very beginning of this class.
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This I-V characteristics keep on changing with insolation and temperature. So, to receive
the maximum power, the load must adjust itself accordingly to track the maximum power
point. So, this is very, very important; load has to be matched. An ideal load is one that
tracks the maximum power point. So, at every I-V characteristics, there is a maximum
point. So, at that particular time, what will be the Pm, what is the Im, Vm so we can get
what is Pm. So, always our target is to operate at this Pm.
So, if the operating point deviates significantly from the maximum power point, it may be
desirable to interpose an electronic maximum power point tracker between PV system
and load. So, we have PV system, and then we have loaded, so in between, we need to
install this MPPT, to control and to get maximum power.
So, in this figure, you can see the different loads, these are increasing insolation, and then
this is for battery; this is for fan, resistor but know, we need to operate at this maximum
power point.
So, this MPPT is adoption of the dc-dc switching voltage regulator. So, coupling to the
load for maximum power transfer may require either providing a higher voltage at lower
current or lower voltage at higher current. Normally, a buck-boost scheme is commonly
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used with voltage and current sensors tied into a feedback loop using a controller to vary
the switching time. So, duty cycle is applied.
D
So, if I am interested V output, Vout   Vin , D is nothing but the duty cycle of a
1 D
MOSFET. So, this is the buck-boost converter that is used in MPPT; you can see the
different components here. So finally, what we are interested about this V output. So, details
of these configurations can be seen in some other electronics books, so how this can be
fabricated for real-time operation.
So, if we consider this power output of a PV system, which is nothing but P = V × I. And
if we consider an incremental increase in power, so (P + ΔP) = (V + ΔV) × (I + ΔI). So if
we do the simplifications and we ignore the very small terms like this is very small, so
this may be cancelled, and this V × I is nothing but P, this is P, so this is gone. So finally,
we will have ΔP = (ΔV × I )+ (V × ΔI).
So, this ΔP must be zero at peak point so as you can understand, if I recall this curve, so
this will be linearly goes and this will be something like this. So, at this point, this
gradient will be zero, or ΔP = 0; because if you consider P is here, so there is no change
in power here. Thats why, ΔP must be zero at the peak point. If ΔP is zero, then from
that, what we can calculate is dV/dI = - (V/I). So, this dV/dI is known as dynamic
impedance of the source, and this –V/I is static impedance. So, this knowledge is applied
for controlling this operation of MPPT.
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So now, what are the different strategies adopted for operation of an MPPT? So, first one
is by monitoring static and dynamic impedances, and second one is by monitoring power
output, and third one is by fixing output voltage as a function of open-circuit voltage.
This is also known as frictional open-circuit voltage method, and this falls under indirect
method.
So, in the first case, what happens a small signal current is periodically injected into the
array bus, and the dynamic as well static bus impedance are measured. The operating
voltage is then adjusted until the condition dynamic impedance, and static impedance are
equal, but in the opposite direction is achieved.
And in the second case, voltage is adjusted, and power output is changed. So, we need to
change the voltage as you can see, this kind of configurations. So, here is the voltage, so
we can change the voltage we can change the voltage, and this power output can be
changed. So, this is power, so operating voltage is increased as long as dP/dV is positive
obvious. So, this is a positive gradient, so dP/dV is positive here, and this will be zero,
and this will be negative. So, that means that is increased power when dP/dV is positive.
And if dP/dV is negative, then operating voltage will decrease. So, this voltage held
unaltered if dP/dV is near zero.
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So, in the third category, by fixing voltage as a function of V oc, what we can do, that Vm
is nothing but the voltage at maximum power to the open-circuit voltage is constant for a
particular semiconductor material. So, this expression Vm = k × Voc. So, for high-quality
crystalline silicon cells, this k is about 0.72. So, for doing this, we do not have to close
the circuit for calculation of Vm every time.
So for that, what you need to do, an additional identical unloaded cell is installed on the
array to face same environment as the module in use, and its open-circuit voltage is
continuously measured. And this operating voltage of the array is then set at k times V oc,
so this k time Voc. So, this is one of the simplest methods of calculating this Vm. So, out
of these three methods, researcher can adopt any of the methods for calculation of V m for
MPPT operation.
Now, let us solve one more problem. So, this problem goes something like this. A PV
source is supplying power to a load whose line intersects the I-V characteristics; this is
something like that. This is the load line and this is the source line, and this is the point of
interaction or intersection. So, coordinates are given here, maximum power point, this
coordinate is 40 V and 5 A and here at intersection point 20 V and 6 A.
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So, determine the additional power gain if an MPPT is interposed between the source and
the load. Consider the efficiency and cost of the MPPT are 93% and rupees 3500
respectively. And also, we need to calculate how long does the system need to operate in
order to recover the cost of MPPT?
So, electricity cost per unit is rupees 6.5, need to be considered. So, configurations are
something like source we have, load we have, and then in between, we have MPPT
having efficiency 93 %. Load characteristics are given here; all the values are given.
Now, this power produced without MPPT; if we are not imposing any MPPT here, so this
is MPPT. So, if no MPPT is there, so this is the point.
So, what happens, this 20 V multiplied by 6 A will be 120 W, and then this maximum
power production capability of PV system is how much? 40 × 5, so 40 V and 5 A, so it
will be 200 W. And then actual power produced with MPPT will be something like this;
because efficiency is 0.93, so it will be 186 W. So, if I am interested to know the surplus
power produced when MPPT is installed, then this much is the actual power produced,
and then power produced without MPPT is known, already calculated, and we can use
this value here, so (186 – 120) will be 66 W.
Now, this surplus power is 66 W and then surplus energy produced in t hours. So, if we
multiply it by t and then divide by 1000, it will become kWh. So, t will be in hour and
1000 we have divided, so it becomes kWh. Already we know, 1 kWh is nothing but 1
unit. So, here one unit cost is rupees how much is given? 6.5 rupees.
So, now we can use this information here. So, cost of the surplus energy is 6.5 × 0.066 ×
t, so this will be something like this, this will be in rupees. And this time required to
recover the cost of MPPT will be, because cost is known to us. Then 3500 divided by
0.429 will give you this much of hours. So, this many of hours are required to recover the
cost of the MPPT what we have invested. So, this is a quite an interesting problem. So,
we can see how economically you can make, so how long we need to operate to get the
payback period.
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Now, if these modules, what we have discussed so far, are connected for generation of
large amount of power, then it is called PV arrays. A photovoltaic array is a collection of
series or parallel or both series and parallel connection or connected photovoltaic
modules. So, these are the modules which are connected, and this is for a large power
generation unit.
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So, how these PV systems are classified? Primarily, there are two major classifications,
first one is central power station system, and second one is distributed system. The
central power system is a large power stations like our coal based power generation unit.
So, at day time, huge amount of power will be generated, and then this will be given to
the grid. And second one is distributed system.
So, under these distributed systems, there are many categories like stand alone system,
grid-interactive system and small system for consumer applications. So, stand alone
systems, maybe if you are interested to give power to a small village or locality, so, that
can be given. So, that will fall under stand alone system. Or maybe for irrigation purpose,
if we have to give some kind of energy from solar, that is nothing but stand alone system.
And for grid-interactive system, what you can do, suppose in my building, if I want to
install some kind of solar PV and the energy generated by the solar PV can be given to
the local grid when more amount of energy is generated, and we can take the energy at
night from the grid when our energy is requirement is there. So, that is controlled by this
two-way metering system or net metering system. So, that is called grid-interactive
system. And small system for consumer applications like maybe in watches, maybe
calculators and its power range from µW to 10 W. So, under that category, we can
generate that much power.
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So, there are many applications what you can see, like grid-interactive PV power
generation, power water pumping, lighting, medical refrigeration, village power then
telecommunications and signalling, space applications. There are multiple applications of
those solar PV systems. So, what I am showing here, its a application of a module for
lighting. So, that is a battery bank here, and one charge controller will be there, and one
module and one tube or say lamp, normally CFL lamps are used. So, this is the
specifications normally used for this kind of street light system.
So, module is one, and its pole is about 4 m tall, and number of lamp is one and type of
lamp is CFL, and its rating is about 11 W and number of batteries is one, and its rating is
12 V and 90 Ah and hour operation, of course, dusk to dawn and cost is about 25,000 in
Indian market.
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So, let us summarize what we have discussed today. So primarily, we have discussed the
classifications of PV modules. Then effect of shadowing, then packing factor and module
efficiency, how this module efficiency is different than cell efficiency, and we have
discussed the different ways of maximization of PV module performance. Then, MPPT
and possible strategies for operation of MPPT, PV arrays, and PV system.
So, I hope you have enjoyed the lecture, so thank you very much.
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Professor Doctor Pankaj Kalita
Centre of Energy
Lecture 13
Standalone Photovoltaic System
Dear students, today we will discuss about standalone photovoltaic system is designer pros and
before we starts today's discussion, let us summarize what you have discussed in the last class,
okay. So, we are mostly discussing about PV modules its classification, effect of shadowing,
packing factor and module efficiency, ways of maximization of PV module performance,
maximum power point tracking and possible strategies for operation of MPPT ,PV arrays and PV
systems. So, knowledge of these PV module is very very important while selecting a best module
for standalone PV system applications.
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So, without delay let us start our todays discussion. So, mostly today we will be covering about
the components of standalone PV system and system design approaches.
So, what is standalone system, the standalone system is a solar PV system that produces
electrical power to charge banks of batteries during the day for use at night. A standalone small-
scale PV system employs rechargeable batteries to store energy which is supplied by a PV panels
or arrays. The standalone PV systems are ideal for remote areas where other power sources are
either impractical or unavailable to provide power for lighting and other uses.
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So, different components of a PV systems are PV modules which is the primary component then
mounting structures then charge controller, battery, inverter, then DC AC converter and cables.
So, as you can see here in the figure, so, PV modules are installed on the rooftop okay. So, this
PV array converts sunlight into direct current right and we need to have a charge controller to
protect the battery from the overcharging, right.
So, we need battery banks which stores energy produced by the PV arrays, okay. And then if we
have AC load or alternating current load then we have to convert this direct current which is
generated by PV arrays to the alternating current by an inverter and we need power meter and
then electric grid sometimes or sometimes we can use the genetic energy locally right.
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So, what you can see here, they are two configurations of a standalone system. So, first
configuration where there is no charge controller and battery bank and the second configurations
will have charge control and then battery banks okay. So, here this is an example of lifting water
from the ground and storing in a reservoir and then finally we can use this reserve water for
irrigation applications, okay.
Because in irrigation you need huge amount of water okay this is something like solar powered
water pumping systems which is used in irrigation and these configurations what we have
shown, there are many modules are connected and we will have a charge controller to protect
these batteries for overcharging. Okay, the batteries here.
So, we will study how many batteries are required for a single applications and we need to have
inverter to convert this DC current to AC current okay. So, if load is DC then straight way you
can use from the charge controller. Okay, so these are the two extensively used configurations,
okay. So, this is somewhat complex okay where we have many components and these are very
simple configurations.
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One more configuration we have, suppose in a single day we do not have enough sunlight, okay
then amount of energy generation by this PV module will be very very less okay then under the
conditions in order to meet the demand then we need some kind of backup system, okay. So,
here what we have shown this is a generator backup system and this is coupled with that existing
connections right.
So, that we can meet the demand during those cloudy days or rainy days, okay. So, primarily
what we have understood there are components like solar PV which converts sunlight to
electrical energy and we need to have a charge controller okay to protect these batteries from
overcharging okay and if we have AC load then of course, we need an inverter to convert direct
current into alternating current and sometimes there are some loads where we need only DC
current. So, under that conditions, we do not need inverter okay.
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So, we will study one by one those components which constitute a standalone PV systems. So,
let us first study the batteries okay. So, batteries are electrochemical devices that converts
chemical energy into electrical energy, okay. So, there are two kinds of batteries normally used
primary batteries and secondary batteries, what is primary batteries? Which convert chemical
energy to electrical energy irreversibly, okay. So, for example, we have zinc carbon and alkaline
batteries are primary batteries okay, we cannot recharge again and again.
But in case of secondary batteries, that is called rechargeable batteries, which convert chemical
energy to electrical energy reversibly, okay. So, example is something like lead acid batteries,
lithium ion batteries, okay. So, these are some of the examples right. So, if you look into this
chart, this chart is known as a ragone chart which is used for comparision of different batteries.
So, you can see the position of Pb acid batteries is here and lithium ion batteries and lithium
polymer batteries are here okay.
So, in the vertical axis it shows volumetric energy density and in the horizontal axis it shows
gravimetric energy density, okay and gravimetric energy density represents watt hour per kg and
volumetric energy density represents watt hour per liter okay. So, what does it mean? So,
gravimetric energy density is the amount of energy stored per unit mass of the battery, okay.
And volumetric energy density is the amount of energy stored per unit volume of the battery,
okay, already we have defined those units and as you can see, if volumetric efficiencies increases
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what does it mean, higher the volumetric energy density the lighter the battery can be, that is
why we know, this lithium ion and lithium polymer batteries are lighter than lead acid batteries
and higher the volumetric energy density smaller the battery size at the same time the size of
these lead acid batteries are higher compared to lithium ion batteries okay as you can see here,
right. So, this art is normally used to compare character of the different batteries.
Now, let us learn something about lead acid batteries which is the oldest batteries and technology
is quite mature. A typical battery is composed of several individual cells of which each has a
nominal voltage of 2 volt, okay. So, what happens if we look for 12 volt battery then how many
cells are required, it will be 6 cells right each cells will give 2 volt okay. So, for cell it works
something like this okay. 2 metal electrode will be there and electrolyte will be there. So,
electrolyte is nothing but diluted sulfuric acid and this electrode contains grid shaped lead carrier
and porous active material okay.
So, this porous active material has a sponge like structure which provides sufficient surface area
for electrochemical reaction, okay normally this Pb in one electrode is in negative and then Pb
O2. So, lead oxide is positive okay when an external load is connected electron will flow from
negative to the positive terminal okay. So, when the battery is discharged the electron flow from
negative to the positive electrode through the external circuit okay which causing a chemical
reaction between the plates and the electrolyte, okay.
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Now, these are the electrolytes here and these are the plates okay this forward reaction also
deflects the electrolyte affecting the state of the charge, okay. So, SoC we will define what is
SoC. So, it affects the state of the charge okay and when the battery is recharged the flow of
electrons is reverse of course, as the external circuit does not have a load okay but a source with
a voltage higher than that of the battery enables the reverse reaction okay.
So, this external source is nothing but solar source okay. So, this is also known as solar battery
because lead acid batteries are used in solar research okay. So, overall reaction will be something
like this. So, lead and the lead oxide reacts with sulphuric acid and then we will get PbSO4 and
then H2O and each cell will give about two volt of energy generation okay. So, this is how a lead
acid battery works.
And if we talk about lithium ion and lithium ion polymer batteries as we can see from the ragon
charts that high energy density has made them favorable technology for lightweight storage
applications like mobile communications okay and these technologies still suffer from high cost
and low maturity okay. So, this is the reason why this cannot be used in solar research or solar
photovoltaic applications. So, as you can see, there are many applications of lithium ion and
lithium polymer batteries. So, e-bikes are there, scooters are there, gardening tools, tablets,
mobile phone, everywhere these lithium ion batteries are used.
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So, let us learn something very important aspects of batteries. These are called battery
parameters. So, voltage capacity then energy capacity of the battery then SoC and in depth of the
discharge all those parameters. So, start with voltage, the voltage at that battery is rated is the
nominal voltages at which the battery is supposed to operate the solar batteries or say lead acid
grid plate batteries are usually rated at 12 volt 24 volt or 48 volt that is what I said the number of
cells required if single cell is giving 2 volt then number of cells required to get 12 volt will be 6
cells okay. So, that has to be connected in series.
And capacity refers to the amount of charge that the battery can deliver at the rated voltages ,
okay. So, this rated voltage is very very important this rated voltage nothing but nominal voltage,
right. The capacity is directly proportional to the amount of electrode material in the battery that
is why no smaller size battery if we compare it with the bigger size batteries then what will
happen? The smaller size batteries capacities will be lower compared to larger size batteries,
okay.
But the voltage will be constant the voltage of the cell is more chemistry based while the
capacity is more based on the quantity of the active material use which is very very important,
okay. The capacity which is also represented as Cbat okay is measured in Ah okay. So, charge
usually is measured in coulombs that we all of us know As. Electric current is defined as the rate
of flow of electric charge ampere hour is another unit of charge, right?
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Since 1 coulomb is 1 As, right, and if we multiply these with 3600 then it will become 1 Ah
which is nothing but 3600 coulomb right also, we are interested to calculate the energy capacity
of a battery. So, how to get it? So, energy capacity of the battery can be calculated by
multiplying this Cbat with this rated voltage, okay.
So, if we know the Cbat and rated voltage if we multiply what we will get is a energy capacity of
a battery which is very very important and it is represented in terms of watt hour okay so
capacities is now measured in ampere hour and energy capacity of the battery is measured in
watt hour right.
Now, one more very important parameter called C-rate, okay this C-rate is a measure of the rate
of discharge of the battery relative to its capacity right. So, it is also defined as the multiple of
the current over the discharge current that the battery can sustain over one hour, okay. Suppose
for example, a brand-new battery with 10 Ah capacity already we have defined what is capacity
theoretically can deliver 1 ampere current for 10 hours at room temperature okay that you should
keep in mind.
So, a brand-new battery with 10 Ah capacity theoretically can provide 1 Ah current for 10 hours
at room temperature okay it is related to temperature at which the system will operate, okay. For
example, C-rate of one for 10 Ah battery corresponds to a discharge current of 10 ampere over
one hour okay. So, same battery if we consider for the case two like C-rate of two for the same
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battery would correspond to a discharge current of 20 ampere over half an hour Okay. And then
one more example, if we take C-rate of point 5 implies a discharge current of 5 ampere over 2
hours okay. In general, it can be said that C-rate of n corresponds to the battery getting fully
discharged in 1/n hours irrespective of the battery capacity okay. This we should keep in mind
okay.
And this example will be very much helpful to understand how C-rate is defined also, we must
know what is battery efficiency, battery efficiency also sometimes known as round trip
efficiency, round trip efficiency. So, for any storage system we must know what is round trip
efficiency okay. Suppose for example, if we have to say pumps amount of energy maybe 10-
kilowatt hour of energy we are pumping, okay in a charging process and maybe eight kilowatt
hour of energy we are retrieving in the discharge process. Then what will be the round trip
efficiency, it will be 80% Okay. So, eight by 10 will be 80 percent.
So, in case of battery, so, this round trip efficiency is connected with voltaic efficiency and
coulombic efficiency and finally, we will have a combined efficiency okay that is called battery
efficiency and that take care of this round trip efficiency right. So, what is voltaic efficiency the
ratio of the average discharging voltages to the average charging voltage okay.
So, we know that discharging voltage and charging voltage that ratio will give you voltaic
efficiency okay and second efficiency is coulombic efficiency okay, or it is also known as
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Faraday efficiency, which is the ratio of the total charge got out of the battery to the total charge
put into the battery over a full charge cycle, okay, and this is defined as Q discharge by Q charge,
Okay?
So, if we combine both the efficiency what we will get is a battery efficiency. So, if we multiply
these two then what we will have is a battery efficiency. So, this battery efficiency is considered
for comparison of different storage devices, okay and it includes all the effects like chemical and
electrical occurring in the battery right. So, these efficiencies are important evaluating a battery.
Also, we must know what is the state of charge of a battery which is defined as the percentage of
the battery capacity available for discharge, okay. So, what we see in the mobile phone what we
use nowadays, so, it shows like eighty percent 70 percent but these are remaining in the battery
Ebat
that means that SoC is 70 percent, okay. So, SoC  okay.
Cbat  V
So, for example, a 10-ampere hour rated battery that has been drained by two ampere hours is
said to have a SoC of eighty percent, okay. So, this is something like 10 minus two divided by 10
okay it will be 80 percent and also one more parameter we must know when we talk about
battery parameter is called dept of discharge. So, it is defined as the percentage of battery
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capacity that has been discharged okay. So, it is represented by DoD which is
Cbat  V  Ebat
SoC  okay.
Cbat  V
So, same problem if we have to define in terms of DoD it is something like a 10-ampere hour
battery that has been drained by two ampere hours has a DoD of 20 percent, okay. So, this SOC
and DoD okay state of charge and depth of discharge are complementary to each other we should
keep in mind. Also, we need to define one more terminological cycle lifetime okay which is
defined as the number of charging and discharging cycles after the battery capacity drops below
80 percent of the nominal value, okay.
So, this battery cycle again depends on the operating temperature right. So, colder operating
temperature means longer cycle lifetimes okay and the smaller the DoD means depth of
discharge, the higher the cycle lifetime okay. So, these are important observations and how the
cycle lamps are affected by temperature and DoD.
And how temperature affects the battery life. So, this battery life is increased at lower
temperature okay if you can keep at low temperature or room temperature then battery life is
expected to be higher and lower the temperature, lower the battery capacity again okay. So, what
happens the chemicals in the battery are more active at a higher temperature okay and the
increase chemical activity leads to increased battery capacity okay. So, by increasing the
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temperature we can increase the capacity of the battery, but now if increased more than a
specified below then it will give a detrimental effect to the battery health, okay.
And also we have is ageing Okay, so major cause for ageing of the battery is sulphation. So,
what is sulphation? So, if a battery is insufficiently recharged after being discharged Okay,
suppose if I am using a mobile phone if it is no 50 percent charge available or SoC is fifty
percent and we are charging it for eighty percent 50 percent 80 percent and then stop it again we
use it for 80 percent 90 percent so that way if we make then know we are reducing the efficiency
because of this sulpahte crystal generation's okay.
So, sulphate crystals start to grow which cannot be completely transformed back into lead or lead
oxide, okay, so thus battery slowly loses its active material mass and hence it's discharge
capacity okay and corrosion is also one of the problems and because of this corrosion
electrolytes may dry out and at a highest charging volt is if the battery is charge at a very high
voltage gassing can occur, okay.
So, gas will be generated which results in the loss of water as you can see in the overall reactions
water will be there at the product side so that water losses will be there. Okay, so thus
demineralized water should be used to refill battery for time to time, that is why you know we
have to buy demineralized water okay to be used in those lead acid batteries for proper
functioning.
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Now, let us discuss something about charge controller, which plays a key role in a stand-alone
system where a battery is involved, okay. So, charge controllers are used in PV systems that use
batteries okay. So, it is very important to charge and discharge batteries at right voltages and
current levels in order to ensure the longer battery life time, okay.
A battery is an electrochemical device that requires small over potential to be charged that we
should keep in mind. So, we need some kind of over potential for charging. The amount of
current sent to the battery by PV array and the current flowing through the battery. So, if we
consider this a battery, the amount of current flows from the PV and then going out from the
battery okay. So, this will go to maybe inverter okay.
So, I am talking about this and this okay, this current and this current, so, this is for discharge
and this is for charging have to be within the well-defined limit for proper functioning of a
battery. So, that is very very important this current no charging current and then no discharge
current has to be at the proper level as described by manufacturer okay.
This PV array corresponds dynamically to ambient conditions like irradiance, temperature, and
other factors like shading what we have discussed in the last class. So, these are very very
important things because every time we are not going to get the same solar irradiance okay. So, it
will vary with time okay and also, when solar radiation increases then temperature also increases.
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So, we need to think many parameters for proper functioning of a solar PV stand-alone system,
okay.
So, this direct coupling of battery to the PV array and the load is detrimental to the battery
lifetime okay. Therefore, a device is needed that controls the current flowing between the battery
and the PV array and the load and that ensures that the electrical parameters presented the battery
are kept within the specifications given by the battery manufacturer. So, that is the function of a
charge controller.
Let us learn more in depth about this charge controller how it works in a PV system. So, when
the sun is shining at peak hours during summer the generated PV power excess the load okay.
The excess energy is sent to the battery when the battery is fully charged and a PV array is still
connected to the battery, the battery might over charge, okay, which may cause several problems
like gas formation, capacity lost and overheating, okay. So, this is one concern, but if we have a
proper charge controller, which plays a vital role by decoupling the PV array from the battery,
right that is how this charge controller is useful in maintaining the proper life of a battery in
stand-alone PV system.
So, during severe winter and now second cases when solar irradiation is very, very low and
batteries heavily discharge as the load exceed the power generated by the PV array okay. So,
over discharging the battery has a detrimental effect on the life cycle okay. The charge controller
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prevent the battery from being over discharge by disconnecting the battery from the load okay,
this is the second function of this charge controller, okay.
Now, this PV array will have its Vmppt maximum power point at different levels as you can
understand if we remember this IV characteristics curve, okay. So, this is maybe one irradiance
and this may be other irradiance value okay. So, these value will change as irradiance will
change right this is what it is mentioned.
So, PV array will have its V maximum power Point okay. So, this is Vmppt at different levels
based on the temperature and irradiance conditions, hence, the charge controller needs to
perform appropriate voltage regulation to ensure the battery operates in the specified voltage
range, while the PV array is operating at maximum power point, okay.
So, of course this modern charge controllers often have an MPPT trigger integrated, okay. So, if
this MPPT is integrated then it is not a problem it will operate at the maximum power point. So,
a charge controller that contains a proper current regulation is also able to control the C-rate
okay. So, this charge controller also controls this C-rate, okay. Finally, this charge controller can
impose the limits on the maximal current flowing into and from the battery okay.
So, if we consider this is PV array okay this is PV array and we have battery and we have maybe
inverter or may be utility okay. So, maximum current flows from here to here and maximum
current flows from battery to the inverter or maybe some utilities right.
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Now, we need to also learn the cables, cable plays an important role in the functioning of a PV
system right. So, PV system usually contains DC and AC part as you can understand, so, when
we are talking about PV modules, okay, or arrays so, power generated here will be DC then we
will have okay battery we can write and maybe inverter here, okay? Then we will have AC okay.
So, we need to know the cables used for this and we need to know the cables used for this okay.
So, that is how it is mentioned PV systems usually contains DC and AC parts for correctly
installing a PV system it is important to know the color convention okay. So, red is used for
connecting the plus minus contexts of the different system components with each other and black
is used for interconnecting the negative negative contexts okay and for AC wiring.
So, different color codes are used around the world. So, kind of color code used in European
Union is different than the kind of color code used in other countries okay. In case of India and
Pakistan, black is used for neutral and green is used for protective art and blue, red and yellow is
used for phase okay. So, this kind of color conventions are used.
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So, now, let us have a look about the cable losses okay. So, these cables have to be chosen such
that resistive losses are minimal, okay. So, in order to understand this let us take an circuit which
constitutes a supply voltages okay and then we have load and then maybe cable resistance are
included, okay. So, RL represents the load having resistance RL okay and this R cable is the
resistance of the cables right.
So, power loss at the cable can be calculated by using this equation Pcable  I  Vcable okay. See
Vcable is the voltage drop across the cable okay is the voltage drop across the cable. So, this can
be calculated by using this and this is something like V  I  R right, this summation of (RL +
Rcable) and then finally, what we would like to show is power of the cable which is dissipated is
equal to I 2  Rcable right.
So, what we can say so, as the current doubles then what happens this power will be four times
okay. So, what does it mean as the current doubles the four times as much heat will be dissipated
at the cable, right. So, it is now obvious why modern modules have connected all the cells in
series because of these losses okay power distribution is very very high because I2 R losses will
be there okay. So, we have to be very particular about the kind of cables to be used for this kind
of standalone system okay.
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l 1 l
So, also we know this Rcable is function of row  and also is right. So, this row is
A  A
nothing but resistivity and also we can express in terms of conductivity okay this is conductivity,
right. Normally this l will be in meter and a is normally in millimeter okay. So, this block shows
about the no values of this row for copper and aluminum because mostly copper and aluminum
cables are used in applications.
So, what will be the resistivity of copper we can say 1.68  108 m okay and you can see the
values of copper for conductivity as well as resistivity and then the connectivity for aluminum
okay because these values are given as most of the times these values are used for calculation of
this resistance of a cable okay and usual thickness for cables are about 0.75 square millimeter 1.5
square millimeter 2.5 square millimeters and so on okay. So, one very important observation is
since DC circuits are driven at lower voltages, than AC currents the currents are higher requiring
ticker cables. So, that you should keep in mind for DC we need a thicker cable right.
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Now, let us see the simple approach for designing an off grid systems or stand-alone system. So,
it includes the determination of total load current and operational time okay then determination
of system losses then we need to determine solar irradiation in daily equivalent sun hours it also
known as ESH that is equivalent sun hours and then we need to determine total solar array
current requirements and then we need to determine the optimum module arrangement for solar
array and then finally, we need to determine the battery size for recommended reserve time okay.
So, configurations are something like this okay module such there we have charge controller
then DC load, AC load then we have inverter and then batteries right. So, this kind of
configurations we are talking about okay. So, let us take a small example and try to understand
the simple approach for designing of off-grid system okay.
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So, the example goes something like this a 12-volt PV system, we are considering very basic PV
system has two DC appliances A and B. So, two DC appliances we are considering maybe A and
B that may be anything requiring 15 and 21 watt respectively okay, the average opertional time
per day is six hours for device A and three hours for device B right.
Maybe you know device A maybe fans and maybe you know tube lights or device B maybe
mixer grinder or maybe something like that. So, now the daily energy requirement will be for
device A is 15 watt multiplied by six hour. So, it will be 90-watt hour for device B it is 20 watt
multiplied by 3 hours it will be 60 watt hour. So, these are DC appliances okay we are not
talking about the AC appliances right.
So, the total energy daily energy requirement will be 90-watt hour plus 60-watt hour it will be
150-watt hour okay. So, as we know this rated voltage is 12 volts then if we divide this total
daily energy by 12 volts then it will be 12.5 ampere hour, okay. Now, next step is for example, if
we have AC load, okay. So, maybe computer is one item and TV set is another item okay which
are connected to that PV system. So, as we know this will work in no AC condition means
alternating current. So, we need to have inverter okay.
So, if we consider an inverter, so, in order to have AC then we need inverter okay from DC okay
and we need to know what is the efficiency let us consider the efficiency of this inverter is 85
percent, okay. So, under that condition the daily energy requirements of the device express in DC
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ampere hour can be calculated, okay. So, in this case rated power of the computer is 40 watt and
it will run for 12 hours per day and for TV sets, rate power is 60 watt and it will run for 3 hours
per day okay.
So, if we talk about computer so what it will run for two hours so it will be 80-watt hour okay
that is the AC requirement and for TV it is 60 3 so 180-watt hour right and total it will be 260
watt hour okay. So, as we know this efficiency of the inverter, so, what we can do we can divide
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this because we need to convert to DC. So, we have to divide it okay. So, will be 306-watt
0.85
hour right.
So, if we divide this rated voltage it will be 25.5 ampere hour Okay, the next step as per our
design methodology, we need to add some kind of losses Okay, this may be cable losses or any
other losses encountered during operation. So, it is considered to be about 20 to 30 percent. So, if
we consider 20 percent so, then what will happen this DC requirement will increase by 1.2 times
so it will be 45.6 ampere hour. So, now this all the things are DC okay and then we multiply by
1.2 it will be 45.6 ampere hour, okay.
Let us move to the next step. So, equivalent sun hours if we consider a place in Guwahati so it
may be four hours okay. So, required total current generated by the solar array is total DC load to
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the ESH okay equivalent sun hour. So, equivalent sun hour is four and then total DC load is 45.6
then what we will get is 11.4 ampere, okay.
Now, we are interested to know the number of modules to be connected in parallel. So, how to
do that if we consider a module having ISC value or rated current is 4.9 ampere then we can
divide this current okay that is no current generated by DC solar array. So, this is 11.4 divided by
4.9 is 2.32 which is equivalent to three numbers of the modules okay to be connected in parallel
right the nominal voltage of the PV system is 12 volt and the nominal voltage of the module is
also 12 volt, here is the 12 volt for the module and then the PV system is also 12 volt. So,
required number of modules to be connected in series is just 12 volt by 12 volt is equal to one
module, right.
The total DC requirement for loads plus the system losses are 45.6 ampere hour the
recommended reserve time capacity for Guwahati is said two days okay. So, battery capacity
required by the system is if we multiply this by two so, it will be 91.2 ampere hour and minimum
battery capacity for safe operation will be 114 because we know 80 percent capacity if we
consider then this divided by 91.2 ampere hour divided by 0.8 will give you this 114 ampere
hour, okay.
So, if we consider 12-volt 90 ampere hour battery then the number of batteries requirement will
be approximately two numbers, okay. That way we can do the calculations. So, we will be
discussing detailed design methodology in the next class, okay where we will understand the
relationship between the kind of current goes from the battery to the inverter and then to the load
and everything will be considered and we will study the clear-cut steps for designing a complete
stand alone PV system.
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So, now let us summarize what we have discussed today about the different components of a
standalone system like PV modules, charge controller, battery, inverter and load. We have not
given more about the inverters because we will be covering these things when we discuss the
grid connected PV system, okay. There are different kind of inverters are there which inverter to
be selected for what application that will be discussed and also, we have studied the loads.
There are cases where DC loads are there, there are cases where AC loads are also there. So,
what we need to do in case of AC and what we need to do in case of DC load that we have
discussed. Also, we have discussed design step for a standalone PV system and also, we have
discussed small numerical exercise to strengthen your understanding of design of standalone PV
system, okay. So, thank you very much for watching this video, thank you.
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Professor Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Center for Energy
Module 5
Standalone Photovoltaic System
Lecture 14
Design of Standalone PV System
Dear students, today we will be discussing about Design Principle of a Standalone PV

system.
In the last class, we are discussing about a different component of a standalone PV

system, okay so what are different components involved in a standalone PV system? It is
a PV modules, many modules will be there and then we will have charge controller and
then if you have DC load, then we must provide this DC power and inverter is required if
we have AC load okay and we must required some kind of storage system okay. So, the
sizing of the storage system and PV modules are interconnected okay, so this major
component of this standalone PV system is a storage system okay.
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So, let us learn something about storage system. So this storage system is something like
battery in case of off-grid system or standalone system, which can store energy in times
when PV system generates more electricity than required and it can deliver energy when
electricity generated by the PV modules is not sufficient. So we must know how many
days we need to store that much of generated energy. So, for that we must know the
required number of autonomy, which means the number of days a fully charged battery
or storage system must be able to deliver energy to the system until discharged okay.
So, as I said this PV arrays which is composed of many modules and the storage
components are interconnected. So we must know two important terminologies, one is
called Efail, so which is nothing but is the energy required by the electric load that cannot
be delivered by the PV system.
So, if this happens if the batteries are emptied after several cloudy days and the second
terminology is Edump which is the energy produced by the PV array that neither is used for
driving a load nor is stored in the battery. That means if the batteries are already full after
number of sunny days, these two situations we need to know understand very critically.
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Now, let us see what is reliability of supply so we can design the system based on this
reliability of supply. The reliability of electricity supply is an important factor in PV
system design, the one way of quantify the reliability of supply is by a parameter known
as loss of load probability which is nothing but LLP and it is defines as the ratio between
the estimated energy deficit and the energy demand over the total operation time of the
installation. So, in order to find out this LLP that is loss of load probability we must
know the load profile.
So, for a particular day how much energy is consuming by a particular household, that
must be known to us while calculating this load profile. Normally this has been
calculated based on annual basis. So how much energy is consumed annually that must
be known to us, so total energy consumed in a year that can be calculated by using this
expression, once we know this as already we know E fail, so this ratio of these two will
give LLP.
This value of this LLP for domestic illumination is about 0.1 which is recommended by
international societies and other appliances is 1 but in telecommunication it is 0.001,
these values we should keep in mind while designing the system with reliability of supply
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okay. So, what we understand the lower this LLP more stable and reliable the PV system
would be, so this is very very important observations of this reliability of supply.
Now, let us see the components of a off-grid system, this schematic shows all the
components, we have PV modules and then MPPT, then CC means charge controller,
then DC means discharge controller, then inverter then we have loads right and then as
we know we need a very important component called battery bank.
So, as we have learned in the last class like this charge controller is very, very important
because it prevents the battery bank from being over charged by the PV system and what
is the function of this DC? This DC is discharge controller, so here it prevents the battery
to be discharged below the minimum allowed SOC.
So, charge controller and discharge controller, so this is the discharge controller not
discharge current this is a discharge controller. So, you can see this IMPP so maximum
power point and VMPP so not always this MPPTs are installed in this entire system, so that
is why sometimes it is given as dotted lines, the solid line I have given because it is
presumed that MPPT is interconnected.
So this MPPT and this charge controller are attached together and here discharge
controller and this inverter are attached together. So, while designing we will make some
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kind of analysis, so maybe here, maybe here we will take some points and then we will
try to energy balance it and then we will see the number of modules required and number
of batteries required. In a nutshell, what we have learned in this slides the different
components involved in a standalone PV system and how this CCs and DC are important
in this system.
Now, let us pay attention about this battery bank because as we said battery bank is very,
very important component of a standalone PV system, this battery bank is the workhorse
of any off-grid system because it is stable power source. It is thus very important to
understand how the battery bank will act in the PV system right .
So here, what you can see here this plot is nothing but IV curve of an ideal as battery
bank. So this I is here in the vertical axis and V is here in the horizontal axis and what is
IBB-CH? That is battery bank charging current and VBB-CH is battery bank charging voltage
and here is a battery bank discharge voltage and battery bank discharge current. So, this
parts what you see is charging and this lower part is for discharging regime.
So, what we can see here this is a simple circuit diagram this is the supplied voltage and
internal resistance will be there in the batteries and this is the output voltage. Normally,
this VOC-BB will not be constant but a function of the state of the charge and ambient
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temperature and other factors. So but for our analysis we will presume that this VOC-BB is
constant. So, to know how a battery works the net effect of all the forces that try to
charge or discharge the battery need to be understood.
So, now as we said this VOC-BB assumed to be constant for our analysis because of this Ri
the voltage BB that is a battery bank voltage will differ from this open circuit battery
bank voltage and also is dependent on the current IBB the amount of current that is a
battery bank current flowing through the batteries.
So, this IBB can be related to it VBB ,VOC and Ri because as you know V is equal to iR so
BB minus VOC is equal to I BB into Ri so IBB can be calculated I BB 

1
VBB  VOC BB  .
Ri
So, now let us derive an expression for the voltage of the battery bank VBB as a function
of PV system parameter. So, if we need to do it as I said before in the schematic diagram
of the PV system then power on the left and the right side of the MPPT should be equal.
So, if we consider the efficiency of MPPT is  MPP , maximum power point and IMPP is the
maximum current at power point and V is VMPP is the maximum voltage at that point and
then ICC is the charging current and VBB is the battery voltage, so maybe we can define a
parameter called  and then from that we can calculate what is ICC.
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So it is nothing but this expression divided by VBB. So, since this expression is something

called  , so we can write we must also know this IBB is positive when battery is
VBB
charged and negative when battery is discharged. So, this information is also required for
us.
So, now let us learn more in depth, if  is 0 means that PV system is not active, maybe
at night PV system is not active because no solar energy is there, no solar radiation is
falling on the PV system. So what happens then if  is 0 then you can see the
expressions what will happen, so  is 0 means no current will flow through this circuit.
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So, the power on the left and right hand side of the inverter, so if you go back to the
slides you can see, so this is the inverter, so this side is how much is the I AC  V AC and
this side you need to consider the efficiency of the inverter, then see how it look likes.
So IAC VAC this is the AC current and AC voltage and inverter efficiency is known to us,
then I inv  VBB , so if we define this parameter as  then what we can have
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PL 
I inv  , so this is nothing but . Now, we have two expression ICC and Iinv, so
inv  VBB VBB
what we can do now from here we can calculate what is IBB, since I BB  I CC  I inv ,this
 
charging current minus this inverter current and this is nothing but .
VBB
So, if we have this information then what we can do next it is clearly understood that if
alpha is 0 indicates that no load is present, no load is connected there then what we will
have I V is something like this and also we have this expression of I V, then we can
combine this expression and let us develop an quadratic equation.
So, by combining this these two are same so I can write

1
VBB  VOCBB      . So
Ri VBB
and if we multiply this expression with Ri and VBB then how will look like? Ri multiplied
by VBB and if we simplify it then we will get this kind of quadratic equation.

So, we will have two solutions, so this VBB will be something like this, this is the
solution, so this correct solution is the positive solutions. If we see precisely, so if
VOC  BB VOC  BB
    0 , then if we use this here then what will happen VBB   , so it
2 2
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will be VOC-BB, so this will be something like this. So this final solution will be this is the
true solution VBB is something like this. So now, let us pay attention to this solution and
see what we can bring out of it.
So, there are two conditions, already we know charging and discharging. So in case of
charging if the battery is charged then ICC is higher than Iinv, that we must know. So, this
ICC is higher than Iinv and hence,    and IBB, this current flowing through this battery
bank are positive. So, VBB is higher than VOC, so we can see why VBB is higher than VOC
by analyzing the solution of the quadratic equation.
So, in case of discharging if the battery is discharge that is ICC is lower than Iinv then
   and IBB are negative. So this VBB will be lower than VOC. So, this is the condition
at which BB is lower than VOC. So, the net current IBB and ICC flows in or out of the
battery. Therefore, only this current determines the power loss in the battery.
So, how we can write this power loss? PBB is something like PBB  I BB
2
 Ri , since Ri is the
internal resistance of this battery and IBB is the current flowing through this battery bank.
So, this power is always lost irrespective of the sign of IBB. So this is very, very
important, so the amount of power lost due to this resistance. So we will come back this
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autonomy, so as I said number of days autonomy to be maintained for a standalone
system are specified by latitude.
So, if latitude varies from 0 to 30 then we need to consider the autonomy about 5 to 6
days and 20 to 50 if latitude varies, then this autonomy will change from 10 to 12 and for
latitude having 50 to 60, then it is recommended that this autonomy should be 15 days.
So, again it depends the kind of locations this kind of systems are installed, so that will
dictates the requirement of this autonomy.
Now, let us design a standalone PV system with energy balance. So, the analysis for load
side and the PV side is performed separately, so first let us consider the load side, then
we will go for the supply side or generation side. So, if we start with the load side then
first we are interested to know the annual load.
So, load profile is very, very important, at the beginning of this class I said, so we must
know the load profile of a particular maybe, particular household or maybe some
industries because if we talk about a particular day, so that may not be same for all the
other days, maybe if we consider in winter things should be different, so we need heaters
but in summer we do not need heaters but we need air conditioning systems.
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So, we need to understand the annual load of that particular industry or maybe household
or maybe any systems. So this EYL is something like EYL   PL t dt . So if I am interested
about average daily, then we will divide this EYL by 103, sorry 365 so EYL , this will give
you the daily load.
So then, what we are interested about the calculation of the required energy of the battery
bank, once it is done then from that we must know the amount of energy to be delivered
by the battery, this much of load we know that this much of load is there, daily load is
something like that, so for that we must design the number of batteries required of that
particular capacity.
So, for that we must know what is energy required from the battery bank. So, it is
EDL .SFbat
something like EBB  dA what is d A? d A is the number of the autonomy or say
DoDmax
the number of days we need to store energy and this SF is sizing factor of the battery,
normally its value is 1.1 or 1.2 and this DoD is depth of discharge, there is a maximum
depth of discharge you need to consider and this can be evaluated by using what already
we have discussed.
Now, what we are interested about the required number of batteries, once you know this
EBB that is energy to be delivered by the battery bank and we know Ebat, then we can
calculate what is Nbat or number of batteries required. So, how to calculate Ebat? So, the
rated energy of the chosen batteries are something like this, so E bat is something like
Ebatt  VOCbat  Cbat , this capacity of the battery then what we will get that is Ebat.
So, this is the energy of the battery, so this will be in watt hour because C is in ampere
hour, if you multiply by voltage it will be watt hour. So, once you know this then if we
substitute here and what we will get the number of batteries required for performing the
required task.
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Now, very important factor is selection of inverter. So, while selecting the inverter we
must be very, very particular, this inverter should meet some of the requirements. So,
number one is the maximally allowed power output must exceed the maximal power
required by the appliance.
So, this will be something like this. So PLmax has to be less than inverter what is, DC
inverter power max, this is one requirement and second requirement is this nominal
power of the inverter should be approximately equal to the maximal load power, this is
the second requirement. And third requirement is the nominal inverter input voltage
should be approximately equal to the nominal voltage of the battery bank, this VDC of
inverter has to be equal to VOC of battery bank.
So, it may be more beneficial to choose a system design such that not all the appliances
can be used at the same time. So, this is one of the observations but while selecting an
inverter we must see these parameters, so this has to qualify this parameters then only
you can select the inverter.
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Now, we must know the number of batteries to be connected in series and number of
batteries are to be connected in parallel. If we consider a typical voltage for battery bank
maybe 12 volt, 24 volt, 48 volt and 96 volt these are specified in case of lead acid
batteries.
So it can be adjusted by number of batteries that are connected in series. So, if we have to
connect batteries series then we need to follow this strategy like if we know open circuit
voltage of battery bank and then the VOC of batteries, then we can calculate what is the
number of batteries to be connected in series. And in case of parallel connection then we
must know this number of batteries and then number of batteries are connected in series,
then from that we can connect or we can calculate the number of batteries are to be
connected in parallel.
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Now, let us come back to this new energy balance in the other side. So, far what we have
discussed is the load side, now we will come to the generation side or PV side. So, here
Y
what happens E DC  E LY .SF , again this SF is nothing but sizing factor as usual is about
1.1.
So, we can calculate the number of modules required straight away if we know these
values and we know this area of the module and then the amount of solar radiation
falling, then efficiency of the module, then we can calculate what is the number of
modules required. Of course, for minimizing losses this MPP maximum power point
voltage of PV array and the nominal voltage of the inverter and the battery pack should
be approximately equal, this we should keep in mind.
Again, if we are interested to know the number of PV modules to be connected in series

VOC  BB
then we need to follow this rule like . So this is something like VMPP- mod denotes
Vmod MPP
the annual average of the maximum power point voltage of the PV module. So, of course,
the maximally allowed input voltage of the MPPT charge controller unit must not be
exceeded by this PV array, so this condition has to met. Then, we can calculate the
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number of PV modules to be connected in parallel, so this equation we can use for
calculation of number of modules to be connected in parallel.
So, let us take an example to understand how we can design a standalone PV system. So,
this example goes something like this. A residential house has a power requirement of
600 watt for 5 hours every night and it is proposed to meet the requirement by using a PV
array, a battery storage system and an inverter. The whole system is over designed so that
it can meet two extra nights requirement even if there has been no sun shine during those
days.
So we have to design for three nights, calculate the number of PV modules and batteries
required and some of the information are given like solar radiation is available for an
average of six and a half hours, so 6.5 hours daily and the average hourly global radiation
flux incident on the array is 710 watt per meter square and as far as battery ratings are
concerned it is given as 12 volt, 120 ampere hour, depth of discharge is 0.8, charging
efficiency is 0.95, discharge efficiency is again 0.95 and inverter efficiency is given as
0.85 and of course, module efficiency is required which is given as 11 percent.
So, we can make the problem something like this, this is solution and we are making this
block diagram so that much of energy is falling on this PV modules, there are many
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modules, so dot indicates there are many modules, so we need to know the number of
modules.
We are representing P as the number of modules, we need to find out the number of P's.
So, here is the batteries, so from here to here we will have batteries, so number of
batteries we need to find out and then we need to convert this DC current to AC by using
this inverter, inverter has got efficiency of 85 percent and then load is given 600 watt, so
5 hours per day for 3 nights. So, if we calculate this 600  5 hours  3 days so it will be
9000 Wh is the load.
So, these specifications are given and also module area is given as 1.191 meter multiplied
by 0.533 meter and efficiency is 11 percent. Now, we are dividing this into three
categories, 1, 2 and 3 so that we can do it more clearly.
So, let us consider P and Q are the number of modules and batteries required to run the
system. So, now what we will do? We will start with this supply part, like daily energy
output from PV array at 3, if we go back here.
So, we are representing this is here, so the amount of energy which is generated by this
PV module we need to know, so how much amount of energy generated here at this
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point. So of course, this is a DC power. So how we can define it? We know efficiency,
this efficiency is output power by input power, this is input power, so input power is
nothing but i into area and output power we need to calculate maybe I will write Pout and
 mod ule is given as 11 percent.
So we will write 0.11 and this is given as 710 and area so what we have done here this
area is nothing but module area is given as 1.191/0.533. So, that is how this E or I can
write this Eout, EPV-output what I have representing here EPV output  I g  SPH  Am  P  m
why it is P?
Because P numbers of modules are present to produce that much of power. So, this Eoutput
or EPV- output is something like 710 multiplied by 6.5 because we are measuring in watt
hour, so we need to multiply how many hours solar radiation will be there. So, 6.5
multiplied by this area of a single module and this is the P is the number of modules and
we know the efficiency of the module.
Once we do this calculation, then what we will get is about 322.25 P, and also we know
the total load at 1, so what is 1 here? This is the 1 and we know the load here, already we
have done the calculation, so 600 watt/day and for 5 hours and for three days, so it will be
9000 Wh.
So, this information is known to us, this can be calculated and EL is load EL this is the
energy required is 9000 Wh and this power available at the load if we come from this
side, from the left side, so if we come from this side, so if I am interested to calculate this
P.
So, how much power will be available here? Because we know this charge, discharge
efficiency and inverter efficiency, so that means 5 percent inefficiency will be there and
15 percent inefficiencies will be there. So, if we use those efficiencies and if we try to
calculate this power available at the load, then we can calculate it. So, this is nothing but
C is charging efficiency, D is discharging efficiency multiplied by inverter efficiency,
so if we multiply all then what we will have is 247.20 P Wh, that much of energy is
available.
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Now, the total load and power available at the load is equal, because that much of power
we have to generate and that has to be equal to the amount of energy required on a daily
basis or for meeting all those three days. So, see this for our problem it is for three days,
so EL is equal to this, so from that if you do the simple calculation then P is found to be
about 37.
So, number of modules required to get that much of energy or to provide the energy of
the load is about 37 numbers. Then, this energy supplied by one battery to the load we
can calculate something like this, so this is already we know 12 into ampere hour is 120
volt is 12 volt and discharge efficiency is 0.8, then we have DoD this is actually DoD,
DoD is 0.8 and this is discharge efficiency is 0.95 and inverter efficiency is 0.85, so it is
about 930.24 Wh.
So, from this we can calculate the number of batteries, so this is for a single battery, so if
I am interested to know number of batteries required of course, we need to divide this by
930.24. So, that way if we calculate so it will be about 10, so number of batteries required
for this problem is 10 numbers, so 9.67 so we cannot divide the batteries, so it will be 10
numbers. So, that way we can solve the problems and we can calculate really the number
of batteries required and number of modules required to meet the particular load.
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Now, let us learn about Photovoltaic water pumping system. So, this kind of pumping
systems are very, very important for agricultural activities or irrigation. So, as we
understand when you talk about standalone system, so there are many components PV
then we will have inverter, then we need cables, then maybe this kind of motor generator
component which is submerged under water and we need to have a delivery pipe and then
storage tank. So, whenever required this water can be utilized for irrigation purpose.
So, this kind of systems we can go up to depth of 20 to 100 meter, so this depth we can
go from this head may be 20 to 100 meter and this kind of system can supply water from
500 to 50000 liter per day, so that much of water can be lifted. So, this PV system
supplies water through a DC-AC inverter to an electric motor and coupled to the
submergible pump. Sometimes so DC cables are there if no inverter is connected, if
inverter is there then so this will be AC cables and this will run on alternating current,
otherwise if inverter is not there means these are DC operated system.
So, let us take a small exercise to understand this properly. So, this problem goes
something like this. A photovoltaic system is installed for supplying water for minor
irrigation purpose at a remote place in a developing country. The water is pumped
through a bore well from a depth of 40 meter, so head is given as 40 meter, 40 meter
head.
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The PV array consists of 24 modules and each module has 36 multi crystalline silicon
solar cells and arranged in 9 by 4 matrix and cell size is also given as 125 mm by 125 mm
and the cell efficiency is 12 percent. So, inverter efficiency and this motor and pump
efficiency which is submerged under water is given as 85 percent and 50 percent
respectively.
Now, we need to calculate the water discharge rate at noon when global radiation
incident normally to the panel is 800 W/m2 and we know the density of water is 1000
kg/m3, same can be used even though some variation is there sometimes, so we can use
1000 W/m2.
So, configuration will be something like this, so we need to know that discharge, the
amount of water, so which will be in cubic meter per second we need to calculate. So, PV
module there are this kind of 24 modules, 24 modules are connected and this size, if we
talk about this size is 0.125 by 0.125 mm square so that much and solar radiation falling
onto this PV system is 800 W/m2, 800 W/m2.
So, here density  is 1000, 1000 kg/m3 and this head is given as 40 meter and this
inverter efficiency is 85 percent or 0.85 I can write inv inverter, okay? And this motor
generator or this component having efficiency or I can write motor generator because
motor will be connected to leave the water, so this is about 50 percent.
Now, as we know this conversion efficiency is something like power output from the
array to the incident solar flux multiplied by cell area. So, this is known to us, so we will
calculate this PV output, so efficiency of conversion is given as 0.12 and Ig already I said
800 W/m2 and these cells are arranged by a matrix of 9 by 4 and 4 columns, 9 rows and
then cell area is given as 0.125 multiplied by 0.125 and we have 24 that kind of modules.
So from that we can calculate what is PV output, it will be 1296 watt. So, this power
available for lifting water is PV output, so power available for lifting water will be here,
so how much it is? PV output multiplied by inverter efficiency and then this motor
generator efficiency.
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So if you multiply this then what we will have this is the power available for lifting
water, also we know this P is this power required to lift water is   g  Q  H , so what is
the density of water and its unit is kg/m3, then acceleration due to gravity m/s2 and Q is in
m3/s and then we have here is in meter. So, this cubic meter cubic meter has got cancelled
kg m/s2 this is something like Newton, so and then Newton  meter so what we have
Newton meter  second, Newton meter is joule, Newton meter is joule, joule per second
is watt.
So, this will be in watt. So, once you know this then what you can do you can use power
available for lifting water and this power which is required to lift is equal, so if we equate
it and if we calculate this Q then we will get a value of something like this in m3/s and
that can be converted because we know 1 litre  103 m3 .
So, that way if we do this then we will get 5053.21 liters per hour. So, that much of
discharge can be generated by using this many modules, 24 modules. So, this is an
example to understand how a water pumping system work, so of course, these are helpful
in designing a standalone system where water requirement is an important for irrigation
purpose.
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So, let us summarize what we have discussed today, we have discussed the design
principle of a standalone PV system and also know the step by step procedure for
designing the system and also we have learned how does a photovoltaic water pumping
system works and also we have solve a numerical problems to strengthen the
understanding of both the design, like how to design number of modules required and the
number of batteries required to meet some kind of load and for design of a water
pumping system. So thank you very much for watching this video.
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Center for Energy
Module 6
Grid Connected PV System
Lecture 15
Functioning and Components of PV System
Dear students, today we will be discussing about Grid connected PV system.
So, basically we will discuss functioning and layout of a grid connected PV system,
different components of a grid connected PV system, then selection of different
equipment, role of different components for maximization of PV system efficiency.
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So, what is grid connected PV system? A grid connected PV system is made up of an

array of panels mounted on metallic support or integrated into a building. The panels are
connected in series and parallel to achieve optimal voltage and current and feed into the
inverter which transforms direct current into alternating current at a phase and at the same
voltage as the grid. The operating voltage of an array of panels is around 150 to 400 volt
DC for small systems of capacity 1 to 3 kilowatt and 400 to 700 volt DC for inverters of
capacity varies from 10 to 500 kilowatt and the maximum voltage is generally limited by
the problems of insulating panels to avoid any current leakage and the maximum voltage
accepted by the inverter.
These two are very, very important. The inverter will be equipped with a MPPT system
that constantly adjust the entry voltage because this will vary with solar insulation and
temperature.
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So, now see the basic flow diagram of a grid connected PV system. So, we have sun, so
electromagnetic radiation will come and strike on the PV surface and then we can
generate DC current, so then that has to be converted to alternating current by using an
inverter, so we need an inverter to convert DC current to alternating current, then that can
be connected to some load, this is called AC load and if we have generated more energy
then through meter we can give it to the utility grid.
So, day time, suppose in a household we are generating energy through this PV system
and we are not utilizing it, so what we can do, we can provide the energy to the utility
grid, at the night time since we do not have any battery backup, so we can take the energy
from the utility grid for meeting the demand.
So, that way we can take, so this is known as net meter, this will take care of the amount
of energy what is given to the grid and the amount of energy which is taken from the grid
that is called net metering system or net meter. So, this is an very basic flow diagram of a
grid connected PV system.
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So, there are two general types of electrical designs for PV power stations and the first
design is without battery backup and second design is with battery backup. So,
components already it is known to us now PV arrays we need then we need MPPT
because we need to operate at maximum power point by using the electrical or
mechanical system and then we need to have inverter to convert direct current to
alternating current and then grid interface.
So, if we are done with this then we can give it this power to local grid or we can give it
to utility grid. So, similarly same thing happens only change is here one storage system,
okay energy can be stored whenever required and that can be delivered as per the
requirement.
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Now, this figure shows the layout of a grid connected PV system, as we have discussed
this energy from the sun is received by this PV array and after generating this current that
has to be transferred to this inverter, so different kinds of inverters are there, we will
discuss in the coming slides.
So, if we use central inverter then this DC current will connect to this combiner box then
it goes to inverter again we need DC cables and as you know the function of inverter is to
convert this DC input to the AC output then from here it goes to transformer and then it
will go to grid.
So, when it goes from transformer to grid then we will use high tension cable and from
inverter to transformer we use low tension cable, means low tension means at lower
voltage, at lower V is voltage and current is high, for in case of high tension cable so
voltage, voltage is high but current is low and sometimes other inverters are also used
may be string inverters, so in case of string inverter what happens, so we need a AC
switch gear before it goes to transformer.
So, we will learn all different kinds of inverters in the coming slides but this tells about
how this system works, we need solar energy and then PV modules or arrays and we need
different cables like DC cables, AC cables then inverters, transformers and then grid.
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Now, let us see what are the different components involved in this grid connected PV
system. So, primarily we have three components electrical components, so under
electrical components we will have PV modules, then power conditioning units, cables,
combiner box then connectors.
Next thing is civil and mechanical components. So, under civil and mechanical
components we will have module mounting and structures, then mounting foundations
and third category is power monitoring components which includes SCADA and weather
stations.
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Now, we will discuss one by one. So, solar module, already we know that 90 percent of
the solar modules are made of silicon based solar cells, it may be single crystalline or
maybe multi crystalline. So, we need to select the best module for the particular
applications, so this configuration is for single or mono crystalline silicon solar cells and
already we know how it look likes, we also studied the crystal structure and why it looks
something like this and also we have studied the conversion efficiency, it varies from 15
to 19 percent for mono crystalline silicon solar cells.
And this silicon is formed into bars and cut into wafers in case of single crystalline or
mono crystalline silicon solar cells, in case of multi or polycrystalline silicone solar cells
configurations is something like this and we can get this kind of picture because of this
grains, there are many grains and this conversion efficiency is about 12 to 15 percent. So,
mostly this multi crystalline solar cells are used in many of the solar power plants
because of the cost. Here, in mono crystalline solar cells we will have higher cost and we
have to invest more for purchase of this module.
Also we know this fragments of silicones are melted together to form wafers that is
known to us, already we have studied how these cells are manufactured and why their
configurations are something like this.
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So, there are some criterias for choosing grid connected panels, what are those criterias?
Reliability and reputation of the manufacturer is very, very important because now once
it is installed that has to work for 25 years, minimum 25 years, good price of course,
when we are investing something we must know the price, if we are getting at a lower
rate but without compromising the other parameters then always it is welcome.
Then closely power matching modules, so power has to be matched, so when we solve
problems then you will understand what does it mean power matching modules, then
good mechanical quality, well designed frame and easy to install panels, these are very,
very important aspects and good quality connectors.
Then, cooled anti-return diodes with a junction box designed to dissipate their heats, in
case of hotspot generation, this is also important. Sometimes, hot spots are generated as
we have discussed in the class when we were discussing about the modules, so how hot
spots are generated and what are the alternatives technique to this remove these hotspots,
these are attached to this system.
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Now, come to the inverter parts which is one of the key components for functioning of a
grid connected PV system. So, this major component in grid connected PV system is the
DC-AC inverter or also known as power conditioning unit or PCU, it looks something
like this, these are the photographs of this PCU.
Already we know what is the function of inverter, it converts direct current to the
alternating current, so if we compare with the inverter what is available for standalone
there are some differences, so what are differences?
So, in case of the inverter used in grid connected system it must be a sine wave frequency
and AC voltage to be fed into the grid must be in phase with it and it must comply with
the number of regulations and safety requirements which are more demanding than stand-
alone system. All inverters are connected to the grid incorporates MPPT. So, here this
kind of inverters, MPPTs are attached with it.
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So, there are some factor which must be considered when selecting an inverter. So, what
are those factors? Like power conversion efficiency, rated power then duty rating which
means the amount of time the inverter can supply maximum load, then input voltage, then
voltage regulation, voltage protection, frequency requirement, power factor and islanding
detection, this is very, very important. So, we will discuss what is islanding and islanding
detection.
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So, there are different kinds of grid inverters, so primarily there are four categories
module inverters, then string inverters, then multi-string inverters and then central
inverters. Let us study one by one, so what do you mean by module inverters? So,
basically these are classified based on the power ratings, so here in case of module
inverters, this power is varies from 100 to 300 watt and no MPPT is attached in this kind
of inverters.
And of course, it is a single phase output and this conversion efficiency was 95 to 96
percent and advantages are no DC cabling are required, easy to add more modules, but
major disadvantages are high cost per power rating, this is important and replacing faulty
one is difficult for this kind of inverters.
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In case of string inverters we can go power from 700 to 1200 watt and MPPT attached in
this inverter and it may be single or three phase output and efficiency of conversion, it
varies from 93 to 97 percent, advantages are it has a MPPT, readily available and lower
cost per power rating then module inverter and only one disadvantage is only one MPPT
is attached. Even though it is costly but this is a really good one for many of the
applications.
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Next inverter is multi string inverter, so power rating goes from 2000 to 17000 watt and
multiple MPPTs are attached and it may be used for both single phase and three phase
output and efficiency is about 97 percent, so advantages includes it has got multiple so it
is more precise and readily available and most importantly lower cost per power rating
then module inverter and disadvantages are something like more expensive and increases
system cost due to use to DC protection on its string, so this is one of the disadvantages.
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And for central inverters normally for very high power ratings we will go for central
inverters, so it will be having multiple MPPTs and always three phase output will be
there and efficiency is quite good about 97 percent and it has advantages like lower cost
per power rating than module inverter and can have higher efficiency and one location for
maintenance and only one disadvantage is no redundancy if inverter fails, so these are
different kind of inverters based on the situation, we can select the best inverter for
particular application.
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So, this table shows the comparison of all the four inverters, so we can see the power
ratings and we can compare and what condition we need what kind of inverter. Now, let
us understand what is islanding, why this is so important, why this component is need to
be attached with inverter?
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For example, a potential danger of grid connected system is islanding, imagine that a
potential PV system is installed in a street where electricity grid is shut down, in order to
do maintenance work on the electricity cables. So, that has to be shut down because know
maintenance work has to be carried out in the cables. If it is a sunny day, solar radiation
is received by those PV modules, the PV systems will produce power of course and
would deliver the power to the grid without protection. The electricity worker thus can be
in danger, this phenomenon is called islanding and due to its danger it must be prevented.
The inverter therefore must be able to detect when the electricity grid is shut down and
the inverter must stop delivering power to the grid, this is very, very important aspects of
an inverter, normally this component is attached to the modern inverters. So, we must
know what is islanding and what is the potential danger without islanding.
So, now let us learn something about the cables, the kind of cables used in grid connected
PV system. So, this selection of cable plays a key role in the proper functioning of a grid
connected PV system. So, this selection of accurate size and type of cable would enhance
the performance and reliability of the PV system, the correct sizing ensures very little
loss of energy and prevent causing fire due to overheating.
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So, the third bullet point is the size of the cable must be large enough to carry the
maximum current expected without undue voltage losses. So, these are very, very
important and also we must know something on the parameters which depends on like the
generating capacity of solar panels, then distance from the solar panel system to the load
okay, so this size also depends on these two factors. So, what will the generation capacity
of the solar panel and then the distance from the solar panel system to the load, so these
are very, very important aspect because it involves a lot of cost, if we are talking about a
megawatt level power plant.
And primarily these cables are classified into two categories DC cables and AC cables, so
DC cables again we have modular string cables and DC main cable.
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So let us see what is a module or string cables so as you can see this is module there are
many modules are here and these are the connections, so these are nothing but string
cables, so these cables are usually integrated into the PV panels, so this is with the PV
panels and it is equipped with suitable connectors to be interconnected. So, from here to
here maybe this is one panel, this is two panel, so these two are to be connected so by
using this cable we can connect these two modules, may be for series connection, may be
for parallel connections.
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So, what is DC main cables? These cables are used for connecting positive and negative
terminals from strings to the generator combine box or directly to the solar inverter, this
single wire cables with double insulation are practically proven and offers high
reliability. So, this is also very important aspect which we need to know.
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And let us learn what is solar AC cables. Already we know once we have inverter so
maybe what we can consider here, so we have these are maybe modules, modules and
then we have inverter, then we have cables and then it goes to the load or maybe grid. So
this cable is DC cable, this DC cable and this is AC cable, so what we are talking about
this AC cable.
So this cables connects the inverter, so this is inverter to the electric grid through
protection equipment of course, there are many equipment will be there in between and
for three phase inverters five core AC cables are used for connection to the low voltage
grid and for single phase inverter, three core cables are used, so that also we know when
to use what kind of cables.
Now, let us see what is combiner box, this combiner box are used to bring multiple series
string together into a single line, know already we know these modules and that has to be
connected and finally it will come as a single wire and where it will be connected? It will
be in combiner box. The strings are typically combined in parallel, this combiner box are
typically located close to the photovoltaic array, so this we must know.
And these wires from individual PV modules or strings are connected to the combiner
box and these wires may be single conductor pigtails with connectors that are pre-wired
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into the PV modules. So, already this wires are with that PV module when you purchase
the newly PV modules. A combiner box typically include a safety fuse or breakers for
each string, what you can see these are the safety fuse, so these are attached in the
combiner box, so it looks something like this.
So, there are some connectors we must know about the connectors what kind of
connectors are used, so solar connectors are used to connect solar panels to form strings,
so normally these MC4 connectors are used, what does it mean? MC4 means multi
contact connectors and 4 means the diameter of the contact pin, so that is how it
designates, this connectors come in both male and female type which are designed to
snap together, it looks something like this. So, female component is male component so
these are classified something like this.
And this connectors must comply with the following requirements, whatever those
requirements like stability against the dynamic load because with respect to irradiance
and temperature the load will vary, so that has to be stable against the dynamic load.
Then strength it should have carry some kind of strength and absolute protecting from
dust and water infiltration, it should not enter water and dust in the connector and voltage
overload stability is also an important factor, then fire proof, so fire, it should not catch
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fire immediately so an insulant stability to negative effect of ultraviolet radiation. So,
these are the requirements know of a connector, so this requirement should fulfill.
So, now let us understand the module mountings, what are different configurations of
mountings? So, as you understand the grid connected PV system is made up of an array
of panels mounted on metallic support or integrated into a building. So, we can see some
of the configurations, so this is in configuration for roof mounted, so roof is here and
parallel to the roof these modules are connected so of course, there is a gap and clamps
are there to hold the structure, so these are the modules, so this way you can see different
configurations.
And here what you can see is a ground mounted system, so this may be ground, maybe
roof top, it is a flat ground and here we need some kind of structure to hold this entire
system and this is at grass, so what a grass this is installations, we need this structure to
hold this the entire PV system.
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So, we will study one by one. So, in case of roof mounted, as you can see here so this is
the modules and is the roof and this parallel to this roof, this modules are installed and
there is a gap in between, so this PV arrays are fixed to brackets on the roof, generally
with a few inch gap and parallel to the surface of the roof, what you can see here and this
roof mounts are less expensive because it uses existing roof structure as a foundation.
So, you do not have to build that structure to hold this entire PV system, so that is one
advantage but at the same time you must be confirmed about the strength of that roof to
carry that much of load. So, what are advantages of this kind of configurations? It is less
expensive, less material requirement for installation, then labour cost is lower, then
utilizes unused spaces and what are the disadvantages?
It is hard to access especially if the roof is steep or slippery, so it is very difficult to climb
here to fix those panels and harder to troubleshoot errors, again if something goes wrong
then some technician has to visit the site and then rectify the system so it is difficult and
space constraints on the roof limits the size of the system.
So, if we design a very high capacity PV systems on a small roof then it is not feasible
that limits the system and replacement of the roof is difficult within the panel's lifetime,
so once it is removed then what happens there might be many opertional difficulties, so it
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might be some kind of holes then, water when rain falls it may goes in so there are many,
many problems, so putting holes in the roof could lead to the water leakage, so these are
different problems associated with this kind of roof mounted grid connected system.
So, for ground mounted system, as you can see we need to have a strong structure to hold
this entire PV panels and other components, then how we can define it? This PV array are
hold in place by rack or frames that are attached to ground based mounting supports, so
again we have to do something here civil work, so cement and other thing you need to
apply then we have to have a pole then strong foundation needs to be made so that
involves lot of cost.
This ground mounts take more space but easier to access for installation and repair, so
this is one of the advantages and provide greater control over the orientation of PV array
to maximize production. Now, advantages primarily, is easy to access, then easy to clean,
then easier to troubleshoot because when dust accumulation will be there so every time
you have to clean it that is why it is very, very important to make an arrangement to clean
so that that people can move around and clean it in order to maximize the conversion
efficiency, for roof mounted it is difficult sometimes to clean it.
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And other disadvantages like installation is more labor intensive, installation is more
expensive and requires more parts and pieces, not aesthetically pleasing to everyone, so
sometimes people are claims know it looks not good if we install this kind of systems in
the maybe near the playground or near to their garden, so this is one of the disadvantages
of ground mounted PV system.
And also we need to have a SCADA system for this kind of grid connected PV system.
So, what does this SCADA stands for? This is something like Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition and this is used to monitor data from a plethora of devices including
meters, inverters, weather stations, trackers, DC strings and substation equipment.
So, primarily it provides the information about the health of the plant, so there will be
separate rooms from there they can monitor all those information, once you know the
kind of radiation is falling, the amount of radiation is falling, what is the temperature,
how much energy is generating all the information can be monitored by using this
SCADA system.
So, this SCADA provides measurement option for lifetime power production, so this will
be in kilowatt hour, record of daily power production for a month or so and money saved
using solar power, then amount of carbon dioxide reduction, then record of any system
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warning or fault, so if something some of the component is not working properly that can
be diagnosed and current system power generation, then total everyday energy
production, then photovoltaic input voltage, how much input voltage is generated on the
particular day and at particular time and photovoltaic input current at that time.
So, it looks something like this it is a very sophisticated of course, it needs power so that
has to be provided from the PV system itself but this kind of system are very, very
important to know the health of the plant.
And also for this kind of PV systems we need weather monitoring stations, this weather
monitoring station is one of the important instruments required for a grid connected PV
system, so what information we normally get from this weather monitoring stations? So,
we get wind directions, wind speed, temperature, humidity, rainfall, solar radiation and
barometric pressure.
So, this kind of systems are there as you can see this is anemometer so when the wind
comes it strikes on this, sorry this is a anemometer, this strike on this bucket and it start
rotating, so that we can understand the amount of wind speed on a particular time and day
and of course, other parameters like temperature, humidity, rainfall everything can be
monitored by using this weather monitoring station.
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And also there are components like cable glands these are required so small, small
components for fitting tightly all those connectors and then we need cable lugs, so this
these are something like this and this is normally used to connect the cables to electrical
appliances, other cables surfaces and mechanisms and we will have cable ties and ferrules
so this kind of components are required to connect those cables.
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And of course, we need cable trays for installing those PV modules in this grid connected
system, this cable tray system supports insulated electric cable used for power
distribution and communication. So, as you can see it is something like this kind of
brackets are used and then these are holes where in order to tighten the system so nut
bolts are provided and then that will tighten the entire PV system.
And one very important aspect is lightning arrester which is very, very important to
protect the unit, so to avoid the destructive effect of lightning strikes the over voltage
protection must be installed at the inverter and at various other locations in the PV
facility, so this is very, very important because without any arrestors very, very risky
otherwise all the things will damage, so lightning arrestors are primary.
And of course, fuses are required so this fuses plays a very important role in solar power
projects, so the different fuses like AC fuses are different as compared to DC fuses, so as
per requirement so these fuses are installed in the prominent places and this will protect
the equipment for a longer life.
So, we can summarize what we have discussed today, primarily we have discussed the
functioning and layout of grid connected PV system and then we have understand the
different components of a grid connected PV system, then how this can be selected and
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role of different components for maximization of PV system efficiency. I hope that you
understand the things very clearly and maybe in the next class we will study more on
design aspects of grid connected PV system. So, thank you very much for watching this
video.
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Centre for Energy
Lecture 16
Grid Connected PV System
Dear students, today we will be discussing about design of grid connected PV system. So in
design of grid connected PV system what are the different steps?
The first step is preliminary study. Second step is design of the system and third step is
performance analysis, okay. So, in preliminary study what are the work components includes?
Study of geographical setting of the location, okay. We must know the geographical condition of
that particular locations where we are going to install the solar PV system and then analysis of
climatic condition. So, we must analyze the climatic condition. What are the different radiation
levels, sunshine hours and all those radiation parameters. And then selection of the systems, so
what kind of systems is appropriate, maybe stand alone, maybe grid connected system and what
capacity? Then selection of PV technology, the kind of modules and others.
So, under design of the systems, primarily it includes selection of components like modules,
inverters, cables, combiner box and others. And this PV array-inverter matching is very, very
crucial for design of this grid connected PV system. So, to match those output of the PV module
and input of the inverter, okay, so other parameters like current, voltage, power. And also, we
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need to find out the appropriate number of modules, appropriate numbers of inverters required
for a particular capacity.
Of course, we need to learn cable loss calculation then shading analysis. And under performance
analysis we need to do the system energy production, the amount of energy will be produced by
the PV system, performance ratios then system losses. Of course this component will be
discussed in the next class.
So prior to designing any grid connected PV system, a designer must know the geographical
setting of the location and must visit the site to determine the solar access for a site, to determine
whether any shading will occur and estimate its effect on the system, to determine the orientation
and tilt angle of the roof or a particular site, to determine the available area for the solar array, to
determine whether a roof is suitable for mounting the array in case of roof mounted system, to
determine how the module will be mounted on the roof or the site and determine where the
inverter will be located and to determine the cable route and therefore estimate the length of the
cable runs, okay. So how long we need to maintain the cable length?
After this is done then what we need to do as a designer? So, this designer will estimate the
available solar irradiation for the array based on the available solar irradiation for the site. And
tilt is known for the particular location then orientation and effect of any shadows, okay. So, by
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analyzing this information, so amount of solar radiations to be received by the solar plant will be
estimated.
In the next phase, analysis of climatic condition of the location is very important. Normally, in
order to get those meteorological data the government meteorological departments provide those
data. Otherwise if it is difficult to get those data from the government departments, we can rely
on some open sources. So, this location wise climatic data can also be collected from NASA
meteorological department available online. So, this website we can access and we can download
the required data.
The following parameters are considered for analyzing climatic scenario of a particular location.
Number 1 may be monthly average daily normal radiation, monthly average insulation incident
on a horizontal surface, monthly average clear sky insulation or clearness index, monthly
average daily hours, daily sunshine hours, monthly average wind speed, monthly average relative
humidity, monthly average air temperature, monthly average rainfall. These information’s are
required. Already we have discussed many more techniques how to investigate many of the
parameters mentioned in this list.
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So now come to the design of the system, selection of the components, okay. So, system design
should follow appropriate standard. This standard may be BIS standard, may be IEC Standard,
may be IP Standard, IS, EN, SS there are many standards. But country-wise these standards may
vary, okay. So components with applicable BIS or equivalent IEC Standard or MNRE
specifications what is used in India are something like for solar PV modules, IEC, IEC stands for
International Electrotechnical Commission, okay, so they have standards, and 61215 or Indian
Standard 14286, this standard is used. For inverter IEC 62109, this 1 or 2, these configurations
are used and for cables, this BS stands for British Standards and EN stands for European
Standards, 50618, this kind of cables standards are used.
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For connectors also there are specific standards. This IEC 61730 and error box protection it is IP
65, then module mounting structure IS Indian Standard 2062 or may be 4759, a lightning arrestor
which is very, very important component of a grid connected PV system, its standard is about
IEC 62561 series, and weather monitoring stations are also attached in a grid connected system,
so it has got one standard. Then SCADA systems also has got standard that is IEC 61850, and
fuses, as you can see there are standards, okay, IS Indian Standard or EN that is European
Standards, okay. So, these standards are used normally for a grid connected PV system.
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Now, come to the designing of grid connected PV system. We apply the principle of energy
balance paradigm. So, here what happens, the energy which is generated by the PV arrays has to
be equal to the consumed energy during one year. So, this paradigm is normally applied for
designing a grid connected PV system.
So, let us learn how this can be calculated. So, the energy yield at the DC side is given by E is
the energy, yearly energy, y stands for yearly and DC stands for DC, okay, so this is something
like if we have these PV modules, there are many modules, there are many modules, okay so this
becomes array, this becomes array so output of this array, this is something like DC, okay. DC is
DC energy, EDC okay or you can write EDC okay. Since it is yearly we will write y, okay, this
y
something like that. This energy we are talking about E DC , okay. This is something like Atot, this
total area of the modules,  GM is the intensity of solar radiation and  is the conversion
efficiency, right. So, this will give yearly energy yield in the DC side. So this is the energy yield.
So, this Atot is related to the area of one module, right. So, Atot  N T . AM What is NT; NT is the
number of modules in that particular array. Once we know this information then we can use this
y
Atot and that can be applied here and we can calculate E DC , okay or the yearly energy yield in the
y
DC side, right. So, the required energy balance, what we can do, E DC is equal to ELy , this part is
something called load, okay, load side, multiplied by SF. This SF is nothing but sizing factor that
usually assumed to be 1.1, right.
y
So, we equate this E DC is equal to ELy , that is load side energy and this is your sizing factor,
okay. So, once we equate this and if we substitute this expression, this expression here, okay and
also use this equation 2 here, okay then we can simplify this equation 3 as something like this,
okay.
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 ELy  SF 
So, we can calculate the number of modules required, that is NT. NT   
 Atot  GM t  t dt 
means this is radiation, this is normally global radiation integration for the entire year and this is
the conversion efficiency, right. Now, we need to know how are you going to connect those
modules because we need to connect parallely and series, okay. So, how this configuration will
look like? How many modules will be there in series? How many modules will be there in
parallels, okay? So as a whole, if we say the number of modules is connected in series NS and in
parallel NP are denoted by NP, sorry this should be NP, this is NS, okay. So, NT  N S  N P .
Okay, so now we are not saying the number of modules connected in parallel and number of
modules connected in series, okay. We learn how this can be done. And for example if NT is 11
panels or 11 modules, it can be taken as NT is 12, because this is a odd number, because they can
be installed as S into P so this may be 121 , okay or may be 6 2 , 12 in series and 1 in parallel,
6 in series, 2 in parallel. So this kind of configurations may be adopted, okay. So best
combination has to be find out, what will be the best which give you the maximum power output,
okay. So, we will solve problems to understand this knowledge for betterment of the design of
the PV grid connected system.
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So, the power on the DC side at standard test condition is given by something like this, okay. So
under test condition it will be something like this, okay, which is equal to NT  pMPP
STC
okay.
,max  p DC , , okay. So, once we know this value we must know this
inv STC
So, what is the condition? p DC
inv
value has to be less than this p DC , max ,okay. So, there are some ratings of inverter. So, we must
know the ratings of the inverter. So that will dictate us how to match this energy, okay. So, we
will discuss in the coming slides.
Further the nominal DC power of the inverter should be approximately equal to the PV power at
STC
STC, okay. This is also one condition. So, pDC at nominal power is equivalent to p DC , . This is
also one condition has to be met, right. So, in practice the nominal DC power of the inverter is
selected slightly below the PV power at STC, okay. So, depending upon the climatic zone
because of the different irradiance distribution. So, this is very, very important.
Also, for pDC at nominal condition has, if it is less than 5 kW peak then single phase inverters
are used while if it is more than 5 kW, Watt peak, so this is kW peak, 3 phase inverters are
advised, okay. So, this kind of know, design methodology we have to adopt for designing a
system.
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So, let us have a look about the specification of modules and inverter, okay. So, if we talk about
the specification of a module we can see, for example we can consider a module having know
output power or Watt peak is 300, okay and efficiency is 15.10 and voltage at pMAX that is in
VMPP in voltage is 36.6 and current at pMAX is 8.20 and than open circuit voltage VOC is 44.8.
Short circuit current is 8.71, okay and power tolerances are given, and also NOCT, Nominal
Operating Cell Temperature is 47  2 , okay. This is also important. And these components are
very, very important because this performance of PV modules detoriates with respect to
temperature and insulation, okay.
So, if temperature increases, this performance decreases, okay and solar radiation if increases
then performance increases but no, if it increases further from the standard test condition then
temperature rise will be there and that causes lot of problems in the PV modules.
So, this temperature coefficient of pMAX is something like this, 0.4048, temperature coefficient
of open circuit voltage is something like this and temperature coefficient for current, short circuit
current is something like this, okay. Let us also learn the specification of a, an inverter, okay. So,
in case of inverter as you can see, maybe we can consider this inverter manufactured by
Bonfiglioli.
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So, here DC power input is 280 kW and maximum DC voltage is 900 Volt. DC current is 600
ampere and this MPPT voltage range is 425 to 975 Volt, okay. So, these information’s are
required while designing or matching these PV array and inverter, okay. And output voltage also
required, maximum AC power is 250 for this configuration and then voltage is 270 to 300 Volt,
then AC current is 540 ampere then maximum efficiency is 98.3 percent.
So, for example if we design for a capacity of 2 MW, okay and single inverter will give 250 kW
then how many inverters will be required? It will be 8 inverters, right? 8 inverters okay, so that
way we can do lot of design calculations, okay. So, what I am saying 2 MW is 106 , okay. kW
means again 3, okay, maybe 2111 kW, okay. If we divide it by 250 it will be 8, okay, it will be 8.
So, that is how we need 8 inverters for a 2 MW capacity grid connected PV system, okay.
So, now come to the matching of inverter and array, okay. So how we are doing it, okay? So, it
is important to find out the most appropriate combination of module and inverter by considering
the local operating conditions, okay. The voltage, current and power rating of module and
inverter are the three criteria which ensure the proper matching of the system in terms of
performance and safety. This is very, very important. What we are doing actually? Voltage,
current and power ratings has to be matched, okay.
The important steps related to matching of inverter and PV modules are something like, number
of modules in a string, how many modules should be connected in series? When it is a string,
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there is a series connection, and then maximum number of strings to match with inverter input,
right? And matching of the power rating, okay. So, these three components are very, very
essential for designing.
Now, what we will do? We will do the number of modules in a string that we will try to calculate
now. The first is to determine the lower and upper limit of a string, that is the minimum and
maximum number of modules that can be connected in series, that we need to find out. So, in
order to find out these, we must calculate the maximum and minimum operating temperature. So,
how we will get the minimum and maximum operating temperature? By observing the particular
place temperature fluctuation, okay.
So, may be winter is, minimum is 5, and in summer maximum is 38. So, if we know this
temperature variation then from that we can calculate what will be the minimum and maximum
operating temperature of a PV cell, okay. Then we need to calculate maximum and minimum
effective voltage of the module. So, what will be the effective voltage of the module? That needs
to be calculated once we are done with the maximum and minimum operating temperature.
So, how to calculate minimum and maximum operating temperatures? So, as I said, by knowing
the ambient temperature of a particular location, NOCT, Nominal Operating Cell Temperature of
the PV module and the incident solar radiation at that location, the module operating temperature
can be calculated as this, okay. So, we want to calculate this Top and we must know Tamb and then
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NOCT is required, okay. So, this is a standard formula you can use, and G is solar intensity,
right.
So, the maximum operating temperature and minimum operating temperature can be calculated
using this equation by considering recorded highest and lowest ambient temperature of a
particular location. So, if we know this temperature fluctuation, from that we can calculate what
is the minimum operating temperature and maximum operating temperature, right.
Let us move on to the next slides. So here, we need to calculate number of modules in a string.
So minimum and maximum, effective voltage of the module, how to calculate it? So, we can use
this equation. So VMin Eff is equal to VMP-STC okay, this is maximum point under standard test
condition in the module side and  P is temperature coefficient for this voltage and Top max
because already we know what is the operating maximum temperature, okay and STC condition
is 25, and for calculation of VMax Eff then we need to know what is open circuit voltage, okay,
under standard test condition and we have to use this temperature coefficient for open circuit
voltage and we know this Top temperature by knowing the climatic condition of a particular
location and TSTC is known to us, okay.
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So, we can note that it is very important to keep in mind that the output voltage of the array
should not fall outside the inverter's MPPT voltage range, okay. So, this is very, very important,
okay. This is one of the important design observation.
So now, let us know how to calculate this M string that is minimum number of modules in a
string, okay. So, by using this equation we can calculate the minimum number of modules in a
string, okay or minimum number of modules which can be connected in series, right. So, for this
we need this inverter input voltage and then minimum effective voltage, okay which already we
have discussed, okay.
So please note that there is a voltage drop which occurs when the generated electricity flows
from array to the inverter, okay. So, voltage drop will be there, okay. Therefore, during the
calculation of the lower limit, a 2 percent voltage drop needs to be considered, okay for
VMin Eff and a safety margin of 10 percent should be considered for VInv DC . So, when we are
doing very precise calculation we need to remember these two condition, okay. So how we are
going to use those values for calculation of minimum number of modules in a string, right?
So, we are also interested to know the maximum number of modules in a string, okay. So, in
order to find out the maximum number of modules in a string, we need to rely on this
(VInvDC ) Max , so here it was minimum and it was maximum because MPPT variation will be there,
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okay, minimum to maximum, that voltage you need to use. And this V max effective, what we
already we have discussed, that can be used to calculate this maximum number of modules in a
string, okay.
Please note that for calculation of VMax Eff , this value, the open circuit voltage is considered since
there is no voltage drop, okay. So, this is important. But for calculation of inverter voltage that is
maximum voltage, is 5 percent safety margin is applied, right. So, this information need to be
keep in mind while designing the grid connected PV system specially for minimum number of
modules in a string and maximum number of modules in a string, okay.
So now, let us use this current rating, okay. This current rating of modules has to be matched
with the inverter input current rating, okay in order to determine the maximum possible strings to
be connected in parallel. So, so far what we have discussed, the number of modules to be
connected in series, okay, minimum number of modules to be connected in series and maximum
number of modules to be connected in series.
Now, we must know the number of modules to be connected in parallel. So, once we have
decided with this know, series connection or strings then know, we have to connect it in parallel.
So, this is the procedure how we can do it. Due to the variation in operating temperature the
value of short circuit current of the module also differ from its STC value that is obvious, okay.
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So, if we need to account those variations, then we need to use this equation. ISC-Eff is something
like ISC that is short circuit current under standard test condition minus this temperature
coefficient for this short circuit current multiplied by Top max  TSTC , okay. So, TSTC normally is
25 °C, okay. So, these are the values, what these parameters stands for,  I SC short circuit
temperature coefficient,  p maximum power temperature coefficient and then  VOC is open
circuit voltage temperature coefficient, okay.
Now, also we must know the maximum number of strings to be connected in parallel, okay. So,
this is the equation we can use for calculation of maximum number of strings to be connected in
parallel. Once we know this I InvDC and then I SC  Eff which one already we have calculated here,
so if we substitute these two values then what we will get, that is a maximum number of strings
to be connected in parallel, okay.
Now, now what we need to do, match the best combination of strings and arrays to get the
maximum DC output, right. The maximum DC power output of the PV array should be always
less than or equal to the input DC power of the inverter. This condition is very, very important,
okay. The maximum DC power output of the PV array, okay, so we have these PV arrays, okay.
So, we have calculated maximum, maximum power output okay or I will write Pmax, okay and
that will be DC is always less than the input power of the inverter, okay. So, in our case, it is
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input power of the inverter is 280, okay. So, this is input power of inverter inv, okay. So, this is
something like that.
Now, for example, so if in a calculation if we know the minimum number of string and
maximum number of string, okay and number of arrays based on our calculations, okay, so
maybe 59 we got, okay but this is fixed. Because see, rating if we consider without derating of
the module, say 300 Watt peak, module we have considered, right. Then here if we multiply by
16 59 , say number of string per array is 59 and number of modules is 16, right. So, if you
multiply 16  59  300 so what we get is something like this value.
So, as already we know, this maximum input power is 280 kW, input power of the inverter is
280 kW so it should not be more than that, okay. So, it is more than that so it is not feasible,
right? So, if we take 58 number of strings per array so it will be 270, it is a feasible case because
it is less than 280, what is discussed here in the second bulleted point, right?
So, if we consider the maximum number of strings, that is 17 and if we take different strings or
number of strings, say 55, 54 we can see which one is best fitted, okay, so this one is found to be
best fitted, okay. So, we can decide based on the economics and other conditions which one will
be the best fit for the particular plant, okay.
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Now, we need to pay attention about the cables, right because this cable also consumes huge
amount of power and cost, okay. So, to determine the cross-sectional area of DC cables we can
use this equation,  is the resistivity, I is the know, current flowing through this circuit and this
is cable length and losses will be there. And we already know VMP string, okay and for AC cable
these equations are used, okay. Of course power factors are need to be multiplied.
Now we need to see the shading effect. When we are installing PV modules, we must know how
are you going to install these modules. If shadow is occurring then know, instantly we are losing
lot of generated power, okay. That means if one module is shadowing others, then know,
shadowed modules are not generating power. So, this effect of shadow is very, very important
and we need to analyze it very critically.
So, the minimum distance between two solar modules which is maintained in order to prevent
mutual settings are need to be studied, okay. So, if we consider this module and this module,
okay what will be the appropriate distance between this top of this module and this position, so
we need to specify so that shadow caused by this module should not hamper the functioning of
this PV module, okay.
So, we can do lot of calculations and we can come up with a solution and it tells us that know,
this D has to be 3  h , so h is nothing but this height and this is know, solar module tilting called
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as  here, okay and alpha is the sun elevation angle, okay, and if you consider this LSH, so this
LSH cos is also the, and this equation can also be used for investigating the distance between
these two modules, okay. So, tip of this and then bottom of these modules is D, right.
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So, let us now take an example, okay so that you understand how these kinds of problems can be
solved, okay. So, the example goes something like this. A solar plant is to be installed at, say IIT
Guwahati campus to meet the electricity demand of 2 MW at a solar installation of 800 W/m2,
okay. This may be considered as global radiation. The manufacturer’s output tolerance derating
due to dirt and due to temperature of PV module are 5 percent, 5 percent and 0.5 percent per
degree increase in temperature, okay.
So, DC cable losses are given. AC cable losses are also given, okay. The inverter has a
maximum voltage input is 900 Volt, maximum DC current is 600 ampere. So detailed
specifications are given here, specifications of the module and specification of the inverter, okay.
And also it is given that the minimum temperature and maximum temperature and solar peak
hours of the site are 5 degree, 38 degree and 5 hours. So, find out the total number of modules
required for the plant and also we need to estimate the DC output of the area, okay. So, we need
to solve this problem now, okay.
So, what I can say, this is Tmin, Tmin is given as 5 °C and Tmax is given as 38 °C, okay. So, this
power rating is 300-Watt peak, okay and voltage at pMAX is 36.6 so these values are going to be
used. And open circuit voltage is 48.8, short circuit current is 8.71 and these values are also
required, okay, these values are also required, and NOCT is 47.
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So, in our case NOCT we will use 47 °C, okay and here in inverter as I said this is maximum
power, DC power, that is input to the inverter is 280 kW and this is the output 250 kW, right and
we will have DC maximum current is 600 and MPPT voltage range is 427 to 975 volt. These
informations are required for solving this problem.
So, let us first calculate, or first let me draw this diagram, okay. This may be different know, this
is an array, array and these are modules, modules, solar radiation is falling here, okay and then
we will have inverter, we will have inverter here okay, MPPTs are attached, MPPTs are attached
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to it. And we will have this is DC cable, DC cable and this is AC cable. Even datas are given for
DC and AC cable and losses so maybe we will not consider for this problem. It is a grid, okay.
So, we need to produce 2 MW of power, right. Now, this I is given as 800 W/m2, and since we
NOCT  20
have already discussed the expression for operating temperature Top  Tamb   G or I,
800
okay, G or I, okay, solar insulation. So, this value is given as 800 W/m2. So, if we substitute 800
here, NOCT is 47 here, and Tamb is given as may be, 28 °C, okay. This is Tamb.
So, if we substitute this, 28  NOCT is 47 minus 20, because these are same, both will goes off,
so this will be, Top will be 55 °C, okay. And also, we must know this may be 1. The derated PV
output okay, so now we will calculate derated PV output, derated PV output; derated PV output
so how to calculate it? So, PV derated, so derated will be how much? It will be PSTC multiplied
by this f may be temperature, derated due to temperature, f derated due to dirt and f derated due
to, we have manufacturing tolerances.
So, as we know this operating temperature is 55 °, okay and in our problem it is given that this
rise in temperature, okay, 0.5 percent per degree rise in temperature is a deration, derated factor,
okay. So, we know STC is at 25 °C and then this operating temperature is 55 so 55 minus 25, it
will be 30 degree C, okay. So, if we can operate at 25 °C then there is no decrease in
performance of the PV modules. Since it is more than 25 then this rise in temperature, as need to
be considered as we understand that know, every degree rise in temperature, there is a decrease
about 0.5 percent, okay.
So, what we can do in order to calculate this f, temperature, so this will be

1  0.5  30 % , okay.
100
So, what we will get here is 15, okay, it will be 0.85, right, 0.85 and for dirt it says it is 5 percent.
So, it will be 95 percent, okay and it is 5 percent again. Derated factor is 5 percent so it will be
95 percent, okay.
So, if we substitute here and TSTC is 300-Watt peak already we have discussed and this is 0.85
and then we have 0.95, and then we have 0.95 then what we will get is a PV derated. So, this is
calculated to be 230.137 Watt. So, this is nothing but PV derated, okay, PV derated. So, this
value is required. So, this may be 2, you can write.
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Now, in the next page what we can say, or what we can calculate because already we know, Tmin
and Tmax, okay so what will be the (Top ) Min , okay. (Top ) Min we can calculate, Tamb, okay so
NOCT  20
Top  Tamb   800 , okay. This will goes off; this NOCT is 47, okay. So, 47 minus 20
800
and this is minimum is 5, okay. So, 5 plus 47 minus 20, okay, 47 minus 20 so this will be 32
degree, okay.
Similarly, we can calculate what is (Top ) Max . (Top ) Max will be, we have 38 °C which is given plus,
because this will goes off, 47 minus 20 so it will be 65 °C, okay, this is C. So, these values are
known to us now. These values are known and (Top ) Min is known to us now, okay. Now, next
step, what we can do? We can calculate what is VMin Eff , okay.
So, we will calculate VMin Eff . So, already we know VMin Eff , okay which is already been defined.

So, we will use this equation VMin Eff  VMPSTC   p  {TOP max  TSTC  okay. So, this will be
something like this. So, we can substitute this value, VMP- STC is nothing but you can go back to
the last slides so this is something like 36.6. So, this value is required to calculate VMin Eff
So, this is 36.6 minus, gamma is given as, so  p also we can calculate or we can take it, this is
0.4048, so 0.4048 here, 0.4048 divided by 100 so this, so this is, this is under this, okay this is
under this, okay. So, (Top ) Max is how much, 65 okay, 65 minus TSTC is always 25, okay. So, if we
substitute this value then what we will get, a value of 36.43 Volt, okay. This is VMin Eff , okay.
So, once we are done with this then next step is to calculate VMax Eff , okay. So, what was the
formula? VOC-STC okay, open circuit voltage under standard test condition of the module, and
then  VOC temperature coefficient, so I will write here, TOP min  TSTC , okay, right. So, this value,
open circuit voltage we have to take it from here, so this value 44.8 and this value we need to
take, okay, so this 44.8 we need to substitute (44.8-0.2931)/100 and this minimum is 32 minus
25, okay.
So, if we do the calculation, this VMax Eff is found to be 44.779 Volt, okay. So, VMax Eff , right. This
is known now, okay so next step what we need to do is the minimum number of modules to be
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connected in series and maximum number of modules to be connected in series. So how to do
that? So we can use the equations what we have discussed, so this Mstring that is minimum, okay
which is nothing but VinvDC that is minimum, okay and then we have V min effective, okay.
So, I have to go back to this specification part. So here this is the Vinv voltage that is minimum
that is 425, okay. This 425 need to be used here, so 425 and then we have VMin Eff , already we
have done it, that is 36.43 which is equal to 11.67 so that is equivalent to 12, because there has to
be whole number, okay. And maximum number of string, that is max, how do we define it?
Already we have the equation. V in DC that has to be maximum, okay, maximum voltage
divided by, we have Vmax, already we know effective, okay. So, this value is how much, we will
go back and see. This is 975 volt, okay. So, this is 975 and VMax Eff is 44.779 and which will give
you a value of 21.77 so which is equivalent to 22, okay. It is 22.
So, what I have done here, so first we have calculated operating temperature. Then we have
calculated derated power output of the PV array, okay and then since we know these values of
the derated factor, so we have used it while calculating this derated PV output and then our
attempt was to calculate (Top ) Min temperature and operating maximum temperature, okay.
So, this is found to be 32 and 65, and then we have calculated VMin Eff and VMax Eff and we have
calculated number of modules to be connected in series, minimum number of modules to be

connected in series and maximum number of modules to be connected in series, okay. We just
found to be 12 and 22.
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So, our next calculation will be the calculation of I SC  Eff . Because we need to now know the
number of strings to be connected in parallel, okay. So, we know the expression

 
I SC  Eff  I SC STC   p  {TOP max  TSTC , okay. So, what is the value of I SC  STC ? We will go back
again this value is 8.71, okay. And also temperature coefficient is 0.0442 percent per degree C,
okay. So this is 8.71 from the specification table and same from the specification table and we
have 100 and then we will have 65 minus 25, okay and this is found to be 8.69 ampere, okay. So
I SC  Eff is something like this.
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Now, we need to calculate the maximum number of strings. So maximum, now we will calculate
maximum number of string to be connected, to be connected in parallel, okay. So for that we
I inv DC
have the equation S max  which is calculated just now, okay. So, this value we need to
I SC  Eff
use here and this is already given in the specification table. So, what is this I SC  DC value,
I inv DC value? It is nothing but 600 ampere, okay. So, if we substitute 600 here then I SC  Eff is 8.69
then it will be about 69.04. Or it is equivalent to 69, right.
So now what we have calculated is the maximum number of strings to be connected in parallel is
69, okay. Now we have to match it. So, we know now the minimum number of modules to be
connected in series, maximum number of modules to be connected in parallel and also the
maximum number of these strings to be connected in parallel, okay.
And let us now see the different possible arrangement of module array. Already I have prepared
this table where possible arrangement of number of modules per string and number of strings per
array at two different power outputs, one is extended test condition and other one is at derated
power output. So, when derated factors like manufacturing tolerances, temperature and dirt are
considered, what will be the derated power output which is about 230.137 Watt and for standard
test condition it is 300-Watt peak, okay.
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As calculated before, the minimum and maximum number of modules per string are found to be
12 and 22. So, for the case of 12 modules per string and as you know the maximum number of
strings per array is 69 so if we multiply 12 with 69 and then 300 Watt peak then what we will get
is 248.4 kW, okay. And same calculations if we make then 12  69  230.137 , then what we will
get is 190.55 kW, right.
So, we can have one more combinations like 22  69  300 then what we will have? It is about
455.4 kW. And if we consider derated parameters then output will be about 349.35 kW, okay.
And we will have more number of combinations and we can select the best one. But we must
keep in mind that what is the input power for the inverter, okay. So, inverter power requirement
is 280 kW. So, we need to provide energy just near to 280 kW, okay.
So, that way we need to find out the best combination. So, we can have something like 22
number of modules per string and number of string per array 55, then what we will get if we
consider derated power which is equal to about 278.46577 okay which is very, very close to 280
kW power which is the input to the inverter, okay. Or we can think of another class if we do not
consider derated power, something like 22 number of modules per string and 42 number of
strings per array. So, under the condition what we will have, we will get power output close to
277.20, okay which is also close to 280 kW, right? So, we can consider this or may be this, or we
can think of some other alternatives, okay.
So, the other alternative combinations are something like 16 number of modules per string and
58 number of strings per array which gives power output under standard test condition is 278.4
kW, and if we consider one more category or combination that is 20 number of modules per
string and 60 number of strings per array then what we will get, 276.16 when we consider the
rated parameters, okay.
So, there are multiple combinations so we need to find out the best combinations for maximum
output power. And if we consider these two cases for a 2 MW power plant the number of
modules required will be about 6667, for the first case, this case and for the second case we will
have 8691 numbers of modules. So, how we will get it? Say for example, in this case, this case
so 16 multiplied by 58 which is equal to 928 okay, so that many number of modules are required,
okay for this combination and this gives about 278.4 kW, right.
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So, for 278.4 kW generation power output we need about 928 number of modules, okay. So, for
2000 kW the number of modules required can be easily calculated, okay. So, this will be
928 2000
something like , okay so which is found to be about 6667. In the second case
278.4
similarly, we can find out the number of modules required is 8691 numbers.
Now, for these 2 MW power plants the number of inverter required can also be calculated. As
you know this rating is 250 kW, okay so 2000 kW divided by 250 so it will be, this will be kW, 8
numbers so minimum 8 numbers of inverters are required for a plant having capacity 2 MW,
okay. So, this is how we can design a solar grid connected PV system, okay. There are many
components, what I left, may be this can be considered in the next class when we analyze the
performance of a grid connected PV system, okay.
So, we can summarize what we have discussed in this class. We understand the design of a grid
connected PV system then the operating temperature of the module plays an important role in
matching PV arrays with inverters, that also we understood. The voltage, current and power
ratings of modules and inverters are the three criteria which ensures a proper matching of the
system in terms of performance and safety, okay. That we have clearly understood. And the kind
of design methodology that we have adopted here, first we tried to calculate this derated module,
or derating of modules, how derating of module takes place, what are different factors?
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Then minimum and maximum operating temperatures of the modules, then minimum and
maximum effective voltage of module, then lower and upper limit of strings okay, then matching
of current rating of modules with inverter input current ratings to determine the possible string to
be connected in parallel. And finally, the possible arrangement of module array we have studied.
And sizing of inverter based on the size of the array, that we can understood now. And also we
have demonstrated how a, how to design a grid connected PV system, okay. So thank you very
much for watching this video. Thank you.
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Centre of Energy
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Lecture 17
Performance Analysis of a Grid Connected PV System
Dear students, today we will be discussing about performance analysis of a grid connected
PV system. So performance assessment is very, very important before designing a grid
connected PV system.
The performance assessment of PV system is the best way to determine the potential for PV
power production in an area. Usually, performance of photovoltaic modules refers to standard
test condition which is not always representative for real module operation. The PV module
technology, weather conditions like incident radiation, temperatures, then inclination, inverter
and control systems, sun tracker system and wiring are factors which influences the
performance of a PV system.
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So when we call performance analysis what are the parameters includes like annual energy
yield, reference yield, array yield, system losses, cell temperature losses, performance ratio,
capacity utilization factor, average plant efficiency, these parameters we must know. Now,
look into this grid connected PV system layout. So here what happens we will have solar PV
panels, these are the modules, these are modules, there are many modules connected to form
a panels and if we connect many panels then it becomes an array.
So solar radiation fall on these PV modules and then DC current is generated. So that has to
be transmitted through DC cables. So this is a DC cable and if we have to convert this DC
current to alternating current, we need grid inverter or inverter. And then this load is
connected somewhere so we need to transfer this energy through cable and these cables are
known as AC cable and also we have meter.
Suppose, we are not using the generated energy, then what we can do we can give the
generated energy to the utility grid. And maybe at night when demand is there, we can take it
back from the grid. So that way we can use this grid connected PV system. So when we
design we need to know what will be the output here, what are the losses here in this cable
what is the efficiency of this inverter, what will be losses here in this cable and then other
components, like MPPT is attached here, what will be the efficiency of the MPPT.
So all those components we need to consider when we talk about performance analysis of a
grid connected PV system. So by doing so what we will get, the analysis provides the useful
information to the policymakers and interested individual and organization about actual
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performance of grid connected PV system in a region or country. So this information is very,
very important. So doing analysis very correctly is very, very important for long term
performance of a grid connected PV system.
So this is AC energy, this is AC output of the plant of a solar array is the electrical AC energy
delivered to the grid at the point of connection of the grid connect inverter to the grid. This
output of the solar array is affected by many of the parameters; for example, average solar
radiation data for selected tilt angle and orientation, manufacturing tolerance of modules,
temperature effect on the modules, effect of dirt on the modules, system losses maybe in the
cables, AC cables, DC cables; inverter efficiency, then module efficiency.
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Now, if we talk about performance analysis, we need to investigate those parameters as we
can visualize now. So this instantaneous energy output on the AC side is given by PAC the
function of time. So AM is the area of the panel, then GM is the intensity of solar radiation
then maybe  M is the module efficiency then we will have inverter efficiency inverter then
MPPT and many more components efficiencies need to be considered.
So this expression is for instantaneous, at any moment we can calculate PAC of a grid
connected PV system. And if we are interested to calculate the system efficiency then we can
use this equation if we know PAC that is this parameter of what we have done it and if we
know the amount of radiation falling on that particular side and an area, then from that we
can calculate what is system efficiency.
Now, instantaneous AC side yield, that is known as performance ratio, this is instantaneous
we should keep in mind. So this will be something like PAC to the STC, means standard test
condition the amount of power delivered by the PV array and this is the AC output, it take
care of all the losses. Then the yearly energy yield at the AC side can be calculated. So if we
integrate over the year, then what we will get is in yearly energy yield.
And also we need to know one important parameter, annual efficiency of the system. So this
y
can be represented by using this equation. So E AC , that is annual energy yield to the solar
energy incident on the PV system throughout the year. So this is nothing but solar energy
incident on the PV system throughout the year.
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So this Eiy,system can be expressed something like this. So yearly average we need to find out
and Atotal is the multiplication. Then yearly electricity yield also we can calculate if we know
this term and if we know this PSTC and number of modules, total number of modules, then
from there we can calculate what is yearly electricity yield. And this expression will get in
terms of Wh/kWp. So this p stands for peak, where power is calculated at standard test
condition, that means 1 kW/m2 and wind speed of 1 m/s and spectrum of AM 1.5.
So if the yearly energy yield exceed the annual load, so we have energy yield and then we
have load. So if this is something like that, so this is energy yield and then this is load, the
system is well-designed. Otherwise, another iteration has to be done in order to scale up the
system. So this is important condition for designing a grid connected PV system.
Also we need to know what is capacity utilization factor. So how do we define it. This
capacity utilization factor is defined as the ratio of actual annual energy generated by the PV
system to the amount of energy the PV system would generate, if it is operated at full rated
power for 24 hours per day for a year.
y
E AC
So mathematically this can be represented by ,. And of course, you can
PPVrated  24  365
multiply 100 in order to make it percentage. So this is the expression by which you can
calculate capacity utilization factor.
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This capacity utilization factor for a grid connected system can also be know calculated or
estimated by using this expression. If we know peak sun hours per day and 24 hours per day.
So this will give capacity utilization factor. So if a system delivers full rated power
continuously its capacity utilization factor would be unity, that is 100 percent. So capacity
utilization factor depends on the location of the PV system. The higher the capacity factor or
capacity utilization factor better the PV system. The capacity utilization factor of all rooftop
PV system in India is in between 16 to 17 percent, this you should keep in mind.
Now, what we are interested in about, energy loss. So different losses will take place in the
PV system which includes array capture losses, system losses, soiling and degradation losses.
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So primarily we can categorize these losses into two major group, one is array capture losses,
which represents the losses due to array operation that highlight the inability of array to fully
utilize the available irradiance. Which includes those two losses thermal capture losses and
miscellaneous capture losses.
HT E
So mathematically this can be represented by LA   DC . So this HT is nothing but
H R PPVrated
the total implant insulation or global implant horizontal insulation of the location and this is
the reference. So reference is normally 1 kW or W/m2. And this is the energy delivered by the
PV module and this is the rated one. So if we know this expression and from that we can
calculate what will be the array capture losses.
And in case of system losses, this loss is due to conversion of DC power output from PV to
E DC E
AC by the inverter. So this can be represented by LS   AC . So once we know this
PPVrated PPVrated
expression for EAC and the energy generated from the DC side of the PV system, then we can
calculate what is the system losses. So if you combine these two LA plus LS then it becomes
the total losses.
Now, let us learn this system yield and different losses in a very deeper sense. So for a
specified peak power rating for a solar array, a designer can determine the system's energy
output over the whole year. The system energy output over a whole year is known as the
system's energy yield. So this average yearly energy yield which can be determined by using
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this expression, this Esys is equal to Parray-STC multiplied by these are the de-rating factors,
temperature, manufacturing tolerances, then we have dirt and these values which we will
discuss in the next slide.
And already we know what is Esys is the average yearly energy output. So if we do not write
this yearly then of course we will write Y here. So at this moment, we do not need to write
and this Parray-STC is rated output power of the array under standard test condition, for standard
test conditions we represent in watt and Esys will be in Wh.
Now, if we include this, so what are those ftemp means temporary de-rating factor fm or fman is
de-rating factor for manufacturing tolerance and fdirt is de-rating factor for dirt and Htilt is
yearly irradiation value, which is represented by kWh/m2 for the selected side and eta inverter
is the efficiency of the inverter, then  PV inv is the efficiency of the subsystem between the PV
array and the inverter. And inv sb is the efficiency of the subsystem between the inverter and
the switchboard. So we will analyze one by one and then finally, we will estimate all those
derived parameters.
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So de-rating of module output we will consider here. So three primary de-rating factors are
manufacturer tolerance, dirt and dust and temperature. So we will discuss one by one with a
workout example. So when we talk about manufacturer tolerance, when a module is when
manufactured, it has got some kind of tolerances. So they has to be considered when real PV
module performance is estimated or analyzed.
So the output of a PV module is specified in watts and with a manufacturing tolerance based
on a cell temperature of 25 °C. So, if we take an example, assuming that tolerance is 5
percent, the adjusted output of a 160 watt peak, I can write to watt peak also here PV module
is therefore around 152. So here we have considered a PV module, PV module of rated
capacity is 160 watt peak.
If 5 percent is the manufacturer tolerance, then if we consider it then what will happen? So it
will be 0.95 into 160 watt, that means 5 percent loss from the rated 160 watt. So if we
multiply this 0.95 into 160 watt, it will be 152 watt, if we compare 5 percent manufacturer
tolerance.
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Now, let us discuss about dirt and dust. So dirt and dust can accumulate under solar module
surface blocking some of the sunlight and reducing PV output. This phenomenon already we
have studied, what happens when we block some of the modules or cells with some elements
like dust, maybe leaf or maybe other unwanted foreign materials. The same then dust can
cause erosion of the PV surface which affects the system's running performance.
So if we consider 5 percent losses in this case and if we continue with the problem what we
have initiated in the last slide, then what will happen, we will get a value of 144.4 watt,
because already so if we already that module is de-rated because of this manufacturer
tolerance. So 160  0.95  0.95 . This is something like 144.4 watt.
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Now, consider the case for temperature. As you understand this output power of PV system
reduces as the module temperature increases. The losses due to temperature is based on that
temperature coefficient. So behavior of these losses will be different for different cell
material. Assuming 160 watt peak rated polycrystalline modules with de-rating of 0.5 percent
per degree increase in temperature.
So for that you need to know some of the information, say ambient temperature is 28 °C
where the modules or panels are installed and NOCT for that module is 47 °C. So by using
this expression we can calculate what will be the Top or operating temperature. So if we
substitute this value, then what we will have, 47 minus 20 becomes 27 plus 28 it becomes
55°C.
Now, if we have to deduct this TSTC from this operating temperature then what will be the
effective temperature, 55 minus 25 is 30. So what does it mean? These modules are tested at
25°C or cells are tested at 25 °C. Now, we got a temperature rise of 30 °C behind 25. So how
this performance will vary? As you understand per degree increase in temperature, there is a
reduction in efficiency of something like 0.5 percent.
So if we multiply this 30 with this 0.5 percent then what we will have about 15 percent losses
will be there. So if we continue with that problem what we have initiated assuming this
power loss due to temperature of 15 percent, then the already de-rated 144 watt module
would now be directed farther 122.7 watt. So this will be something like 0.85 144.4 watt, so
85 means 1 minus 0.15 it becomes 0.85. So this is the losses, so if we deduct this loss from 1
what we will get is an efficiency. So that way we can calculate how much energy will be de-
rated.
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So now, if we compare all the three de-rating factors, then what we have done solar module
under standard test condition, then de-rating due to manufacturers tolerance, then de-rating
due to dirt and then de-rating due to temperature. So if we substitute all those values, then
what we will have, we will have the de-rated power output of 122.71. You just see we have
initiated 160 watt peak, now, just we have considered 3 de-rating factors like manufacturer
tolerances, they we will have dirt and then temperature. So this 160 reduces 122.71. You can
see this is a significant reduction of power or power output.
So now we will move to the DC energy output from array. So the actual DC energy from the
solar array is equal to the de-rated output power of the module, then we need to multiply with
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number of modules, then multiply with irradiation for the tilt and azimuth angle of the array.
So this is Pde-rated, Pde-rated multiplied by number of modules, total number of modules, then we
have G maybe the irradiance or maybe I you can write. So this is something like actual DC,
PDC, this will be actual, actual.
So if we continue the same problem assuming the average daily peaks sun hour is 5 hours and
that there are 16 modules in the array. So it is assuming that 16 modules are present in that
array. Then the DC energy output of the array will be already de-rated power. What we have
done here is 122.7 And number of modules are 16 and then how many hours is the 5 hours.
So it will be 9816 Wh, we will see what is G.
This solar irradiation is typically provided as kilowatt hour per meter square, it can also be
stated as peak sun hours. So this is the equivalent number of hours of solar radiation of 1
kW/m2. So that is why we have multiplied with 5. So it will be 9816 Wh, so this is important.
Now, this DC system losses if we are concerned, then DC energy output of solar array will be
further reduced by the power loss in the DC cable connecting the solar array and to the grid
connect inverter. So this need to be considered. So if we continue with the same problem and
we add this loss about 3 percent for this DC cable then DC subsystem efficiency will be 97
percent. Therefore, the DC energy from the array that will be delivered, to the input of the
inverter will be 9816 0.97 , it will be 9521 Wh, because this one already we have calculated.
So if we draw it, we have this PV panel and then this is the cable maybe, this is the cable, this
cable loss is 3 percent. So here before entry, so this will be inverter, next we need to know
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about inverter what will be the efficiency of the inverter. So up to here what we have
calculated is this much of energy.
Now, this DC energy delivered to the input of the inverter will be further reduced by the
power loss in the inverter. So if we consider the inverter efficiency is 96 percent then the AC
energy delivered from the output of the inverter will be 9521 multiply by 0.96 because now
we will draw this inverter here, inverter, so input is known then output you need to calculate.
So inverter efficiency is known to us what is given as 0.96 is equal to output, power output by
power input to the inverter. So this power output you need to calculate that means Pout is
nothing but  i which is nothing but 0.96  Pinput . So Pinput is 9521. So this is 0.96  9521 . So,
once you do the calculation what we will get is 9140 is the value which is delivered by the
inverter.
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Now, this AC system losses. So once this inverter is over then we need to transmit, so we
need to consider this cable, cable length. So it is proportional to the length. So length is very
long means losses will be more. So this AC energy output of the inverter will be further
reduced by the power loss in the AC cable connecting the inverter to the grid, say a
switchboard where it is connected.
So if we continue with the same exercise, so assuming the cable loss for the AC cable, 1
percent, so AC cable loss is 1 percent. Then the AC energy from the inverter that will be
delivered to the grid will be 9140 0.99 . So this is the grid. This is the grid, this is the
inverter. So in between this efficiency 1 percent, so energy which will be given to the grid the
here at this point, not this here, at this point. So this will be 9048 Wh.
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Now, we will calculate what is specific energy yield. This specific energy yield is expressed
E sys
in kWh per kWp and is calculated as follows. So this SY  SY is nothing but E
Parray STC
system this is yearly, since I have written here, so this was not included and Parray under
standard test condition. So in the same problem if we continue, an array of 16 modules is
which has STC rating of 160 Wp.
Therefore, Parray STC will be 2560 Wp. So this will be something like 160 multiplied by 16. So
this will be 2560 Wp. So the average daily AC energy that was delivered by array to the grid
was 9048 Wh, that is 9.05 kWh. So over a typical year of 365 days, then the energy yield of
the solar array will be 365 days multiplied by 9.05, So it will be 3303 kWh/year. Therefore,
the specific energy yield will be 1.290 kWh/kWp. So this specific energy is very, very
important. So in this problem what we got is 1.290 kWh/kWp.
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Now, let us calculate the ideal energy, that is the PV array ideal energy yield. Which can be
determined by using this expression. So Parray STC is known to us because we know the rating
and than Htilt. What is Htilt, it is the yearly average daily irradiation. So that is average
irradiation data and which is normally represented by kWh/m2 for a specified tilt angle.
And already we know Parray STC is a rated output power of the array under standard test
condition. So in this problem, if we consider PSH, peak sun hour, is 5 hours therefore, the
yearly irradiation would be 5 365 5 which is nothing but 1825 kWh/m2 that means 1825
peaks sun hour. So Parray will be 2560 Wp at 1 kWh/m2. So we can calculate now what will be
the ideal energy from the array per year.
So this will be something like 2.56 kW multiplied by 1825, it will be 4672 kWh, because
what we have done, this is watt peak, so kilo will be 2.560, so that will be kilowatt. And then
1825 is known to us, that way you can calculate the ideal energy from the array per year,
which will be equal to 4672 kWh in this exercise.
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Now, we are very much interested about the performance ratio, this is one of the critical
parameter of a grid connected PV system. Once we can calculate this performance ratio, from
that we can confirm that the amount of losses are taking place in the design PV system. This
performance ratio is used to assess the installation quality. The performance ratio provides a
normalized basis, so comparison of different types and sizes of PV systems can be
undertaken.
And this performance ratio is a reflection of system losses which can be calculated by PR is
Esys, of course it will be yearly, since I have written yearly, so this Y we have not included
here. Of course, when we not define of course, we will write Esys yearly then Eideal yearly. So
this is nothing but performance ratio. So this E system actual yearly energy yield from the
system which is nothing but 3303 kWh/year, already we have calculated.
And Eideal is the ideal energy output of the array. So this is equal to 4672 kWh/year which has
E system
already been calculated. Therefore, the performance ratio will be which is nothing but
Eideal
0.71. What does it mean? The system losses will be 29 percent that is 1 minus 0.71 is 0.29.
So what we can conclude here, by knowing this performance ratio, we can estimate the kind
of losses taking place in the entire plant. This is not individual, so this will tell you the entire
losses taking place in the plant. So this is one of the very important parameters for a grid
connected PV system performance analysis.
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Now, we will calculate average system efficiency and capacity utilization factor. So how we
can calculate average system efficiency, this is the expression by which we can calculate this
y
efficiency this E AC , this yearly energy yield in AC side already we have calculated and we
know the area of the panel and GM is the amount of solar radiation received by the panel. So
here this is calculated to be 3303 this is kilowatt hour and this has to be in kilowatt hour.
So how to calculate Atotal, Atotal is something like we will have first consider 0.125 by 0.125 is
the cell area. And then for this kind of module, what we have considered in this case is 72
number of such cells are there and then we will have 16 modules. And it says peak sun hour
is 5 and then solar radiation is 1000. So 1000 W/m2, so in kilo it will be 1 kW/m2. So what I
will write in 1 because here also is in kilowatt, this energy, yearly energy yield in the AC side
is also in kWh.
So this has to be in kWh. So this 16  5 1and how many days, it is 365 days. So it becomes
yearly amount of radiation received by the solar panel. So that is how this is 365 5 1 this is
5 hours. So this is peak sun hour, peak sun hour was 5 in this continued problem and this 1 is
1 kW/m2and then this part is nothing but the area of the panel.
16 number of modules in that panel then 72 cells and then every cell has an area of something
like this. So if we calculate it, then what we get is something like 10.05 percent average
system efficiency. Now come to the capacity utilization factor. So we know this expression,
how to calculate this capacity utilization factor. So this yearly energy yield in the AC side we
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already know and then PV rated power is known to us. And then it is for 24 hours then 365
days.
So if we substitute these values like 3303 kWh and then here is 160 is the rated power watt
peak. So it is in kilo, that is why it is 0.160 and then 16 number of modules, 24 hours, 365
days. So it comes around 14.72 which is the value close to the recommended for India.
Now, let us summarize what we have discussed in the today's class. We have systematically
studied the performance analysis of a grid connected PV system having performance ratio of
0.71. So what does it indicate, it directly indicates the system losses, which is about 29
percent. It is something like 1 minus 0.71 will be 29, it is 0.29, that means, if you multiply by
100 it becomes 29 percent. So this performance ratio is an important parameter to know the
system losses.
We also solved an example to analyze and determine the energy yield, specific yield,
performance ratio, capacity utilization factor and average system efficiency of a grid
connected PV system. And also we understand how the real performance of the plant is
deviating from the theoretical performance. As you can see, that rated power output of the PV
array or module is about 160 watt peak, this is for modules.
And if we consider a single module, this de-rated power output of the module will be, if we
multiply by 0.95 for manufacturer tolerance, 0.95 for dirt and 0.85 for temperature. So it
becomes 122.7 watt. You see the difference, so we have started with 160 watt peak and what
we got is 122.7 watts. So that is how we are getting very reduced amount of power
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generation. So these parameters are very, very essential while designing a grid connected PV
system.
Of course, we need to consider the other losses like cable losses, which includes DC cable
loss, AC cable loss and then inverter efficiencies and other factors like MPPTs and other
components which is important for a grid connected PV system. Hope you have understand
the aspects of analysis of a grid connected PV system. So thank you very much for watching
this video. Thank you.
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Centre of Energy
Lecture 18
Fundamentals of Flat Plate Collectors
Dear students, today we will discuss about the fundamentals of flat plate collectors. So, what
is solar collector?
The solar collector is a device to collect solar energy, and transform it into thermal energy, by
using heat transfer fluid like water, air or ethylene glycol. So, when the ambient temperature
goes below 0 degrees C then we have to think of some other material, like water with
ethylene glycol, in order to make it operative. The solar thermal system provides thermal
energy for various processes.
For example, if we consider cold climates, the low grade thermal energy is required to heat
air for comfort, hot water for washing, cleaning and other domestic and industrial needs. And
even in high temperature heating applications, a significant amount of fuel can be saved by
using solar collector for pre heating. Of course, it has got plenty of applications like drying
and any other agricultural field. So, how these solar collectors can be classified?
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Majorly there are 2 categories, first is non concentrating type and second one is concentrating
type. So, flat plate collectors that may be liquid flat plate collectors or maybe air flat plate
collector this will be under non concentrating type. So, under concentrating type we will have
2 classes, focused type and non focused type. Then, in under focused type, we will have again
2 more classes, line focused that is single tracking and point focus systems prior 2 axis
tracking is mandatory.
So, examples of line focus systems are, cylindrical parabolic concentrator, fixed mirror solar
concentrator, then linear Fresnel collector. And under point focus systems we will have
parabolic disc collector, then hemispherical bowl mirror concentrator, then circular Fresnel
lens concentrator and central power tower or central tower receiver system. And under the
class of non focusing systems we have 2 categories then modified flat plate collector and
compound parabolic concentrating type collectors.
So, this is how solar collectors are classified. We will learn with time the difference between
these two and then which one is important and what condition, what type of collectors can be
utilize for harvesting thermal energy.
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Now, if we briefly compare between concentrating type and non concentrating type
collectors, then what are the differences. So, under concentrating type collectors, this solar
radiation is converged from a large area into small area using optical means. So, this will be
something like, we will have this large area and absorber will be here, solar radiation will fall
here and it will reflect here. So, this part is absorber, and this will reflect, a reflector.
So, solar radiation first strike on this reflector and this goes back to this absorber. So,
concentrated solar radiations are used here. So, beam radiation which has got unique
direction and travels in a straight line, can be converted by reflection or refraction techniques.
So, in case of concentrating collectors only beam radiations are applied. So, diffused
traditions cannot be applied because it has know defined direction or I should say it will come
from different directions and intensity is lower.
So, this diffused radiation has no unique direction and so does not obey optical principles. So,
these diffused components cannot be concentrated, that we should keep in mind in case of
concentrating collector. Also these concentrating collectors make use of beam radiation
component and little diffuse components coming directly over the absorber. So, there are
some radiation which comes from Sun and it strikes on the absorber.
So, these components are used, but know amount of contribution for heating effect for this
diffused radiation is very very less. The primary advantage of this concentrating collector is
high temperature can be attained due to concentration of radiation, which yields high
temperature thermal energy. And in case of non concentrating collectors, both beam as well
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as diffusion radiations are utilized. So, here this is one advantage. So, both the components
can be applied for generation of thermal energy.
So, if we talk about flat plate collectors, a flat plate collector is simple in construction and
does not require tracking. So, which is under non concentrating type. So it can properly
secured on a rigid platform and thus becomes mechanically stronger than those requiring
flexibility for tracking purposes that is obvious now. These collectors are installed outside or
outdoor applications and these are exposed to atmospheric disturbances like rain, storms and
any other kind of disturbances. So mechanically there has to be stronger.
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Now, there are 3 primary performance indices in case of flat plate collectors. These are
collector efficiency, concentration ratio and temperature range. So, what is collector
efficiency? It is defined as the ratio of energy actually absorbed and transferred to the heat
transfer fluid, by the collector. So, this is nothing but useful energy to the energy incident on
the collector.
So, that means, so we have this absorber, so we learn the different components so we will
have glass, then we will have a absorber, then some tubes will be there. So, the heat transfer
fluid will flow through these tubes. So, as you can understand by, analyzing this collector
efficiency how we can define it is the energy actually absorbed and transferred to the heat
transfer fluid by the collector.
So, here how much energy is transferred to the amount of radiation which is falling on the
collector, maybe I if we have A and this may be qu is the useful energy. So, this will be
qu
something like,   . So, this is how this efficiency can be defined. And then, next
IA
important parameter is concentration ratio which is defined as the ratio of the area of the
aperture of the system to the area of the receiver.
The aperture area of the system is the projected area of the collector facing the beam. So, this
is something like, this is the aperture area and this is the absorber. So, this area A and this
small so A/a is something called concentration ratio. So, for example, this concentration ratio
for a flat plate collector is 1 because, this area for a flat plate collector. So amount of energy
received here, so same amount of energy flows through to this part.
So, this area is fixed. So, because of that we will have concentration ratio for FPC is 1. And
since, more area is exposed, so losses will be more because of that we cannot get a
temperature more than 100 °C. This concentration ratio for line forecast system may go up
100, and its temperature varies from 150 to 400 °C, so that lots of heat can be generated by
making this kind of collector.
And then if we are interested for very high temperature application , then concentration ratio
should be very, very high, it is in the order of thousand. So, we can go up to temperature of
1000 °C. So, we will study these more extensively when we study concentrating collectors.
And the third category of performance indices is, temperature range. So this range of
temporary to which the heat transport fluid is heated up by the collector.
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So, this temperature range is also important and by knowing this temperature range we can
classify what kind of collector is required to get that particular temperature. So, these indices
are important to characterize a collector.
Now come to the construction of a flat plate collector. So, as far as construction of a flat plate
collector is concerned, it has got 4 primary components, that is the absorber plate, then tubes
fixed to that absorber plate, transparent cover, then collector box. Let us have a look on the
sectional view of the flat plate collector. So, this is the outer side and here the top side will
have glass cover.
So, here two glass covers are shown here, this is the glass cover 1 and this is the glass cover 2
and this is the absorber plate and you can see the tubes, these are tubes. So, here what
happens, same sheet is used and then extruded. So, material of construction is same for both,
tube and sheet. So, this is an absorber plate and these are the tube through which heat transfer
fluid flows. And we have to provide sufficient insulation to reduce the heat losses. And
finally, we need to provide a casing to hold the entire structure. So, this is all about the
construction part and here it shows the collector characteristic curve.
In the vertical axis it shows useful power collected or energy collected and here in the
horizontal axis shows temperature of plates above ambient. So, this P is for plate temperature,
or absorber plate temperature and Ta is the ambient temperature, this temperature difference
once you know and we know the other characteristics then we can plot these curve for a flat
plate collector.
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So, what does it mean? So, amount of energy what is falling on the glass is not received by
the absorber plate. So, some losses will be there. So, what are losses? These are the losses,
because of the losses, so all the energy what is received by the glass cover cannot be
converted to useful energy. And there are some losses with this glass and other factors.
So, we will discuss all those issues step by step and what will be the material, what will be
the transmissivity, what will be the reflectivity, all those information are required to
characterize completely this kind of flat plate collector. So, finally, what happens this
collector’s useful energy will be something like this, this part is the useful energy. Since solar
radiation is varying, so this component will vary. So, finally we can have this kind of plot.
So, advantages already we have discussed so it utilizes both beam and diffused component of
the solar radiation and little maintenance due to simple stationary design. No moving parts,
no mechanical components, so it is a very good structure. But primary disadvantages are
something like collection efficiency is generally low and this is due to absence of optical
concentration and this area from which heat loss is very very large. Because of that we cannot
have high temperature application from this FPC collector.
Now, let us have a look about the components. So, primary component is absorber plate then
tube, then we need header. So, in this figure this is an absorber plate and these are the tubes
through which heat transfer fluid flows and these are soldered here, in this tube. There are
different configurations, sometimes we can have this kind of configurations, then we can get
this kind configurations and there are different kinds of configurations are available.
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There are many manufacturers for this kind of flat plate collectors. So, this is the absorber
plate which is a primary component of a flat plate collector and we will have these tubes and
these are the glass covers. There may be more than one glass covers and the direct radiation
shows in the straight arrows and this is the broken arrows, this is for diffused radiation. And
we have to provide sufficient insulation to reduce the heat losses.
This is the sectional view of a flat plate collector to show the glass cover, then absorber sheet,
then tubes and this figure shows the tubes and headers. So, usually this absorber plate is made
from a thin metal sheet, normally copper is used and thickness varies from 0.2 to 0.7
millimeter and these tubes are also made of metals and its diameter varies from 1 to 1.5
centimeter.
And tubes are soldered or brazed or pressure bonded to the bottom of the absorber plate.
Sometimes it is also seen the tubes are attached at the top of the absorber plate this kind of
configurations are also available. So, these headers, header pipes which leave the liquid in
and out of the collector and distribute it to the tubes are also made of copper and have slightly
larger diameter, its diameter varies from 2 to 2.5, so these 2 are the headers.
So, cold fluid enters here and then it distributes through these tubes and then hot fluids are
collected here and that can be stored and this can be utilized based on that requirement. So,
these are the headers, so these tube diameters are slightly larger than these tube diameters.
So, what is the role of absorber plate? So, primary role is to absorb the maximum possible
solar radiation incident on it through the glazing. So, how this can be maximized? That is the
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first role of an absorber plate and then to minimize the heat losses from the absorber to the
atmosphere from the top, bottom and sides of the FPC.
So, when we are talking about these, then solar radiation falls here and some losses will be
there, then some amount of energy will be received in the absorber plate, this may be the
absorber. Then what happens some radiation then goes back, so re-radiation will be there. So,
these losses is normally high, this is re-radiation part which is taking place from that top of
the flat plate collector.
And conduction and convection losses will be there from the sides and the bottom. So, from
here conduction qc and then convection qconv, these losses will be there and this is qr, re-
radiation losses. Since these losses are really very very high. So, we need to do something to
reduce those losses so that we can maximize that collector efficiency. And also the third role
is to transfer maximum heat to the fluid. So, these are the primary roles of an absorber plate.
Now, let us see about cover system. The cover should be made of a material which is highly
transparent to the incoming solar radiation and at the same time opaque to the long
wavelength re-radiation emitted by that absorb plate. So, what I say, so this is the glass cover
and then we will have this absorber plate. So, when it strikes, then some of the radiation goes
back. So, this cover system has to be designed in such a way that this radiation know should
be minimized.
And normally, for this cover system toughened glass of 4 to 5 mm thickness is used. Of
course, nowadays plastic transparent sheets are also available, which are used in many of the
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developed countries because of its low cost and lightweight, but only to see the origin of the
plastic, it is originated from fossil fuel. So, it will contribute to greenhouse gas emission. So,
that way we need to think the kind of material to be used for a particular application.
This glass is able to withstand thermal shock as well as the impact on objects which may fall
on the collector face. Normally a gap of 1.5 to 3 centimeters is maintained between the cover
and the absorber plate so this distance is something like 1.5 to 3 centimeter is maintained
between this cover and then absorber system.
And also we need to think the kind of insulations to be used to reduce the heat losses in the
collector system. So, bottom and sides are usually insulated by mineral wool or rock wool or
glass wool, with a covering of aluminum foil. So, this thickness is about 2.5 to 8 centimeters,
that thick insulation need to be provided to reduce the heat losses. And then the whole
assembly is contained within a box which is tilted at a suitable angle.
So, that angle has to be fixed based on the location. The collector box is usually made of
aluminum with a epoxy coating on the outside for protection. So, this kind of epoxy coating
is also required. The face area of the collector are around 2 meter square with length. So, this
is something like, this is maybe 2 and this may be 1 width is smaller than length. So, this
configuration 2 meter by 1 meter will be 2 meters meter square. So, this is a standard
collector which is available in the market.
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How to position a flat plate collector? So, as we know this is North, South, East and West and
we have to install the flat plate collectors towards facing South or due South. So, that we can
get maximum exposure to the solar radiation. So, this is the collector and we need some kind
of frame to hold the structure, and we need to do some kind of civil work here to install and
then we can collect the hot water from the storage bin here.
So, that can be piped and that can be utilized in day to day application. So, installation is
made something like this and it has to be maintain some kind of tilt, in order to maximize
solar radiation exposure.
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So, what are the different type of absorber plates available in the market? So, how these can
be classified? So, these are classified based on extent of wetted area relative to the absorbing
surface area. So, first configuration is the pipe and fin type, second one is water sandwich
type and third one is semi water sandwich type. So, in case of pin and fin type, liquid flows
only in the pipes, as you can see these are the pipes through which, this heat transfer fluid
flows, there is no contact with the absorber plate.
And this is comparatively low wetted area and liquid capacity. And applications in domestic
and industrial use, because high temperature can be generated by using this configuration and
this can be used both in domestic and industrial applications. In case of rectangular or
cylindrical full sandwich, both the wetted area and water capacity are high. And it can be
applied in warming of swimming pools because it can generate low temperature fluid.
And final configuration is a roll bond or semi-sandwich type and this category is intermediate
between pin and fin type and rectangular sandwich type and temperatures are also in between
these 2 configurations. So, these are different the configurations are available in the market.
So, based on the application we can select which one is appropriate for the particular
application.
Now, come to the performance analysis of a flat plate collector. So, while analyzing the
performance, we must pay attention to the energy balance on the absorber plate under a
steady state condition. So, if we are interested to develop this energy balance on the absorber
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plate under a steady state condition, so we will get something like this. qu  Ap S  ql . What is
qu, it is the useful heat gain. This is nothing but the rate of heat transfer to the working fluid.
So, we are interested about this qu only. So, how to maximize this qu. So, if we minimize
these ql, then we can maximize. And if we can maximize this S, then we can know maximize
this qu. So, we will learn how this ql can be calculated and how we can minimize these ql
losses and how this S can be maximized to get more useful heat gain. So, what is S? Is the
incident solar flux absorbed in the absorber plate.
So, we have a glass cover and absorber plate, so we are talking about S. So, when solar
radiation is coming from the sun, so we will say It, the amount of solar radiation received by
the glass cover is different than the amount of solar radiation received by the absorber plate.
So It is different than S, we need to maximize the S and AP is the area of the absorber plate,
this is the area of the absorber plate. So, this will be something like this.
So, this will be something like this. So, this kind of system it will be, so this is the area the
absorber not the collector or just the inside of absorber plate. So, when we talk about
collector, so this will be AC it includes those glass cover. So, normally this AC is about 1.2
times AP. So, this AC is actually 1.2 times of AP. So, normally it is specified and ql is the rate
at which heat is lost by convection and re-radiation from the top surface and by conduction
and convection from the bottom sides.
So, this need to be critically analyzed to reduce the heat losses. So, if we are interested about
the flux incident on the top cover of the collector, then how to calculate it. So, this It already
we have done the derivation of this expression in the earlier classes. So, this
IT  I b rb  I d rd  I b  I d rr . So, this is known to us and this gives this It the amount of
radiation which is falling on the collector.
So, now we are interested about the flux absorbed in the absorber plate. So, for S, now it is
for S. So, if we are interested for S then what we need to do we need to multiply this
expression with   for beam radiation then   for diffused radiation. As we know these
flat plate collectors utilizes both direct component as well as diffused component of the
radiation.
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So, both the things we need to consider here. So, this  b is the transmissivity absorptivity
product for beam radiation falling on the collector and  d is a transmissivity absorptivity
product for diffused radiation falling on the collector.
So, in order to calculate S we need to understand what is  and what is  for beam and
diffused radiation. So, we must know this then only you can calculate S and then we can
calculate qu of course, we need to know what is ql. Let us learn how to calculate this  b
and  d .
Now, this transmissivity of the cover system. So, we are talking about this cover system only.
Suppose to glass covers are here, so glass cover 1 glass cover 2. So, we need to see how these
radiations are behaving and what will be the transmissivity of the cover system. So, without
knowing this transmissivity we cannot calculate this S or amount of flux received by the
absorber plate. So, this  is a function of  r and  a . What is  r ?
So, this is transmissivity obtained by considering only reflection and refraction. So, we need
to rely on Snell's law and this  a is transmissivity obtained by considering only absorption.
So, in order to find out this  , then we need to use Bouguer's law. So, when we are interested
for transmissivity based on reflection and refraction, we will use Snell's law and when we are
interested for transmissivity based on absorption, then we will use Bouguer's law.
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And these Laws are applied for both diffused and normal radiation. So, at what condition we
can consider the  value for diffused radiation? Once you know the  value for normal
radiation at different incidence angle.
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Now, let us learn what is Snell's law. So, if you consider a beam of light that is striking on the
interface. So, this may be 1 medium and this may be other medium maybe this is air or this
may be glass for our case. So, this beam strikes on this interface at an angle 1 , this is angle
of incidence and this direction of the reflected beam can be demonstrated by this 1 which is
angle of reflection.
So,  2 is the angle of refraction because of these refractive indices. So, this direction of the
incident and the refracted beams are related to each other by Snell's law. How can you define
sin 1
the Snell's law? sin 1 , this is is equal to n2 if we consider the refractive index of this
sin  2
n2
medium is n2 and this is for 1, n1 for this medium then , this relationship gives if we know
n1
this n2 and n1 and 1 of course we can calculate what is angle of refraction.
And this beam has got reduced intensity, this Ir, because this Ibn strikes and then some amount
of radiation goes into the other medium and then it is reflected. So, this reflectivity that is  ,
Ir
this Ir if we consider this is an Ir and this is Ibn. So this that fraction of energy which is
I bn
reflected is related to that angle of incidence and reflection by the following equations. So,
this  
1
 I   II  , that is average of I and  II .
2
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What is  I and  II ? These are the reflectivities of 2 components of polarization. So,
sin 2  2  1 
mathematically this can be expressed something like this,  I  ,  2 is the angle
sin 2  2  1 
of refraction 1 is the angle of reflection. And for this second component we will have
tan 2  2  1 
 II  .
tan 2  2  1 
So, this are the reflectivities of 2 components of polarization. So, if you are interested to
know about the polarization please refer some standard books to know how polarization
happens. For a special case, if 1 is 0 if this beam of light is incident normally and 1 is 0
2
n  n 
then under the condition what will be the  ?    I   II   1 2  this is the expression.
 n1  n2 
And similar analysis can be carried out for transmissivity,  r which is nothing but average of
 rI plus  rII . What is  rI  rII ? They are transmissivity of 2 components of polarization. So,
this information is very very important while calculating  first we must know  r then  a
then finally we will calculate what is  .
Now in continuation, the considering one component of polarization of a beam incident on a

single cover. So, here only single cover is used. So, this as the whole this is a glass. So, there
are 2 interfaces, interface 1 and interface 2 and there are multiple reflections will takes place.
So, if we consider a beam of light, when it strikes on the interface 1 it is reflected, some
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amount of radiation goes to the atmosphere and then some amount will travel through this
glass cover.
And when it strikes this know interface 2, some component of radiation will again reflected
and then some component goes back to that atmosphere and some components will be
transferred to the absorber, so the absorber will be here. So, this will continue infinitely. So,
if we add these components, amount of transmitted energy, which is going to strike on the
absorber, we can add all those components and we can sum it in what will give this
expression we will get.
1 I
. Similarly, we can do it for the other component of polarization, it will be something
1 I
1   II
like this . So, this is a case for single cover this is a glass cover interface 1, interface 2
1   II
and these many things are happening inside this glass cover. If there are more number of
glasses, then situation will be different. So, under condition we need to use these 2
expressions, for  rI and  rII .
So, what difference is? That is M is the number of cover, so number of cover system maybe 2
cover normally 2 covers are optimum if selected coatings are not applied. We will discuss
what is selective coating, what is the importance of selective coating. If we apply selective
coating on this absorber plate, there is 1 glass cover is enough to harvest sufficient amount of
energy.
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So, now, come to the transmissivity based on absorption. So, this is obtained by assuming
that attenuation due to absorption is proportional to local intensity. So, which law tells us
about this, it is a Bouguer's law. So, this is something like dI  KIdx . If we consider this
configuration where normal radiation is falling perpendicular to this plate, then what
happens?
That we will discuss all of course, we will discuss when no solar radiation falls at certain
angles, then what happens to this configuration. So, both the case we will study one by one.
So, what is K, K is the constant of proportionality and also call extinction coefficient which is
independent of wavelength. And if you consider this cover system and thickness of the cover,
if we consider  C , and if we take a small section here in between this cover system having K
now thickness is dx and I, the amount of radiation, what is striking on this side and other side
is I plus dI.
dI
So, if we rearrange these values, like for our own purpose, minus Kdx and if we
I
integrate from Ibn to Il. So, what we will get? we will get this kind of expression. And finally,
Il
we will get this and then we will have   a  e  K C , .So, this extinction coefficient is
I bn
property of the cover material, but it is independent of the wavelength. And its value varies
from 4 to 25 for glass.
So, lower value is always desirable for this kind of applications because it will give more
transmitting range. So, here what happens, this is the incident beam intensity and Il is the
intensity of outgoing radiation. So, we can relate these 2 and we can find out what will be the
tau a, that means transmissivity based on absorption, when the beam radiation is falling
normally.
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So, if the beam radiation is falling at certain angles, then what will happen to the expression
of transmissivity due to absorption. So, our exercise goes something like this, when the solar
beam is incident at an angle of 1 . So, this is the angle of incidence 1 with the normal to the
horizontal surface and the path, travel through the cover v. So, this is  2 , is the angle of
reflection. So, this thickness is  C , already we know and this is the length if we point this as
A and this point may be B.
So, what can make A B this is cos of if this is  2 , this is also  2 , AB cos 2   C . So,
C dI
AB  . So, we use that same equation   Kdx and we integrate both the sides. Now
cos 2 I
distance will be 0 to  C by cos 2 . So, if we do the integration, so we will get something like
dI
this and is ln I from Ibn.
I
So this is from Ibn this is Il. So integrating is from Ibn to Il and then minus Kx, because
 C
integration of dx, x it will vary from 0 to and if we substitute their then we will get
cos 2
Il   C 
this kind of equation. And if we are just to know about  exp  ,
I bn  cos 2 
So, this type of equation is nothing but representing the transmissivity due to absorption
when this beam radiation is falling at certain angles, with the normal to the horizontal
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Il   C 
surface. So, this expression will be something like   a which is nothing but exp  .
I bn  cos 2 
So, once we know this we can also calculate  , then  and then we can calculate the
transmissivity of the cover system.
So, this is r and this is  .
So, how this solar radiation propagates through glass window? So, if we consider this is a
glass window and solar radiation is coming from the sun and it passes through this glass
cover and then what happens inside this collector. This is an absorber, this is long wave
radiation will come out once it strikes and this is a absorber, it is a blackened surface
normally, it absorbs the radiation.
So, what happens, this phenomena is presented here this is the energy which is coming from
the sun striking on the glass cover and then it goes inside the flat plate collector and then long
wave radiation emitted by the absorber and then it goes out, some of the radiation from the
glass cover. So, that is how it shows how the solar radiation propagates through glass
window.
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Now, this transmissivity for diffused radiation. So, what we have discussed so far it was
transmissivity for normal radiation. So, this diffused radiation is equivalent to beam radiation
coming at an angle of 60 degree. If this angle, so this is a system and if this angle is 60
degree, so then what we can consider, so it is a value for diffused radiation. This angle is
arrived at by considering the variation of transmissivity and assuming that the amount of
diffused radiation coming from all the directions is same.
So, under that condition we can do this, because it is very difficult to predict because it has no
direct direction. So it is anisotropic. So, we can also plot this variation of  r a and  for this
example. Maybe we can take glass, then number of covers then thickness of each cover, then
reflective index of glass leading to air to here is 1.5 to extinction coefficient is 15.
So, we can develop this plot by varying the angle of incidence. So, we can use the equations
what we have discussed and we can generate this kind of plot for tau, tau r and tau a. So, at
this 60, so once we got this value here, so the radiations which is coming at an angle of 60
can be considered now radiation value for diffused radiation. So, let us do one exercise to
strengthen our understanding how to calculate this tau.
So, in order to calculate this  , we need to know what is  r and  a and those are
components.
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So, taking the same problems and taking the angle of incidence 30 degree. So, let us now
calculate what is  I . So, already we know what is sin 2  2  1  , and then sin 2  2  1  and
tan 2  2  1 
 II  . And also we know that  rI and  rII .
tan 2  2  1 
1 I 1   II
So, what is  rI and  rII ?  rI   rII  . Before that we must
1  2M  1 I 1  2M  1 II
know what is  2 , so 1 is known to us, 1 is 30 degree and in order to calculate  2 already

sin 1 n2
we know  by using Snell's law. And from there we can calculate what is sin  2 will
sin  2 n1
n1
be , then this will be sin 1 .
n2
So, if we substitute these values, so this is 1, this value is 1.52 and then we will have sin30.
So, this will give,  2 is something like sine inverse of this value once is calculated. So, this
value, this will give a value of 19.20 degree. So,  2 will be 19.20. So, now, if we substitute
this value here  2 and 1 , 1 is known as 30 and then  2 we have calculated is 19.20. So, this
value, once you calculate this will be 0.613 and this value is 0.0634.
So, once we utilize this here, so in this expression 1   I is 0.613, divided by 1 plus how many
covers, 2 covers are there, so 2 into 2 minus 1 into 0.613. Similarly, we will have the value
for  rII . So, this is 1 minus 0.0634, I think this is somewhat wrong, these values I think
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0.0613. And now this is 1  22  10.0634 . So, this value I can write here this value is 0.786,
69 I can write to be precise. And here it is 0.7928, so this is for  rI this is for  rII .
So, once we know  rI and  rII then we can calculate what is  r which is nothing but average
of  rI   rII . So, on substitution what we get,  r value will be 0.7898. And now we need to
calculate  a , we know the expression  a  e  KM C / cos 2 . We have delta m is number of glass
cover and then we have cos 2 .
So, this extinction coefficient is given as 15 and number of cover is 2 and then this  c is
4 mm 103 if we have to convert it to meter. Then we will have cos 2 we already have
calculated, it is 19 point, 19.20. So, this will give a value of 0.8807. So, this is tau a and this
component was tau r. Now, immediately you can calculate what is tau. This  is nothing but
 r multiplied by  a .
So, if we multiply both these terms what you will get is the transmissivity of the cover
system. So, this is something like 0.695. So, we should not confuse about this M, M is the
number of covers. So, in this case it is 2, that is why it is multiplied by 2 and it was given  c
was 4 mm so that is why it is 4  10 3 meter. So, on substitution what we get this  a and
finally, what we have calculated is  , its value is 0.695. It is transmissivity of the cover
system.
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Now, let us also learn about transmissivity absorptivity product. So, which defines the ratio
of flux absorbed in the absorber plate to the flux incident on the cover system. So, if we
consider a beam of light and it transmitted through this cover system and maybe this  what
we have calculated now, this  will introduce here and it will strike on the absorber plate.
Once it strikes on the absorber plate what happens it is reflected some component will be
absorbed here.
So, this  will come here, some absorptivity will be there. So, what happens we need to
maximize this  . How to maximize it? That we will discuss like we need to apply some kind
of coatings here, so that we can maximize the absorptivity. And when it travel through this
line again it will move out from the cover system some losses will be there and from there
beginning it will be reflected back to the absorber, then it will absorb some component and
again it will reflect some component and it will goes off from the cover system and from that
again it will come and it will continues infinitely, it will continues infinitely.
So, if we sum these values then what we will get, that much off energy will be absorbed in
that absorber plate. So, that net fraction absorbed will be something like this. So, this
component is common. So, we can take common from all the expression and we can now
make this kind of summation. So, what is a  d here? So, this is a diffused reflectivity. So,
that has to be calculated.
So, normally what happened? This diffused reflectivity of the cover system is considered to
be 0.21 if 2 glass cover systems are used. And 0.15 for single cover system if it is used in
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operation. And this  d can be found by determining the value of  a 1   r  for the cover
system for an incidence angle of 60 degree. So, this is the procedure by which you can
calculate what is  d .
So, once we know this  d then we can substitute here and these values are known this has
already been calculated this is the property of the material, what is used as the absorber plate
and when some kind of coatings are applied, so we must know what is the absorptivity of the
coating or selective coating. And this is known, so we can calculate what is the net fraction of
radiation absorbed in the absorber plate. So, this is how we can calculate and this we need to
understand very carefully, then only we can feel how a flat plate collector can be designed
and what is the complexity in designing a flat plate collector.
Now, we must know two important parameters, one is instantaneous collection efficiency and
other one is stagnation temperature, they are related. So, how do you define instantaneous
efficiency? It is useful heat gain as I have discussed this issue in the earlier slides. Useful heat
qu
gain to the radiation incident on the collector which is nothing but . So, here we have
Ac I T
used AC as I said this collector area is 15 to 20 percent more than AP.
That is how it is more and this is the absorber area. So, sometimes we need to define this in
terms of AC and sometimes you can define in terms of AP. If for example, this collector were
not collecting any heat from this FPC. No heat is collected means no useful heat, but solar
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radiation is falling. So, if no heat is collected, but solar radiation is falling on the flat plate
collector then what will happen, this qu we will be 0.
So, under the condition what will happen instantaneous efficiency will be 0, but already you
know this qu  Ap S  ql . So, if this part is, this is the energy balance equation, already we
know on the absorber plate when we write the energy balance equation. So, this part is 0
means APS is equal to ql. So, that is how if qu is 0 efficiency is 0 in this case absorber plate
attains a temperature, such as that APS is equal to ql.
So, the amount of energy what is received in the absorber plate is equal to the loss, no energy
is utilized. So, this temperature is the highest that the absorber plate can attain and is
sometimes referred to as stagnation temperature that is the maximum temperature attained by
a flat plate collector. So, what is the significance of this stagnation temperature. So, this is an
useful indicator for comparing different collector designs.
So, once we know the stagnation temperature for a particular flat plate collector, we can
know compare the performance with the others. Also, this is helpful in choosing proper
material for construction of collector. So, this stagnation temperature plays a key role in
comparing the flat plate collector as well as selecting the right material for right collectors.
So, this 2 parameters are very very important as far as performance analysis of a flat plate
collector is concerned. So, now, let us summarize what we have discussed in this class.
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So, initially we have classified the different collectors and we have learned the different
components of a flat plate collectors and the kind of heat transfer fluid normally used for this
kind of collectors. So, heat transfer fluid like water, mixture of water and ethylene glycols are
also used when the temperature of the surrounding goes below 0 °C and the primary
component of a flat plate collector are absorber plate, then tube, header pipe, cover,
insulation, then collector box which is tilted at a suitable angle.
So, these are the primary components and how these can be installed for harvesting solar
energy. And also we have studied the performance analysis of a flat plate collector and we
have studied transmissivity estimation based on reflection-refraction and absorption and also
we have studied the significance of transmissivity and absorptivity product and finally, we
have discussed the importance and significance of instantaneous efficiency and stagnation
temperature. Hope you have enjoyed this video. So thank you very much for watching this
video.
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Centre for Energy
Lecture No. 19
Basics of heat transfer
Dear students, today we will be discussing about Fundamentals of heat transfer, which is
required for design of solar collectors.
So, heat is a form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of
temperature difference. The thermodynamic analyzes is concerned with the amount of heat
that is transferred as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another. The
science that deals with the determination of the rate of source energy transfer is known as a
heat transfer. The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher temperature, medium
to the lower temperature medium, and heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the
same temperature.
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So, what are the different modes of heat transfer? There are 3 categories of heat transfer;
conduction, convection and radiation. So, we take help of Fourier law of heat conduction to
understand the conductive heat transfer and we take help of Newton's law of cooling to
understand the convection or convective heat transfer. So, there are 2 categories of
convective heat transfer, one is natural convection or free convection and other one is forced
convection. And when we are interested about radiation, so we must take help of Stefan
Boltzmann law. So, all the 3 modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature
difference. So, if temperature difference is there then only heat transfer will take place.
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So, now, let us discuss about conduction. The conduction heat transfer is the transfer of heat
between 2 bodies or 2 parts of the same body through molecular exchange which are more or
less stationary. The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the
temperature difference. So, temperature difference so, if we take this layers, this one and this
one and the heat is transferring from T1 to T2 in this block so this temperature difference
across the layer and the heat transfer area so this is the heat transfer area through which heat
is conducted, but is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.
So, that means this rate of heat transfer is proportional to area through which heat is
conducted, then temperature difference between this layer. So, this interface is having a
temperature 1 and this interface is having a temperature 2 and then there will be gradient
because T1 is greater than T2. So, now as you understand we are most interested about the
T1  T2
rate of heat transfer. So, this the rate of heat transfer Q  kA .
x
T1  T2
So,  kA . If x tends to 0 we can modify these expressions something like this. So, why
x
it is negative sign, because heat always flows from high temperature to the lower
temperature. And then this gradient is always negative because of that we will have negative
sign here. So, here k is the proportionality constant called thermal conductivity.
So, what is thermal conductivity? Thermal conductivity is defined as the rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference. This
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thermal conductivity of the material is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct
heat. A high value of thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good heat conductor
and a low value indicates that the material is a poor heat conductor or insulator. So, from here
we can see at what condition we can say one material is insulator and one material is called
conductor.
And in more deeper sense, we can go back to the equations and we can see how these are
dT Q
related. So, this  by using this Fourier law of heat conduction. If we consider for a
dx k
dT
same q or a same heat transfer, if k is low then what will happen? This will be large and
dx
this is valid for insulators. So, that means large temperature difference across the wall will be
there. So, if we take a wall here, so this temperature will be very high, this large temperature
dT
difference. And for the same q if k is high then will be small so if k is high this will be
dx
small so this is valid for conductor. So, because of that small temperature difference exists
across the wall.
So, this is very, very important which can give an idea about the difference between
conductor and insulator. And this table shows the comparison of different material
conductivity. So, Diamond will have 2300, silver 429, and mostly we will be using glass here
is 0.78, and water you can see 0.607, so that we can see the comparison of thermal
conductivity of different material. So, we need to select sometimes insulator then what will
be the conductivity of insulator? So that we must know and accordingly we have to apply in
our collector design.
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So, this figure shows the variation of thermal conductivity of various solid liquid and gases
with temperature. So, as temperature increases as you can see, some of the materials so, for
example, water it first increases then it decreases with increase in temperature. And for
example, silver with increase in temperature it is decreasing. And this table shows the
comparison of thermal conductivity of 2 different materials copper and aluminum.
So, you see a different temperature how these values are changing. For example, if we
consider a copper at 100 Kelvin, so it is about 482 and if we operate the system at 800
Kelvin, you can see 366. So, for aluminum it is 302 at 100 kelvin and 218 at 800 Kelvin. So,
this variation need to be considered when we are dealing with high temperature application.
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So, one more term we need to define here is a thermal diffusivity which is defined as heat
k
conducted to the heat stored and this is mathematically represented by . So, Cp is
C p
specific heat and C p is the heat capacity, you can see the difference in unit J/kg °C then
J/m3 °C and this thermal diffusivity is represented by m2/s, which represents how fast the heat
diffuse through a material.
A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity will obviously have a
large thermal diffusivity as you can see from this expression, if we have high values of
thermal conductivity and then this value is lower, this C p is the heat capacity, then we will
have higher levels of thermal diffusivity. So, the larger the thermal diffusivity the faster the
propagation of the heat into the medium that we must keep in mind. A small value of thermal
diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a small amount of heat is
conducted further.
So, this parameter is very, very important when selecting a material for thermal collectors.
Suppose for example, for absorbers or maybe the tubes through heat transfer fluid flows. So,
what will be thermal diffusivity? Once you know the conductivity and heat capacity, from
there you can calculate what will be the thermal diffusivity. And this table shows the
comparison of thermal diffusivities of material, so silver you can see 147 106 m2 / s .
And copper and aluminum we can say 113106 , Aluminum is 97.5 106 and for glass it is
0.34 106 . So, because glass we need to know what is the thermal diffusivity and water you
can see 0.14 106 . So, these values are required while designing solar collector.
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So, let us learn about the convection or convective heat transfer. In case of convection the
mode of energy transfer between the solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the
fluid motion the greater the convection heat transfer, in the absence of any bulk fluid motion
the heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction. Let us
learn 3 things here. So, this may be and wall and isothermal condition and we have fluid is at
Tf, then Tw is greater than Tf and these are fluids.
What happens, since this temperature of this wall is more than this fluid then due to this
buoyant effect this fluid will move along this wall, so this way it will move. And if we talk
about forced convection what happens, we need to apply some kind of fan and of course no
this is a wall it is dw and it is Tf, and this fan will make the moment of the fluid. So this
become forced convection; force and this is free. This is due to the buoyancy effect. And if
we as we have learned this Tw and this is at Tf, and then fluid movement will be there.
So, when the temperature difference produces a density difference, which results in a mass
movement, the process is called free or natural convection. So, there is no active units are
required to lift fluid from this downstate to the top of this plate. So, when the mass movement
of the fluid is caused by external devices like pump, compressor, blower or fan the process is
called forced convection. So, we need to apply some kind of active device to lift the fluid
from the ground to the top states.
The heat transfer process that involves sense of phase maybe solid to liquid, of a liquid are
also considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process.
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Such as the rise of vapor bubbles during the boiling or the fall of liquid droplets during the
condensation. So, what I have drawn here is the wall and just immediate vicinity of this wall
there will be a fluid layer, this is a fluid layer. So, before convective heat transfer takes place,
there is a very thin layer exists when this temperature between this wall, temperature of the
wall is moved than Tf. So, here pure conduction will take place then only convective heat
transfer will exist.
So, whether the convection process is natural or force there is always a liquid film
immediately adjacent to the wall where the temperature varies from tw to tf. Heat is first
conducted through this fluid film and then it is transported by fluid motion. So, this is
something like this is the film and maybe this film thickness is delta here and this is tw and
this is the tf. So, this will be something like this temperature gradient and then only
convective heat transfer will take place, and this is the pure conduction.
So, this rate of heat transfer this Q will be something like this, this side, this rate of heat
t f  tw
transfer through the film Q can be represented by this Q   K f  A  ,  is nothing

but the thickness of this film, and this small t and capital T are same here so we can write
small t also so tf minus tw is  . So, this film coefficient of heat transfer or heat transfer
Kf
coefficient h is nothing but , what is Kf? Kf is nothing but the thermal conductivity of this

film.
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So, thermal conductivity, thermal conductivity, conductivity of the film. So, we can represent
now, this is something like this, Q  hAtw  ta  which is nothing but Newton's law of
cooling. So, if heat transfer coefficient is more means rate of heat transfer will be higher. The
convection heat transfer coefficient is not a property of the fluid that we must know, it is not
a property of the fluid. It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on
all the variables influencing that convection heat transfer such as the surface geometry, the
nature of fluid motion, the properties of the fluid, the bulk fluid velocity. So, these parameters
are dependent on this heat transfer coefficient h.
So, there are many correlations to estimate the heat transfer coefficient. So, these are just
representative correlation so this correlation is Dithus Boelter correlations which is valid for
forced convection, this Nusselt number is a function of Reynolds number and Prandtl
number. So, Nu  0.023 Re0.8 Pr n So, n is equal to 0.4 when the fluid is heated, and n is equal
to 0.3 when the fluid is cooled.
And in case of natural convection we can use this kind of correlation. These equations are
developed based on purely experimental phenomenon, these values of B and a are flow
specific. So, different condition these values will be different, we will learn in very deeper
sense in the coming slides.
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So, at this moment we can solve a very small problem. So, this problem goes something like
water flows inside a tube. So, water is flowing inside a tube, this tube diameter is 5
centimeter and the length is 3 meter and its velocity u I can write is 0.8 m/s. So, I am
interested to calculate what is heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat transfer that is q.
And mean temperature is given as 50, so mean temperature Tmean is given as 50 °C, so we
need to find out the properties of the fluid at this temperature and the wall is isothermal at
70°C so this is the 70 °C. So, fluid is at 70°C. So this is not mean, this is actually fluid
temperature Tf is 50 °C. So, water temperature is at 50 °C.
Now, what do we need to do? We need to make the average temperature. So, what is the
70  50
average temperature? T  it will be 60 °C. So, this is the mean temperature at which
2
we need to calculate the properties of the fluid. So, what are the properties of the fluid here?
K value is given as 0.661 W/m-K and  that is kinematic viscosity is given as
0.478 106 m2 / s , and Prandtl number is given as 2.98, we will study what is Prandtl
number, what is the significance of Prandtl number in convective heat transfer in the coming
slides. So, we need to know the Reynolds number.
So, how Reynolds number can be calculated we already know, u I can right then D then we
have  , so this u value is 0.8 and diameter is 5 centimeter so 5  10 2 will give meter and 
will is given as 0.478 106 . So, which is finally leads to a value 83700. So, Reynolds
number is found to be 83700 and Prandtl number already known to us. So, we can use this
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expression or correlation to as I said that a Dithus and Boelter equation. So, this is something
like Nu  0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4 . So, condition what we have described before is applied here.
hD
And this Nusselt number is nothing but , h is the heat transfer coefficient, D is the
K
diameter of the tube and K is the thermal conductivity. And 0.023 Reynolds number already
calculated 43700 then this is 0.8 and Prandtl number is 2.980.4 . So, if we substitute those
values and the K value is known to us, it is 0.66 and D is 5  10 2 , if we substitute then
finally we can calculate what is h, so as per my calculation it is 4075 W/m2-K, so h we have
calculated now.
So, once we know h then our next calculation should be Q rate of heat transfer. So, what is
the expression for rate of heat transfer, hAT . So, this h value is 4.75 and what is the area
here? So, it is a  and then we have diameter is 5  10 2 what is L, L is 3, this area is dL .
So, diameter we know 5  10 2 and L is 3 and then T is how much? It is 70 minus 50 so it

is 70 minus 50 is 20.
So, if we calculate it then Q is found to be 38387 watt, we can represent in kilowatt as well,
so this is 38.387 kilowatt, so Q will be 38.387 kilowatt. So, in this problem what we have
calculated is the heat transfer coefficient and rate of heat transfer when a fluid is flowing in a
tube. If we maintain isothermal condition in the tube at 70 degree and fluid inlet temperature
is 50, then we need to calculate or record data at mean temperature. So, how to calculate this
mean temperature, because isothermal temperature is known to us and plus 50 is the fluid
temperature divided by 2 will give the mean temperature.
So, at that temperature we have to find out those properties, then once we are done with that,
then we need to calculate Reynolds number and Prandtl number is given. So, we can use the
appropriate correlation to estimate heat transfer coefficient, and once heat transfer coefficient
is done, then we can calculate what will be the rate of heat transfer.
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Now, let us learn the third mode of heat transfer that is radiation or radiative heat transfer. So,
unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not require the
presence of an intervening medium so, without any medium this energy can transfer. The heat
transfer by radiation is fastest and it suffers no attenuation in vacuum, this is how the energy
of the sun reaches the earth, this phenomenon has already been discussed in the initial
lectures.
The heat transfer studies were interested in thermal radiation which is the form of radiation
emitted by bodies because of their temperature. So, all bodies at the temperature above
absolute 0 emits thermal radiation that we must know, the radiation is a volumetric
phenomenon and all the solids, liquids and gases emit, absorb or transmit radiation to varying
degrees. So, always we will see all the objects radiates some form of radiation or some form
of thermal radiation.
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So, if we consider Q is the total radiant energy incident upon the surface of a body and some
part of it will be absorbed, some part will be reflected. So, if we consider this, this is the body
and Q is the amount of energy may be falling here, some part will be absorbed, some part will
be reflected, some part will be transmitted. So, if we write this reflected is Qr and this absorb
is Qa and transmitted is Qt okay then we can write Q is nothing but (Qa + Qr +Qt), and if we
divide both sides by Q then what will happen? We will get this kind of expression and what
Qa Q
does it indicate,   which is nothing but absorptivity, r   which is reflectivity,
Q Q
Qt
  . So,       1 .
Q
So, for opaque bodies this transmissivity will be 0 and     1. So, most solids are opaque
so that we must know. A body which absorbs all the incident radiation is called a black body,
a black body is also the best radiator. Most radiating surfaces are gray bodies, but know this
when we consider some kind of bodies so, these bodies are not always black body, it can
absorb all the radiation what is falling on that body. So, most of the cases what we will
encounter are gray bodies. So, it will have some emissivity.
So, how to calculate this emissivity? This emissivity eta is nothing but actual radiation of
gray body at T Kelvin to the radiation of black body at T Kelvin, it is a comparison. So, once
we know this  or say emissivity then we can calculate the actual amount of radiation
received by gray body or emitted by gray body. The rate at which energy is radiated by a
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blackbody at temperature T is given by Stephen Boltzmann law. So, this Q  AT 4 , the  is
nothing but Steven Boltzmann constant, its value is 5.67 108 W/m2T4 and A is the surface
area.
So, for gray bodies we can write Q  AsTs . So, this emissivity is a measure of how closely
4
a surface approximate the black body for which emissivity is 1. So for gray bodies emissivity
will be in this range, 0 to 1. So now, if I am interested to know the maximum amount of
radiation that can be emitted by a blackbody how we can calculate? Suppose for example, if
we consider a blackbody which is at a temperature of 450 Kelvin. So, if we know this
temperature by using this Stephen Boltzmann's law, we can calculate this maximum amount
of radiation that can be emitted by the surface of this body.
So, this is something like T 4 because black body emissivity will be 1. So, that way we can
calculate for this body which is at 450 it can know emit maximum radiation of 2327 W/m2.
So, that way we can calculate for gray bodies if we know the emissivities. So, this table
shows the emissivities of some material at 300 Kelvin, you can see the aluminum foil it has
got 0.07 and you can say wood it will have 0.82. So, that way we can compare the emissivity
of different material and we can select which one is best for our application.
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And if there are 2 gray bodies and how these 2 gray bodies are exchanging heat through
 
radiation. So, this can be calculated by using this expression Q1 2  A11 2 T1  T24 So, if we
4
consider a gray body at temperature T1 and other gray body is at a temperature of T2, then
radiative exchange will be something like this. So, this view factor or gray body can be
calculated by using this expression.
So, what does it mean, the fraction of total radiant energy leaving gray surface 1 and reaching
1
gray surface 2. So, that take care of this View factor. 12  F1-2
1  1 A 1 
  1   1   1
 1  F12 A2   2 
is the configuration factor of 2 similar black bodies or the fraction of energy that leaves the
black surface 1 and is incident on the black surface 2.
So, this can also be calculated by using this reciprocity theorem, which is nothing but
A1F12  A2 F21 , means from surface 1 to 2 then from surface 2 to 1, how this radiation
exchanging will take place. So, we can draw few cases, say for 2 infinite parallel gray plates.
That means all the energy leaving the surface 1 strikes surface 2. So, if we take just the 2
parallel infinitely parallel plates. So, this condition is valid for design of flat plate collector.
So, because maybe this part we can consider as Glass cover and this part may be absorber, so
how this radiation actions takes place.
So, this knowledge you can apply for designing a flat plate collector. So, for this case A1 is
equal to A2 and this configuration factor is same and our view factor can be calculated by
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using this expression. So, this P factor is a function of 2 emissivities of the surface where
exchange of radiation is taking place. And for concentric cylinders or spheres if A1 is the
surface area of the inner cylinder then F12 is 1 and we can use the expression for View factor
something like this. And when the enclosed body say area A1 is very small compared to the
enclosed surface, so this is something like A1 is very, very small compared to the surface.
So, under that condition this may be A2 so this view factor is something like the emissivity of
the internal 1. So, that way we can calculate what will be the view factor. So, once you know
this view factor then we can use this expression for radiant heat exchange between 2 gray
bodies at temperature T1 and T2 so that we can calculate the radiative heat exchange. So, area
of A1 is known, temperatures are known and this constant is known to us. So, this knowledge
will be required in designing a flat plate collector.
Now, let us take 1 more exercise. So, this problem goes something like a long steel rod of 2
centimeter diameter. So, it is a 2 centimeter diameter is to be heated from 450 °C to 550 °C
and it is placed concentrically in along cylindrical furnace. So, this may be a cylindrical
furnace, and this rod is kept there inside the cylindrical furnace, and inside diameter of this
cylindrical furnace is 16 centimeter. So, inner surface of the furnace is at 1100 °C and its
emissivity is 0.85 here, and emissivity of this rod is 0.6. So, we need to calculate the average
rate of heat absorption during the heating process. So, how to proceed it?
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So, we must know A1/A2 because, why this is required we need to calculate this View factor
1
12  . So, this A1/A2 is required. So, here how to calculate A1/A2 ? This
1 A1  1 
   1
1 A2   2 
2
area so  will cancel each other so finally, what we will have, we will have 2/16, , so
dl
diameter is 1/8. So, this area is nothing but DL . So, per unit length we need to consider and
again here this is small letter small d, this is capital D, this is L. So, that we can calculate
what is A1/A2. So, A1/A2 will be 1/8. And these values are given to us.
1
So, once we substitute these values 12  . So, if we do the calculation, it
1 1  1 
   1
0.6 0.8  0.85 
will be about 0.592 so this View factor value is 0.592. Now, we need to calculate initial rate
of heat absorption. So, if we are interested to calculate initial rate of heat absorption, initial
rate of heat absorption by radiation and we know the temperature, initially it is 450 then I will
 
write Qi  A11 2 T1  T24 . This T1 if we consider this is at T1 and this may be at T2.
4
So, for this case this T1 is 450 so this has to be in Kelvin. So, 450 plus 273, so it will be 723
Kelvin, and this T2 is 1100 plus 273 because radiation exchange will be initial this
temperature to this furnace temperature, this furnace is already maintained that 1100 degree
C, so it will be 1373 Kelvin. So, if we substitute this value, and sigma is known to us
5.67 108 W/m2T4 an area is D is diameter is 2 centimeter, centimeter means that is meter
will be minus 2 102 and this value already we have calculated, its value is 0.592. And T1 is
723 to the power 4, then we have 1100 to the power of 4.
So, this if we do this calculations, then we will get a value of something like 6908.72 W/m,
per unit because is length is not given so, that is why it is per unit. So, this Qi is something
like this, that is initial rate of heat absorption due to radiation exchange. So, now we need to
calculate the radiation or say rate of heat absorption at the end of the melting process. So, this
is the initial rate of heat absorption rate of heat absorption at the end of the melting process at
the end of melting process, melting process. So, same expression you can use but only change
will be the temperature, this final temperature here will be 550 plus 273, so this will be about
823 Kelvin.
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So, if we substitute this value in this expression, so maybe I will write this Qe  value is
known, then A1 is known and View factor value is known, only change will be 8234  11004 .
So, once we substitute these values then what will be the value of Qe? It will be minus
6524.03 W/m. So, Qe we know now. So, I hope you understand why negative sign is there
because know heat is received here. So, emission is taking place from the surface and then
heat is received by this rod. So, we want average rate of heat absorption
So, what will be the average rate of heat absorption, average Q if we right then it will be Qi
plus Qe divided by 2 so which is nothing but 6716.37 W/m. So, average heat absorption
during melting process will be 6716.37, no need to put this negative sign here because this
much of heat is absorbed in the melting process. So, this is an example how to calculate rate
of heat transfer between 2 bodies and we also learn how to use this View factor.
Now, let us learn some of the non-dimensional numbers which are extensively used for heat
transfer calculation in solar thermal systems. So, this Reynolds number is the ratio of inertia
force to the viscous force. So, already we have used this number in calculating Nusselt
number, but you must know the importance of this Reynolds number. So, inertia force to the
viscous force. So, if there are many force then it becomes forces so that is why these forces.
VD
So, we can write the . And there is a critical Reynolds number at which the flow

becomes turbulent.
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So, we will have laminar flows, then turbulent flows, in between we have transition flows.
So, Reynolds number will give the information about this flow behavior. So, this value of
critical Reynolds number is different for different geometries in flow conditions. So, if it is a
pipe flow then the value of this Reynolds number at which it will it will turbulent will be
different than in a flow over a flat plate. So, as you can understand this Reynolds number can
be viewed as the ratio of inertia forces to the viscous forces acting on a fluid element. So, this
figure shows with increasing Reynolds number how this wake formation takes place.
hL
And Nusselt number is defined something like . So, this Nusselt number represent the
k
enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid layer as a result of convection relative to the
conduction across the same fluid layer. The larger the Nusselt number, more effective the
convection. A Nusselt number of 1 for a fluid layer represents the heat transfer across the
layer by pure conduction. So, if we consider these 2 layer this is at T1 and this is a T2, then
temperature difference will be T1- T2. So, when this kind of situation arises, then we need to
calculate heat transfer coefficient.
So, in order to calculate heat transfer coefficient we need to know this Nusselt number.
Normally in the convective studies, this is a common practice to make non-dimensionalize
the governing equations, and combine the variables which grouped together into
dimensionless numbers in order to reduce the number of total variables. So, normally this is
done well know numerical investigations of any complex flows are carried out.
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So, one more important parameter is Prandtl number. The relative thickness of the velocity
and thermal boundary layer is best described by the dimensionless parameter called Prandtl
number. This Prandtl number can be defined like molecular diffusivity of momentum to the

molecular diffusivity of heat, it is . So, the Prandtl numbers of gases are about 1 which

indicates that both momentum and heat dissipated through the fluid at about the same rate if
Prandtl number is 1. Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid metals having Prandtl number very,
very less and very slowly in oils where Prandtl number is very, very large relative to the
momentum.
Consequently, the thermal boundary layer is much thicker for liquid metals and much thinner
for oil relative to the velocity boundary layer. So, these are very, very important aspects when
we are designing a very complicated system or when we are designing a flat plate collector.
So, this table shows the variation of Prandtl number for different material, for liquid metals
see the variation is very, very low, and in case of oils and glycerin you can see it is a very
huge number. So, this property or this number is very, very important as far as design of flat
plate collector is concerned.
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And finally, we must know what is Grashof number? So, Grashof number is defined as the
ratio between the buoyancy force and viscous force, and mathematically it can be represented
g ' TL3
by Grashof number is equal to . So, T is nothing but Ts  T so if we have a plate
2
is maintained at some temperature and free stream flow at a certain temperature, so this
temperature differential we need to consider. So, this Grashof number replaces the Reynolds
number in the convection correlation equation.
So, in a free convection, buoyancy driven flow sometimes dominates the flow inertia
therefore, the Nusselt number is a function of Grashof number and Prandtl number. So, this
Nusselt number is a function of Grashof number and Prandtl number. And also we define
Rayleigh number which is something like Grashof number multiplied by Prandtl number. So,
in most of the cases we will use directly this Rayleigh number for calculation of heat transfer
coefficient. The most important use of the Rayleigh number is to characterize the laminar to
turbulence transition of a free convection boundary layer flow.
So for example, when this number is greater than 109, the vertical free convection boundary
layer flow over a flat plate becomes turbulent. So just an example, so we will solve one
problem to strengthen the understanding of this Grashof number and heat transfer coefficient
calculation in case of natural convection heat transfer.
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So, this heat transfer coefficient between inclined parallel surfaces if interested so, there are
many, many correlations developed by many of the researchers. So, most importantly these
correlations are used for this case when we are targeting for calculation of heat transfer
coefficient between 2 parallel plates. So, Buchberg et al developed this correlations. So, there
are certain conditions, so first we need to calculate Ra cos  so this will guide you which
correlation to be used for calculation of heat transfer coefficient.
So, these value first we need to find out then we need to see where it will fit, if this value is in
between these 2 values, then we will go for this correlation. If the value of Ra cos  is in
between this then we will go for this correlation so accordingly we will use the third
correlation. And properties are to evaluated at the arithmetic mean of the surface
temperatures, the way we have done in case of force convection numerical exercise. So, if
Ra cos  is less than 1708, then we will use Nusselt number is 1.
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So, this is one more correlations developed by Holland et al. So, he has also suggested some
kind of range with  , so this  is inclination. So, like this flat plate collector some
inclination is maintained. So, this inclination we have to consider, based on this inclination
we can use this correlation, if its value is between 75 to 90 then we can go for this. So, there
are other conditions we have to know consider for selecting these correlations as well.
So, let us take a small problem to strengthen the understanding of what we have discussed in
the last 2 slides. So, we need to calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient between 2
parallel plates. So, maybe we have to draw these 2 parallel plates and it is separated by 20
mm gap is there in between these 2 plates and it is inclined at 40 degree and upper plate is at
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50 °C and this plate is at 30 °C. So, as we have discussed that at mean air temperature of 40
°C, the air properties are given like so this 40 plus 273 will be 313 Kelvin.
So, at this temperature values of thermal conductivity and kinematic viscosity and thermal
diffusivities are given. So, once you know this then we can use this equation. So, already we
g ' TL3 C p
know how we have got this expression. So, , then they have Pr  . So, if we
 2
k
 C p
multiply it g ' T by  means so it will be square. So, here , then  will go out and
 k
this will be  ,  cancels here so 1  will be there so 1  will be there and this will go,
then finally, then 1  will be here, then 1  will be here.
 g ' TL3 C p k
So, that way this is again  . So, , and this is is thermal diffusivity.
  2
k C p
So, this will come at the this place. So, this will be something like Ra, Rayleigh number. So,
that is how we can use this directly. So, if we substitute this value here so  ' as we know this
 ' , so I will write here  ' is something like 1/ Tmean. So, Tmean is 313, 1/313, the temperature
coefficient. So, we will substitute this value 9.81 and this is 313 and then temperature
difference is 20, this is 20 and l is this 20 mm.
So, this value is 20 I can write 20 into 103 because in mm and then we have g ' TL3 . So,
this may be L3 and we have  is 2.40 105 and  is 1.7 105 . So, if we do the calculation,
so it will be something like this to here. So, this Ra will be 12290.92. Then what we will
calculate? Ra cos  , so this is 12290.92 and cos  is 40 degree, so it will come to a value of
941.39.
So, now we can check which correlation to be used, 1415.39 then we can go back and see
1415. So 1415 so this is 94, what is the value of this 9415 so, this is 9415 so we need to use
this correlation right. So, this correlation means this one Nusselt number is equal to
0.229Ra cos  0.252 . So, here we can use Nusselt number is equal to 0.229Ra cos  0.252 . So, if
we substitute this value then what we will get is value is 2.297. So, as we know, Nusselt
number is hl or D by K is 2.297, from here we can calculate what is h, which is nothing but
2.297 multiplied by K.
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What is the value of K? 0.0272, and then we will have l, what is the value of l here, is
20 103 . So, this is something like 3.124 W/m2K. So, this heat transfer coefficient is found
to be 3.124 W/m2K. So, this is a very simple numerical exercise to know how to calculate
heat transfer coefficient by using correlation once we know the mean temperature. This is a
very applied exercise, knowledge of this can be applied for designing flat plate collector.
So, let us summarize what we have discussed today. So, we have discussed different modes
of heat transfer which include conduction, convection and radiation. And also we have
studied non dimensional numbers related to the heat transfer, then correlations to estimate
heat transfer coefficient and also we have solved some basic heat transfer problem to
strengthen the understanding, how to calculate heat transfer coefficient, how to calculate rate
of heat transfer. So, I hope that you enjoyed this lecture. Thank you very much for watching
this video.
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Centre for Energy
Lecture No. 20
Solar collector losses and loss estimation
Dear students, today we will be discussing about flat plate collector losses and loss
estimation.
So, what are the different collector losses, like side losses, bottom losses, top losses. So, these
losses need to be estimated correctly then only we can investigate the performance of a flat
plate collector. As we have understand in the previous classes like energy balance on the
absorber plate can be expressed by using this equation. So, qu  Ap S  ql , what is qu? This is
the useful heat gain, Ap is the collector area or absorber area and S is the flux which is
received by the absorber plate, and this S is a function of these many parameters.
So, S  Ibrb  b  I d rd  Ib  I d rr  d . So, we understood how to calculate these   for
beam radiation and diffuse radiation, we understand how to calculate this S. So, this part is
now known to us, but in order to find out qu we need to know ql. So, ql is nothing but the heat
loss from the collector. So, this ql is a function of all the losses like the kind of losses taking
place from the top of the collector, from the side of the collector and from the bottom of the
collector.
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So, what I have shown here it is a one glass cover and then absorber plate of course tips will
be there, through which heat transfer fluid flows, and these are insulation these are insulation,
some thickness you have to maintain is an insulation. This is side insulation and this is the
bottom insulation in order to reduce the heat losses. So, this ql that is heat loss from the
collector can be estimated by using this expression if we know ql  U l Ap (Tpm  Ta ) . What is
Ul, is the overall loss coefficient, and Ap is the area of the absorber plate, and Tpm is the
average temperature of the absorber plate, and Ta is the temperature of the surrounding air or
ambient temperature of the air.
So, once you know these values, then straightaway you can calculate what is ql. So, as we
understand this ql is a function of other 3 losses. So, this ql  qt  qb  qs , this heat loss from
the collector is the sum of the heat loss from the top, heat loss from the bottom, then heat loss
from the side, so we can add it. And this heat loss or rate of heat loss can be expressed in
terms of loss coefficient.
If we express in terms of loss coefficient then our expression will be something like this. So,
qt  U t Ap (T pm  Ta ) . So, what is Ut is top loss coefficient. And for calculation of rate at
which heat loss from the bottom takes place then we use this expression
qb  U b Ap (T pm  Ta ) . So, what is Ub here is the bottom loss coefficient. Similarly, the rate at
which heat is lost from the side can be calculated by using this expression where Us is the
side loss coefficient. So, as you understand this ql is nothing but sum of all the 3 losses this qt,
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qb and qs. So, if we substitute this expression for
ql  U l Ap (Tpm  Ta )  U t Ap (Tpm  Ta )  U b Ap (Tpm  Ta )  U s Ap (Tpm  Ta )
So, these are common for all the cases, heat losses taking place from the plate to the ambient,
so these are common so finally, what we can write U l  U t  U b  U s . Or what we can say if
we divide both sides of the expression by Ap (T pm  Ta ) , so what we will get
U l  U t  U b  U s . So, what we have written here this is nothing but the overall loss
coefficient. So, this is very, very important parameter to measure all the losses and each value
should be in the range of 2 to 10 W/m2-K.
So, if this value falls in between this range, then our design can be considered. So, otherwise
losses will be very, very high so under that conditions we will be losing our efficiencies. So,
once you know this value Ul then if we substitute in the energy balance equation, then from
there we can calculate what will be that useful heat gain. So, we will demonstrate how this Ul
can be calculated by solving a numerical problem. So, let us have a look about Ut or top loss
coefficient, how to calculate the stop loss coefficient.
So, before we start the top loss coefficient let us understand this thermal resistance network.
So, here what happens if we consider this is the plate, absorber plate at temperature Tpm and
this is at ambient in all the cases it is ambient, this is towards top, top, this is side and this is
bottom. So, heat loss will take place from this plate to the side plate to the top, then this plate
to the bottom. So, these are the thermal resistances. So, we can express in terms of thermal
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resistances. So, this component is the thermal resistance for the when heat is transferring
from this plate to the bottom, this kind of resistance is offered and here we can say is the side
and this is along the top.
And also what we can do, we can make equivalent resistance diagram. So, if we combine
these three components and we can make something like this, and it will be something like
this. So, under that condition we can use what will be the Ul, or if we know Ul then we can
calculate what is ql. So, this is the equivalent thermal resistance network. The component
what we have discussed in the last slides these are represented in this thermal resistance
network diagram.
Now, let us say we look how to estimate top loss coefficient. So, this top loss coefficient can
be evaluated by considering convection and re-radiation losses from the absorber plate in the
upward direction. So, there are some assumptions while evaluating this top loss coefficient,
what are the assumptions? First assumption is the transparent covers and the absorber plate
constitute a system of infinite parallel surfaces so, it is assumed that it is infinite. And the
flow of heat is one dimensional and steady. The temperature drop across the thickness of the
covers is negligible.
For example, if we consider this case so here what happens, 2 glass covers are present and 1
absorber plate, and this is the sky temperature. Because of this lot of molecules will be there
like carbon dioxide, water vapor, they will also emit some kind of radiation that kind of
radiation can also be taken care by using this guy. So if it is thicker, of course there will be it
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has got some thickness. So, there should not be any heat losses here. So, there will be no drop
of temperature in those regions right, here and then here.
So, that is why it is said the temperature drop across the thickness of the cover is negligible,
the interaction between the incoming solar radiation absorbed by the covers and the outgoing
loss maybe neglected. So, some radiation will fall here, it will go something like this so this
kind of things are neglected. So, no losses are taking place it is assumed. The transparent
cover is assumed to be opaque. So, no radiation is going out, it is opaque to the long wave
radiation so all the waves will be retained inside the collector system.
Now, this heat transfer by convection and radiation absorber plate in the first cover, if we are
interested about know from this plate to this plate so, this is heat transfer by convection and
radiation from absorber plate to the first glass cover. So, in this case 2 class covers are
considered; glass cover 1, glass cover 2, this is the absorber plate. So, in the first case what
we will do, the kind of heat transfer taking place from this plate to the glass cover 1, we are
interested to develop the equations by which you can calculate the rate of heat transfer.
q  (Tpm  Tc1 )
4 4
So, t  hp  c1 (Tpm  Tc1 )  .

Ap 1 1
 1
p c
So, since it is infinitely parallel surfaces so we can use this expression for view factor. And if
we are interested to calculate the rate of heat transfer from class cover 1 to class cover 2, then
qt  (Tc1  Tc 2 )
4 4
we have to use this equation  hc1 c 2 (Tc1  Tc 2 )  . So, this is h1 to h2 is the
Ap 1 1
 1
c c
heat transfer coefficient and multiplied by (Tc1  Tc 2 ) , so, since heat exchange is between
these 2 plates and this is the radiative components and this is the convective heat transfer
part, this is a radiative heat transfer part.
And if we are interested to develop the equation or heat exchanger between Tc 2 to ambient
then we have to use this expression . So, hw is the heat transfer coefficient when heat is
exchanging from this glass cover to the ambient, and this Tc 2 is the temperature of the glass
cover, then Tsky is the sky temperature. So, please note that this sky temperature is different
than this ambient temperature, this sky temperature is from those elements which is absorbed
448
in the atmosphere. And this part is the radiative component part. So, it has got 2 components;
one is convective part and then the radiative part. So, we have explained how this can be
added and how this rate of heat transfer can be calculated between these parallel plates.
Now, let us learn how this heat transfer coefficient can be calculated, if we go back to the last
slide, so these heat transfer coefficients need to be calculated. So in this expression, so our
primary intention is to calculate this qt /Ap, this unknown is qt and then T c1 and here is a T c2.
So, qt T c1 T c2 are the unknowns. But this hP-c1 is heat transfer coefficient when heat is
exchanging from the plate to the cover 1 and then from cover 1 to the cover 2 and then from
cover 2 to the ambient. So, we can use some correlations to calculate these heat transfer
coefficients.
So, let us learn how these correlations can be utilized to calculate heat transfer coefficient
between the parallel plates. So, Buchberg Et al developed the following correlation based on
that experimental investigations of natural convection heat transfer coefficient for the
enclosed spaces, that means between the absorber plate to the first cover and the first cover to
the second cover. So, these correlations is something like that so if Ra cos  is less than 1708
then we will use Nusselt number is 1.
So if this value Ra cos  is in between this and this, then we will go for this correlation, if this
Ra cos  is in between these 2 arrows, then we will go for this expression and then finally, if
this value is very high, then we will go for this expression, but we should be very, very
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particular about how to calculate the properties of the fluid. So, the properties are to be
evaluated at the arithmetic mean of the surface temperatures. So, what does it mean? So, if
there are 2 plates they are having at say T c1 and then Tp this fluid what is moving inside, so
property has to be calculated at (T c1+Tp)/2. So, after that only we can do the calculation.
Also we need to use other correlations for calculation of hw that is heat transfer from the top
of the glass to the ambient. So, this kind of heat transfer coefficient also known as wind heat
transfer coefficient. So, McAdams correlations or something like hw  5.7  3.8V , this is
nothing but your V that is velocity. So, we can write U  or V is the same meaning, its unit is
meter per second. Also, there are other correlations developed by Test Et al. He has
demonstrated based on his experimental observations that hw  8.55  2.56V , so this is in
meters per second.
So, either of these 2 correlations can be utilized to find out hw value. So, if I am interested to
calculate the sky temperature then normally we use this correlation. Tsky  Ta  6 , normally it
is assumed that it is less than ambient temperature so Ta  6 , if we deduct 6 from the ambient
then what we will get is a sky temperature.
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Now, let us learn how bottom those coefficients are evaluated. So, this bottom loss
coefficient is evaluated by considering conduction and convection losses from the absorber
plate towards downward. So, this way this will come, and assumptions are flow of heat is one
dimensional and steady and thermal resistance associated with conduction dominates, that is
why convective part is neglected. So, in this case, if we know this thickness of the insulation,
that is  b and then conductivity of the insulation, then straightway you can calculate what
will be the Ub.
ki
So, U b  which is equal to thermal conductivity of insulation and then thickness of the
b
insulation. So, if these 2 parameters are known, then straight way you can calculate what will
be Ub. So, once we are done with bottom loss coefficient then our next attempt is to calculate
side loss coefficient.
451
(Refer Slide Time 18:58)
So, let us learn how to calculate side loss coefficient. So, side loss coefficient is estimated
based on convection and conduction heat transfer. So, let us learn how to calculate side loss
coefficient. So, this side loss coefficients can be estimated by considering both conduction
and convective heat transfer. So, here also conduction resistance dominates and the flow of
heat is 1 dimensional and steady. As we know qs can be expressed something like this,
qs  U s Ap (Tpm  Ta ) .
So here, Ap we can calculate something like this. This area we need to calculate so this way
we can calculate the area. So, if we know this l2 is the length and l1 is the breadth, and h is the
height? So, area will be something like this because there are 2 sides, this sides and this sides
and also this sides and this sides so all the things you need to be considered. So, 1 important
(Tpm  Ta )
concern is here , this component is used. Why this component is used? Because
2
see, if we consider this plate from plate heat loss will take something like (Tpm  Ta ) . And this
heat loss will be reducing slowly towards the top and then again towards the bottom.
So, this average can be taken up, the average heat loss can be taken up so that is why this
term is divided by 2. So, average temperature drop across the side insulation can be
(Tpm  Ta )
considered something like . So, if I am interested about this Us then how we can do
2
qs
it? . So, this is the expression and what is the plate area, if we consider this l1
Ap (Tpm  Ta )
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and l2 is the breadth and the length, then if we multiply these then what we will get is Ap,
what is written here.
And this expression is known to us if we substitute this value then what we will have is
nothing but Us, this Us is nothing but the side loss coefficient. So, once we know the side loss
coefficient, bottom loss coefficient and top loss cohesion, then we can calculate what will be
the overall loss coefficient. So once it is done, then we can calculate what is ql. So, once we
know ql, then we can go back to our energy equation, qu  Ap S  ql . So, if this information is
known to us and once we know this, then what we can calculate is qu. So, once we are done
with qu, then we can do all those calculations or performance characteristics calculation.
Now, let us take a very small problem, say for a FPC with a top loss coefficient of 6.6
W/m2°C, if we are interested to determine the overall loss coefficient by using the following
data then how to do it? So, back insulation thickness is given as 0.045, then insulation
conductivity or this is known thermal conductivity, this is not insulation conductivity this is
thermal conductivity, this is thermal conductivity, thermal conductivity is something like
0.041 W/m2°C then a collector bank length is given collector bank width is given, collector
thickness is given then edge or side insulation thickness is given as 0.02 meter.
ki
So, how we can calculate this Ub? Already we have the information U b  . So, straightway
b
we can substitute the values of thermal conductivity of the insulation. So, this is 0.04 and
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then thickness is 0.045 then what we will get is Ub, Ub is nothing but 0.889 W/m2°C. And Us
we can apply the knowledge what we have derived now. So, Us is something like this, then
just we substitute the values here what is given in this problem, then we will get a value of
0.084 W/m2°C.
So, since Ut is given, this value is given to us, this is nothing but Ut, then U l  U t  U b  U s .
So, substituting those values what we have calculated now, so then what we will get is about
7.573 W/m2°C. So, as we understand each value should be in between 2 to 10 W/m2°C. So,
since this value is in between, it is a feasible collector design. So, this kind of design is
accepted.
Now, let us take a somewhat bigger problem in order to understand the things very clearly,
this problem has been incorporated in this lecture. So, example goes something like, calculate
the overall loss coefficient of a flat plate collector with 2 glass covers. We will have 2 glass
covers, and following data is given, size of the absorber plate is given, then spacing between
the first glass and then plate is given, spacing between the first and second glass is given then
the plate emissivity is given, then glass cover emissivity is given, tilt angle is given and mean
plate temperature is given as 73 °C, ambient air temperature is 25, wind speed is given as 2.7
m/s, back insulation thickness is 10 centimeter, side insulation thickness is 5 centimeter,
thermal conductivity insulation is 0.07 W/m-K.
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So, we can use those correlations for estimation of heat transfer coefficient between the plates
and plate to the ambient. And also we can use the properties of air.
So, to understand clearly let us draw this figure first. So, we will have 2 glass covers. These
are 2 glass covers and then we will have 1 absorber plate. And we will have insulation; side
insulation as well as we have bottom insulation. So, these are insulation, these are insulation.
So, this is given as 5 centimeter, this is also 5 centimeter, and this is 10 centimeter in the
problem and this angle beta is given as 23°, and Ap plate area is given as 1.9 meter by 0.9
meter and this thickness is given as 5 centimeter and emissivity of this absorber.
So, this is an absorber plate, this emissivity of this absorber plate will be 0.85, and for these 2
cases so emissivity will be so this is C1 and C2 will be 0.85. And also it is given that Tpm is 73
°C so we can convert it to K so 73 plus 273.15 to be very precise, so it will be 346.15 K. So,
Tpm is known to us now. Then what is Ta, which is given in the problem is 25 °C, which is
nothing but 25 plus 273 it will be 298.15 K. And also Tsky  Ta  6 . So, this expression we can
use for calculation of Tsky.
So, Tamb = (298.15 – 6) which will be equal to 292.15 K, this is Tsky, this is Tsky so, this value
is also known to us. Now, what we want, first we need to calculate top loss coefficient then
only we can calculate Ul because first if we are interested about Ul then what you need to do
first? U l  U t  U b  U s , so all the 3 parameters are required. Let us first calculate this Ut. So,
the kind of techniques we are going to use here is a trial and error, it is an iterative technique,
455
we have correlations to get direct result of Ut but first let us understand how this can be
calculated by using this iterative technique. So, let us rub this part, this is not required at the
moment.
So this top loss coefficient so our interest is Ut we are going to calculate. So in order to
calculate this Ut what you need to know, this Tc1 which is unknown for us, Tc2 is unknown for
us, only known is Tpm. Then these values are known, this is known, this can be calculated by
using correlations. And these 2 values are known, this is known, this is known, but this is
unknown, and this qt we need to calculate. So, we will get three different nonlinear equations
qt
and we need to solve for .
Ap
So, let us proceed with the given data. So, what we can write here? So, hp-c1 then we have
5.67  108 (346.154  Tc1 )

4
qt
Tpm, what is Tpm?  hp  c1 (346.15  Tc1 )  . And for this
Ap 1 1
 1
0.9 0.85
5.67  108 (Tc1  Tc 2 )

4 4
qt
expression,  hc1 c 2 (Tc1  Tc 2 )  ,hc1- c2 then Tc1 to Tc2, these 2 are
Ap 1 1
 1
0.85 0.85
unknown. Then we have 5.67 108 , then we will have Tc1 , Tc2 to the power and then these
4
values are known to us. So, 1 by here is for a plate it is 0.85 and then for glass it is let me
check for plate it is 0.9, it is 0.9.
1 1
So, this for plate it is 0.9, this is 0.9 and this is 0.85, this is minus 1. So here,  1,
0.85 0.85
qt
 hw (Tc 2  292.15)  5.67  108  0.85(Tc 2  292.154 ) . So, we can simplify it further.
4
and
Ap
So, this equation maybe you can give is 1 and this may be 2 and this may be 3. So, what are
those equations?
These equations take care of the heat transfer or rate of heat transfer takes place between this
absorber plate to the glass cover 1, so I will write here cover 1, this is glass cover 2 and this is
Tpm or say I will write plate having temperature Tpm, this Tpm is already known to us. Now,
our next step is to calculate this heat transfer coefficient. So, we need to use appropriate
correlation for calculation of this heat transfer coefficient.
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So, before we do that we must know the temperature of Tc1 but which is not given, we need
to assume those values Tc1 and Tc2, we need to apply our common sense. So Ta, if we write Ta
here, so Ta will be how much is given? 298.15, so this temperature what we got is
346. So, 346 minus 298.15 is about 48. So, its half is 24, so if we consider this value Tc1, say
let Tc1 is equal to 328 K and Tc2 is 306 K thus we applied our common sense. So, this
temperature is 346.15 and ambient is 298.15, and then it is presumed that this should be
somewhat in this one so that is how we have considered 328 which is know more than the
average of this Ta and Tpm, and Tc2 is know 306 we have considered.
Just we are assuming this value because we have to do trial and error. So, there will be 2
values of Tc1 and Tc2 which gives the same result of all the 3 expressions. So, once it is
matched then we can say that it is converged. So, this Tc1 and Tc2 we have assumed, now
what we need to do for calculation of hp 1 means low heat transfer coefficient from plate to
the cover 1, then we need to take average of this Tpm and Tc1. So, this Tmean Tmean will be
346.15 which is nothing but Tpm plus we have this is Tc1, Tc1 is 328 divided by 2 which will
give us a value which is equal to 337.075 to be precise in K.
So, once we know this Tmean, then we can get the data for air at this temperature because in
between we will have air, no liquid is there so our tips will be here. So, in centigrade it will
be 63.925 °C. Now what we need to do? We need to use this property table. So, since this is
at Celsius so we have 62, this value is in between here so we have to interpolate. So, to get
the values of all like we need the Prandtl number, Kinematic viscosity then thermal
diffusivity, conductivity, all those values are required.
So, if we calculate it, it is found to be   1.9348 105 m2/s meter square per second, and k
is thermal conductivity is 0.02837 W/m-K and Prandtl number is 0.7192. So, these values we
can get from the property table, we must know that air is there in between these 2 plates, no
fluid is present. So, once we know these values, then what we need to calculate? We need to
calculate the Rayleigh number.
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So, let me calculate the Rayleigh number. So, this is Ra cos  so Ra is nothing but Grashof
number multiplied by Prandtl number then we have cos  . So, this is nothing but that
gTL3
is and then you have Prandtl number because these values are known to us and we
2
have cos  . So, this beta this is nothing but 1/ Tmean what we have just calculated at which
we have taken the property data. So, this is something like 1 /337.075, this is for  and then
  1.9348 105 .
So, this is something like this, then we have T 346.15 minus 328, and length is given as,
length means the distance between these 2 plates, so this is 0.05, this is a characteristic length
and we have Prandtl number as 0.7192. So this is found to be, and of course we need to
multiply by cos  ,  value is 23? So, if we do the analyses, then what we will get is
something like 116770.384. So, this value is for Ra cos  . So now, we have to apply the
appropriate correlations. So, let us check which correlation can be used for estimation of heat
transfer coefficient from absorber plate to the glass cover 1.
So, let us go back and see this value you should remember 116770. So, see you check
116770. So, we must use the correlation here. So, our value falls in between this range, so we
need to apply this correlation. So, this correlation Nusselt number is equal to 0.157 then
Ra cos  0.285. So, since you have already understood what is Nusselt number and other
parameters then straightaway you can calculate what is the heat transfer coefficient, so this is
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nothing but hp-c1, then multiplies by characteristics length L, this is k is the conductivity so
0.157 mean Ra cos  is something like 116770.3840.285.
4.366k
So, what will be hp-c1, this value multiplied by k by l. So, this is something like . So,
L
this is found to be 2.477 W/m2-K, hp-c1. So, this k value is 0.02837 and this l is 0.05. So, we
can know now what the value of hp-c1 is. Now what is next? We need to calculate what is a
hc1-c2? So, for this case what we need to do? We need to consider this temperature and this
temperature. So, already we have assumed that this Tc2 temperature is 306, this is 306 and we
328  306
have 328. So, what will be the mean temperature here, so Tmean will be . So which
2
will give us a value of 317 K, and which is nothing but 43.85 °C.
So this is the temperature, so now properties of air need to be taken at a temperature of 43.85,
so just go back to this slide. This is 43, so properties will be in between this 40 and 45, so we
need to find out the properties by doing some kind of calculation here. So, this is 43? This is
in between in between 40 and 45, so we need to apply this our principle like interpolation. So,
I will just show 1 calculation, so if I am interested for say Prandtl number, so this variation is
not much. You can take this average here, say for example diffusivity. If I am interested to
measure diffusivity at 43, then what we need to do? 2.346 105
So you see it is increasing, so then you have to plus, so we need to differentiate it, this maybe
2.416 minus 2.346 divided by 5 into 3 say 43 I am interested. So, that way we can calculate at
43 what will be the value of this thermal diffusivity. So, this kind of calculations we need to
do for all the other parameters. So, at temperature 43 the values of thermal diffusivity  will
be something like this. So, this is the way we can find out the values, these values are not
given in the table.
So, we use the appropriate values and we can do the calculation now. So, at this conditions as
per my calculation, so it is found to be  is equal to kinematic viscosity is 1.7389 105 m2/s,
and the K is equal to 0.0269 W/m-K, and the Prandtl number is equal to 0.7246. So, these
values are known to us then we can calculate what is Ra cos  . So, this expression already
gTL3
known to us so beta this , then Prandtl number then we have cos  . So,  this is
2
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here, 1/Tmean, so 1/Tmean is 317, also it will be in K, and multiplied by 9.81 and delta T is now
between 2 glass covers. So, delta T is in between these 2, so this will be 328 minus 306.
So, this will be 328 minus 306 right. And we will have  2 , now L is again now distance
between these 2 plate is 0.053, and here a  2 is 1.7389 105 , this is square and multiplied by
Prandtl number, what is the value of Prandtl number here? 0.7246 cos 23 . So, this is found to
be 187710.11, this is Ra cos  , so this is known now. So, once you know this, then we can
again see which correlation is appropriate for us, this is 187710, so again the same correlation
to need to apply. This value is also in between this range so same correlation we need to
apply.
So correlation is here, so hc1-c 2, then we have l/k is equal to 0.157 then 187710.11 to the
power of 0.285. So, on calculation what value we will get is hc1-c 2 is nothing but 2.6889
W/m2-K so this value we got. What next we want, hw. So, how to calculate hw? So, already
we know the expression for hw, which is also given here in the problem. So, these
hw  5.7  3.8u .
So, this is 5.7  3.8u . So, these values are given 5.7  3.8  0.7 . So, this is found to be 15.96
so this is W/m2-K. So, we know now hp-c1 hc1-c2 then hw. So, now go back to this expression.
So, these values are calculated now, this is known, this is known, this is known and these are
the assumed values. Now, we need to check what is the value for this expression, what is the
value for this expression, what is the value for this expression? If these values are not equal
then we have to come back to here again and we have to select 2 values of Tc1 Tc2, which
gives approximately similar result of all these 3 equations. So, if we use now this equation 1,
2 and 3.
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qt
So, if we use equation 1 then 2 and 3. So, already we have done it like for this equation
Ap
qt q
and then for this equation, then t for this equation. So, this expression is known to us.
Ap Ap
So, if you do the calculation, so what we have already I had done the calculation, so if you
substitute those values, then we will get something like this.
So, if 328 was the first assumption for Tc1 and 306 for Tc2, then by using the equation 1 we
will get this value, 167.498. And by using equation 2 we get 176.803, and by using equation
461
3 we get 196.749. So, since the variation is very, very high, we cannot use this combination
to calculate qt values. So, then we need to assume another sets of data, so as per my
calculations what I have done, I have varied the temperature to 327 for Tc1 and then 305 for
Tc2, and it is found that this approximation gives very close result. So, it is about 176.925,
175.391 and 175.293, so these are very, very close.
So what we can do, we can take average of these 3 results. If we take the average, then what
qt q
we will get is 175.869. So, this value we can take for calculation of . So, this t will be
Ap Ap
175.869, this should in W/m2. So, what happens now, this is a W/m2, we will calculate what
qt
is Ut. So, top loss coefficient top loss coefficient that is Ut is nothing but, then you will
Ap
have (Tpm  Ta ) . So, this value is 175.869 to Tpm. So, Tpm was (346.15-298.15). So, once you
do this calculation then what we will get is the value for Ut which is nothing but 3.664 W/m2-
K, this is Ut. So, Ut is done. Then, we can calculate what is bottom loss coefficient and side
loss coefficient.
ki
So, for bottom loss coefficient, bottom loss coefficient that is, U b  , ki is the conductivity
b
of the insulation and  b is the thickness. So, this value is 0.07 in this problem and  b is given
as 0.1 meter, so it will be 0.7 W/m2-K. So, Ub also we have calculated now, then we will
calculate side loss or edge loss. Side loss coefficient, side loss coefficient that is Us is, we can
( L1  L2 )hki
use that equation U s  . So, if you substitute those values, L1 and L2 is 1.9 is the
L1L2 s
length, and width is 0.9 and h is height is 0.2 and then we will have ki is 0.07, and then we
will have L1 is 1.9 multiplied by 0.9 into  s is given as 0.05, side thickness is 0.05.
So, what is the height here? I will go back here to get this height. So, this is 5 centimeters,
this is 5 centimeter and this is 10 centimeter. So, 5 plus 5 plus 10 is becomes 20 centimeter.
So, 20 centimeter means 0.2 meter that is how is the height of the collector so, this is nothing
but the h. So, what we have to use for calculation of side loss coefficient. So, this is what we
got this 0.2, and once you do these calculations then Us is found to be 0.4585 W/m2-K. So,
this Us is something like this.
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So, as we know overall loss coefficient overall loss coefficient overall loss coefficient can be
defined as U l  U t  U b  U s . So, if we substitute those values Ul  3.664  0.4  0.4585 3.664
plus Ub is 0.7 plus 0.4585, so it is found to be 4.8225 W/m2-K. So, this is the overall loss
coefficient which is in between 2 to 10 W/m2-K which is recommended, so our design is a
good design. So, losses are not much so this design can be adopted. So, I will just briefly tell
what we have done in this problem. So, problem was something like calculation of overall
loss coefficient.
So, in order to find out the overall loss coefficient we need 3 parameters; one is top loss
coefficient, one is bottom loss coefficient and one is side loss coefficient, these 3 loss
coefficients are required to calculate Ul. To find out this Ut, we have adopted trial and error
methods. So, we know the heat exchange between this plate to the glass cover 1 can be
represented by this equation and then heat exchange from this plate 1 to plate 2 can be
represented by this equation and then from plate 2 to ambient can be represented by this
equation, it involves 2 components, radiative heat transfer components and convective heat
transfer component in all the 3 cases.
So what we did first, we have substituted those values and we have identified the unknowns,
the hp-c1, is hc1-c2 ,hw these are unknown and this was calculated by using standard
correlations. And Tc1 and Tc2 are unknown for us, we have assumed it sets of values and we
try to see the numerical values what we have received based on this assumption, if these
values are found to be same for 3 cases then that set can be considered as the final glass
temperatures or cover temperatures. And also we need to find out the properties at the mean
temperature of these 2 parallel plates for all the cases.
So, if we are interested about this, then we need to consider the plate temperature and then
glass over temperature then we have found out the values of Tmean and then we can get the air
data from the property table, then we can use it for calculation of these 3 values. So, we have
done the calculations how this can be applied. So, once we know Ra cos  , then we must
check which correlation to be used for this appropriate application, then once we are finalized
with that, then from that we can calculate what is hp-c1, and accordingly you can calculate,
what is hc1-c2 and then hw.
So, once you know this, then we need to check whether all are same or not, if it is not same,
then we have to go back again and we have to consider a new set of Tc1 and Tc2. And that will
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qt
continue till we get a uniform result of for all the 3 equations. So, first set of reading we
Ap
got this which are different from each other, then finally what we got is a very close values
given by all the 3 equations, then we have taken the average, and once you know these
values, then straightaway we can calculate what will be the top loss coefficient because we
know the expression qt  U t Ap (Tpm  Ta ) .
So, heat loss is taking place from the plate to the ambient. So, these values are known to us
and this is calculated, from that we have calculated the Ut, then we have calculated the Ub,
these are the standard equations, then side loss coefficients we have calculated, then overall
loss coefficients we have calculated which are the sum of all the 3 losses or loss coefficients.
So, which is found to be 4.822 and which is fall in the recommended values which is 2 to 10
W/m2-K. So, that way we can calculate the loss or estimate the losses taking place in a flat
plate collector.
So, there are empirical relations available. So, without going this trial and error we can
straightway use some kind of established correlation to find out Ut values of the particular
collector. So, this correlation was developed by Klein. So, these are very long correlation and
there are are set of datas, we need to check what is the will of Tpm that has to be in between
320 to 420 K, then what is the ambient temperature, this ambient temperature must be in
between 260 to 310 K.
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Then what is the emissivity of the plate, it should be from 0.1 to 0.95, then what is the
velocity of the wind and then number of covers and then what is the tilt angle, all those things
need to be in the range, then only we can use this correlation. And one more correlations
which is developed by Malhotra Et al. So, these correlations can also be used for calculation
of top loss coefficients without doing the iteration method.
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So, we can summarize what we have discussed today. Primarily, we have discussed the heat
loss from the collectors, what are different heat losses, and then heat loss coefficients like top
loss coefficient, bottom loss coefficient, side loss coefficient. And if we combine all these
losses, what we will get is an overall loss coefficient. We have also solved problems, how to
calculate losses associated with FPCs.
There are 2 techniques; one iterative techniques for calculation of Ut or top loss coefficient or
we can go for standard correlation for estimation of Ut values. So, I hope you understand
what we have discussed today. And these are the basis of estimation of losses, and which
finally give the information about the performance of a flat plate collector. So, thank you
very much for watching this video.
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Centre for Energy
Lecture 21
Analysis of Flat Plate Collector
Dear students. Today we will be discussing about collector efficiency factor and collector
heat removal factor of a flat plate collector.
See now we know how to develop an energy balance equation. So with the previous
experience we can write straight way what is the energy balance equation at the absorber
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plate. And also this S is nothing but the flux which is received by the absorber plate which
can be expressed by using this expression. So S   av I T . So earlier we have this S is a
function of many parameters so we can simplify it by introducing this term  av in I t.
So let us now consider a flat plate collector with two glass cover system. So we have an
absorber plate here this is the absorber plate and this is glass cover 1, this is glass cover 2
which is at temperature Tc1 for glass cover 1 and Tc2 for glass cover 2 and Ta is the ambient
temperature.
So if we need to know the radiative exchange or say energy or heat transfer between two
plates, if we need to understand the heat exchange between plate and glass cover 1, we have
some expressions of something like this and then in between these glass cover we can use this
expression to calculate the rate of heat exchange and finally heat exchange from this glass
cover 2 to ambient can be estimated by using this expression.
So if we see those expressions very precisely what we can see in all the three expressions
there are two components, one component is for convective part and other component is for
radiative part. All the three cases we can see this is convective part and this is radiative part,
this is convective part and this is radiative part. So if I am interested to draw thermal
resistance of this two cover system then this may be for convective part and this may be for
radiative part.
So if we start from this absorber so as we understand these two components this is for
convective part, this is for radiative part when heat exchange is taking place from this
absorber plate to the glass cover 1 and then from glass cover 1 to glass cover 2 we have these
two expression and then from glass cover 2 to ambient we will have these two expression and
then this part is towards the bottom these are the resistances. So, finally if I am interested to
know the resistances between the plate so we can draw this.
This R1 is from glass cover 2 to ambient and this R2 is from glass cover 1 to 2 and R3 is from
absorber plate to glass cover 1 and this part is the bottom loss or bottom resistance part. So if
we combine all then what we will get is a Ul. So this U l  U t  U b  U s which is already been
demonstrated how these are connected and how this Ut can be calculated. So, finally what we
will have so this will be something like overall loss coefficient so finally this will be an
overall or say equivalent thermal network for an FPC which is considered in this discussion.
468
So now let us understand the temperature profile so here what I mean to say let us consider a
collector of something like this and let us consider two tubes are there, just we have
considered two tubes and this may be y and this may be x direction. So we are now interested
to develop the temperature profile. So how it will be so temperature will be something like
this.
So this is a temperature profile so this will be the temperature and we can extend this in the x
direction at a fixed value of y. So this will be the temperature profile, so what is showing
here, so above this or in the tubes so here temperature will be constant and in between
temperature variations will be there, it will reach a maximum and then it reduces and then it
will be uniform. And if I am interested to know along the flow direction then what will be the
temperature profile.
Let us draw it so along the flow direction so this may be T and this may be y and this may be
x. So here what I can draw this temperature profile will be this is T and then we have y and
this will vary something like this. So if this will be at a fixed value of x. So this is along the
flow of the fluid and this temperature profile is in between the two tubes. So these profiles are
important while deriving the expression for collector efficiency factor.
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Now let us understand how this qu are related with F ' which is nothing but collector
efficiency factor and an FR which is nothing but collector heat removal factor. So already we
know this expression for useful heat gain qu  Ap S  ql which is nothing but the losses and S
is a function of many variables, but we can simplify S   av I T that also we can write or we
can very precisely we can use this expression and ql  U l Ap (T pm  Ta ) .
So if we know Ut top loss coefficient then bottom loss coefficient then side loss coefficient
then we can calculate what is Ul and once we know Ul then we can calculate what is ql. So
once we know ql, on substitution here in this energy balance equation we can calculate what
will be the useful energy gain since we know this S value. Now if we substitute this value and
we simplify then what we will get qu  Ap S  U l Ap (T pm  Ta ) .
So this expression if we need to calculate this qu or useful heat gain we must know this
temperature. Ambient temperature is always known to us, but Tpm it is very difficult to know
this Tpm. So, if we do not know this Tpm then what will be our next target to simplify this
calculation with a known value of this temperature. So what kind of temperature we can use
it to simplify this equation.
So keeping this in mind these two expressions are developed this qu is equal to F ' of
something and then we will have Tf this is local fluid temperature and this Hottel Whillier
Bliss equation who has developed this expression for useful heat gain is a function of Tfi
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because this Tfi is always known to us inlet fluid temperature we can always measure
different rate of fluid in the tube.
So once we know this Tfi of course straightaway you can calculate what will be the qu if we
know this other parameter Ul and S. So this F ' is nothing but collector efficiency factor
which is defined as the ratio of the actual useful heat collection rate to the useful heat
collection rate which would occur if the collector absorber plate are at the temperature of T fi.
So this is the definition of collector efficiency factor and its value ranges from 0.8 to 0.95.
And how to define this FR this collector heat removal factor is defined as the ratio of the
actual useful heat collection rate to the useful collection rate which would occur if the
collector absorber plate are at the temperature of Tfi everywhere. So this temperature should
be Tfi and here it will be Tfi this local fluid temperature and this Tfi is nothing but inlet fluid
temperature and its value varies from 0 to 1. So this FR can be expressed something like this.
So we will derive one by one how this F ' can be estimated and then finally how this FR can
be estimated.
So now let us derive the expression for collector efficiency factor. So we adopt the
methodology of 1D analysis or one-dimensional analysis. So in the first approach is one-
dimensional flow of heat in the absorber plate in a direction at right angles to the direction of
the fluid flow is considered and second consideration or second approach is the heat flow
from the plate to the fluid across the tube wall and third approach is one-dimensional flow of
fluid inside the tubes.
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So let us consider this configuration so this is an absorber plate of say thickness dp and two
tubes are considered in the collector and let the pitch be W and if we consider L2 is the width
of the plate then what we can say this L2  W  N . So that we can do and L1 be the length of
the collector or length of the tube and Di is the internal diameter of the tube and Do is the
outer diameter of the tube.
And as you can see these are the dashed line, these are nothing but the adhesive used to bond
this tube here in the absorber plate. So let us concentrate with this small section here and this
is the x and small section is dx in between these two tube and we will apply the knowledge of
heat transfer here so heat will be conducted from here and then same amount of solar
radiation will be falling from the top which will be transferred through this absorber plate to
this fluid.
So by taking a slice this is dy so this dy will be something like this, this will be dy along the
flow direction and neglecting heat conduction in the plate in the direction the energy balance
for an element dxdy of the plate we can write the net heat conducted into the element so the
heat conducted from this plate to this fluid and the incident solar absorbed the amount of
energy which is absorbed here which is nothing but the heat loss from the element.
And here as you can see this is a temperature profile what we have discussed before. So in
between the tubes variation of temperature will be there, but in the tube this temperature is
not varying it is a constant because heat is carried by the fluid again this will go something
like this again one more tube will come. So this will vary along x direction.
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So now if we write the same expression again. This net heat conducted into the element plus
incident energy balance minus heat loss from the element is 0. So what is the net heat
conducted into the element? So we can use this expression for conduction and then amount of
incident energy absorbed we can write S×dx×dy this is the area because we have considered
this small segment so this is dx along this and then this is dy.
So it will be like something like this and this loss will be Tp so here we are using Tp instead
of Tpm that a plate temperature we are not using m here T p  Ta dxdy is the area. So if we
divide the entire expression by dxdy so our expression will be something like this. And again
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d 2Tp
we can simplify further so will be something like this because Ul/kpdp and then if we
dx 2
S
take Ul outside then this will be free from Ul ,  .
Ul
dp
Now there are boundary conditions so what are the boundary conditions at x=0  0 . So
dx
as you can see here if we consider if we go back here if x is 0 may be here at this point x is 0.
dp
So this is the peak so this is gradient will be 0 here that is why  0 . So this is the
dx
boundary condition 1 and at x 

W  Do  at Tp is equal to To.
2
Do D
So that also we can see this is W this part is and also this part is o so W- D so this is
2 2
Do Do W D
 , will be D so W- D so . So that means this is the one so at Tp is equal to Tpo.
2 2 2
Ul
So now we will define a term called m which is m  and may be one term
k p
S
  Tp  Ta  .
Ul
d 2
So if we use this terminology in this expression then it will be something like 2
 m 2 .
dx
So this will be simplify like this and accordingly we have to modify this boundary conditions
so at x=0
d
 0 and at x 
W  Do  ,   T  T  S . So if we solve it then we will get
po a
dx 2 Ul
the general equation something like this and it is a hyperbolic function.
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So now let us solve this expression because this will be the end of the solution. Before we
come to this stage so we need to do something in between let us solve it. So we know the
d
 and then we can write  C1m cosh mx  C2 m sinh mx . So we can use the boundary
dx
d
condition here so x=0  0 . So C1m cos 0  C2 m sin 0 so C1 will be 0.
dx
So again we know the first equation so we need to find out the C2 value so how to calculate
S  W  Do 
the C2 value so Tpo  Ta   C1 sinh mx  C2 cosh m  so C1 is 0 that expression we
Ul  2 
can C1 sin of hmx because C1 is 0 that part will be 0 and plus C2 cos of hcos when we use the
475
second boundary condition. So at x 
W  Do  . So T will be we can go back to that this is
2
the boundary condition.
S
The   Tpo  Ta  so that way we can use this so this is nothing  part. So this is first
Ul
boundary condition and here hm

W  Do  . So once we simplify it then what we will get C
2
2
will be Tpo  Ta 
S
and this will be divided by cosh m
W  Do  . So if we substitute this
Ul 2
value in that expression for  this what we will get is the general solution.
S
So just one step I will do here so this will be   Tpo  Ta  is equal to so C2 is something
Ul
like this Tpo  Ta 

S
divided by cosh m
W  Do  . So multiplied by coshmx so if we divide
Ul 2
S
this expression the entire expression by this Tpo  Ta  so what we will get is the yield of
Ul
the solution so this will be something like this.
T p  Ta so we can just modify the expression so this will be something like this. So once we
are done with the solution, next phase is to calculate the rate at which energy is conducted
through the plate to both the side of the tube because see we have considered this slab and
then we have the tubes what is considered was here. So when we are considering this so from
this side also heat will be conducted to this tube.
We are considering heat is coming from this side also we need to consider heat will come
from this side because it is a nearing tube. So one more tube will be here so temperature
profile will be here. So heat will be conducted from both the side to this tube. So that is why
 dTp 
we need to multiply this expression by 2, 2k p p   .
 dx  x  W  Do 
2
So if we need to differentiate this Tp then again we have to use this expression so what
happens this
dTP
we can do here. So this
dTP
at x is equal to
W  Do  . So what will be the
dx dx 2
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expression for this we can straight away use this expression and we can do it, if we use this
S
here then it will be something like Tpo  Ta  .
Ul
So m will come out here and then it will be sinh m

W  Do  divided by cosh m
W  Do  . So
2 2
1
 U 2 S
this will give a value of something like  l  and then we have Tpo  Ta  is equal to
k   Ul
 p p
tanh m
W  Do  . So now you can simplify it, since you know this and then already k dp is
p
2
2k p
multiplied here so we can simplify it and then finally what we will have this will
Ul
come here and then other expression will be same as this expression.
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Now the rate at which energy is absorbed just above the tube also we know. So Do is the
outer diameter of the tube and this expression is known to us. So we can straightaway use it
for calculation of rate at which energy is absorbed in the tube, just above the tube. So if we
add this two expression this equation B expression and then equation A expression. So what
we will have dq is equal to N multiplied by this expression.
So this is common so I have skipped one step here so since this part is common so we can
take it out and we can now introduce two part in the bracket. So also this plate effectiveness
is defined as the ratio of the heat conducted through the plate through the fluid tube to the
heat which would have been conducted if the thermal conductivity of the plate material was
infinite.
So under that consideration we can define this effectiveness. So effectiveness will be
something like tanh m

W  Do  to m
W  Do  . So this can be utilized in this expression C
2 2
and then we can modify this expression something like this. So this expression is in terms of
rate effectiveness phi so phi is multiply here.
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Now next step is to calculate the flow of heat from the plate to the fluid. So when we are
talking about flow of heat from the plate to the tube then we must consider three thermal
resistances because heat will be lost. So why this heat loss will be there, so these thermal
resistances need to be considered. So what are those; the adhesive used for attaching the tube
to the absorber plate, then tube wall as you can see these are the adhesive used here in this
expression this is the plate and then this is the tube wall.
And then heat transfer coefficient at the inner surface of the tube so this is your inner surface
of the tube. So these resistances are offered so this can be represented by this resistance line.
So since the material of construction of this tube is copper, so it offers very less resistance to
the heat flows so because of that this is not considered in the present derivation. So if we do
not consider this and only these two are considered then our expression will be something
like this.
1  dqu 
  is something like T po  To to these two resistances. One is for the adhesive used and
N  dy 
then second one is for the heat transfer coefficient at the inner surface of the tube. So this
delta is the average thickness of the adhesive and ka is the thermal conductivity of the
adhesive material and Tf is the local fluid temperature and hf is the heat transfer coefficient on
the inside surface of the tube.
479
So now we can use these equations and then we can arrive at a expression of something like
this. So here what we did by using this equation D and E we tried to remove this T po and final
expression will be something like this. Now we can define this collector efficiency factor F '
is nothing but this. So which is nothing but ratio of the actual useful heat gain rate per unit
length to the gain which would occur if the collector absorber plate were all at the
temperature of Tf.
So now again we can simplify and we can have this equation this F ' you can use in equation
1  dqu 
F then this will be a very simple equation    WF ' S  U l Ti  Ta  . Now once you
N  dy 
know this then from that we can calculate what will be the useful heat gain qu is equal to F '
multiplied by this expression.
480
Now let us see what happens if the configuration changes. So this expression is for the tube
bonded above the absorber plate so you can see the cases what we have derived just now that
was for the tube which is attached below this absorber plate. Now if you see the case when
this tubes are attached above the absorber plate then expression will be something like this
and sometimes this inline configuration are also used in absorber plate.
So this is the absorber plate in the same line we will have this tubes. So if this is the case then
we need to use the expression for F ' something like this. So straight away we can use those
expression for calculation of collector efficiency factor for these two configurations.
481
Now come to the analysis part for collector heat removal factor. So in this case also one
dimensional analysis along the direction of the flow will be considered. So objective is to
determine the variation of fluid temperature along the direction of fluid flow. As we have
discussed the temperature variation so it goes something like this so this is an inlet of the
fluid and this Tfo is the outlet of the fluid temperature.
So it varies something like this, at the outlet of course we will get the highest temperature. So
this is the variation of fluid temperature in the flow direction. So if we consider small control
volume here, this is a control volume, so dy is the thickness and if we apply the first law of
thermodynamics that is the rate of change of enthalpy of the fluid flowing through the control
volume is equal to the rate of heat transfer to the fluid inside the control volume.
So if we use this first law of thermodynamics then it will be something like this because we
know qu  mC p dT . Since we are dealing with the N number of tubes which is attached in a
flat plate collector because of that N has to be considered here and this qu represent in terms
 dT f 
of Tf so our expression will be something like this. So we can write   will be something
 dy 
like this. Now we can derive the expression.
482
dT f WF 'U l  S  
So we can write    Ta   T f  . So this will be equal to 0 maybe we can
dy  .   U l  
 m C
 N  p
 
S
write this expression maybe star I will write. So now let us consider say  f   Ta  T f and
Ul
WF 'U l d f
p . Now if I will differentiate it, then what we will have these are constant so
 .  dy
 m C
 N  p
 
dT f
this will be minus .
dy
So if we use the expression star here I have not yet mentioned the boundary condition we will
use here. So it will be something like so boundary condition was so when y is equal to 0 then
Tf is equal to Tfi which is obvious. So if we modify this boundary conditions if y is equal to 0
then we have  f   fi . So here so equation star implies what we can write is something like
d f
 is equal to this part is p and again this part is  f is equal to 0.
dy
So again what we can write if we multiply both side with minus 1 so df  f is dy then we have
d f
plus this f is equal to 0 or we can write   pdy and if we integrate what we will get
f
ln  f   py  c . So this is an differential equation. So this is the solution of this so on
integration what we will have ln  f   py  c .
Now apply the boundary conditions by applying Bc’s what will happen so at y is equal to 0
this equation we need to use at y is equal to 0  f   fi . So ln of the fi this y0 means this
expression will be 0 so C will be  fi . This maybe you can write double star so now using this
in double star equation this star so ln  f   py  ln  fi .
 f 
So if we now deduct  fi from both the sides then it will be something like ln     py is
 
 fi 
equal  f   fie  py . So we can substitute those values p and  here, so if we substitute this
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WF 'U l
 y
 . 
m
 N C p
S S  
then  f   Ta  T f is equal to so  fi is how much. It will be  Ta  T fi  e  
and.
Ul Ul
So this minus is here. So our expression will be something like this.
484
So now we move to the next slide, so if we divide both the expression by S-Ul +Ta -Tfi then
what we will have this divided by this will be this part. So that is how we will show here so
this will be something like this. So this fluid outlet temperature so one more thing I missed
here so here as I know N×W is L2 so which is applied here this is applied here.
If you go back so you can see WN is the bottom side and then if you multiplied by W× N is
something like L2 that is how we can write L2 here. Now the fluid outlet temperature Tfo at y
is equal to L1 so because length of the tube is L1 so Tf is equal to Tfo that is obvious so tube is
here. This is the so y it was 0 and when it was y is equal to L1 so this is nothing but this is Tfi
this is Tfo.
485
So that is how we can write this expression something like this. So this will be at here at the
outlet and if it is the outlet then y will vary from 0 to L1 so that is how it is L1 here. Now if
we deduct this expression from both side so this will be something like this so we will have
this kind of expression Tfo - Tfi divided by this expression is equal to 1 minus exponential of
that considered P.
Now what we were interested about this useful heat gain so this useful heat gain rate for the
collector is something like this mC p dT . So if some amount of mass is flowing inside this
tube and Cp specific heat of fluid is known and then these two temperature inlet and outlet
temperature is known, then straightaway we can calculate the useful heat gain rate for the
collector which is dT .
So we can modify this expression because this is known to us now. So if we know this
multiplied by this then we will have this expression. So now what we can see here this qu is in
terms of Tfi only we need that inlet fluid temperature. So once we know this inlet fluid
temperature another expression then straight away we can calculate what is qu which is much
easier than calculating qu in terms of mean plate temperature Tpm.
So this qu is equal to FRAP of something like this. So what is FR now? FR can be expressed
something like this. So this FR is nothing but collector heat removal factor which is very, very
important parameter for performance of a flat plate collector. Also this is an important design
parameter since it is a measure of the thermal resistance encountered by the absorbed solar
radiation in reaching the collector fluid.
So why it is important you understood now and finally what expression we get is something
 
like qu  FR Ap S  U l T fi  Ta  so qu is related with Tfi and this is a famous equation developed
by Hottel Whillier and Bliss and this expression also known as Hottel Whillier Bliss
equation.
486
Now if we summarize about collector efficiency factor it goes something like this. We have
learned this how to calculate qu and also we can calculate instantaneous thermal efficiency.
So this expression will be something like this if we express in terms of F ' . So this collector
efficiency F ' is essentially constant for any collector design and fluid flow rate. This
collector efficiency factor decreases with an increase in the center-to-center distance of the
tube and increases with an increase in the material thickness and thermal conductivity.
An increase of overall loss coefficient decreases F ' whereas an increase in the fluid to tube
heat transfer coefficient increases F ' . So these are very, very important observations so we
should keep in mind why F ' is very, very important as far as design of a flat plate collector is
concerned.
487
So if we summarize about collector heat removal factor so already we have defined how this
FR can be calculated and which is the ratio of the rate of actual useful energy gain to the rate
of useful energy gain if the entire collector were at the fluid inlet temperature in a forced
circulation mode. So this is the expression for FR and also sometimes we can define a term
called flat plate flow factor.
So this is something like FR/ F ' so this is the expression for flat plate flow factor. So if we
plot the variation of F ' with respect to this expression so we can get this kind of plot. So this
is also important sometimes to know the variation of this flat plate flow factor with respect to
this flow rate factor.
488
Also instantaneous efficiency is important so at any moment if we need to know the

efficiency of the collector we can straight away use this expression once you know this tau
alpha value and this overall loss coefficient. So this is known to us now and this overall
collection of thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of useful gain to the incident solar
energy over the same period of time.
So if we have to calculate this collector efficiency we can integrate over time and we can
calculate it. So this is for useful heat gain and this is for the amount of solar radiation
received at a particular site, so straightaway you can calculate the collector efficiency. So this
expression is for instantaneous and this is for time based efficiency or collector efficiency all
we can say.
489
So we can solve one problem so this problem goes something like a FPC has an aluminum
absorber plate having thermal conductivity 211 W/m°C of thickness 0.35 mm and an area of
1.5 m2 and it has two riser tubes, so two tubes are there and diameter is given and length of
the tube is also given this length is given it is 1 meter. Determine the collector efficiency
factor F ' for this collector if the convective heat transfer coefficient from the inner tube
surface to the outer is 50,100 and 500 W/m2°C.
And overall heat transfer coefficient is given as 7.2 W/m2°C. We know the expression for m,
then plate effectiveness and F ' or collector efficiency factor. So once we substitute those
values so we will get this kind of values. So once this heat transfer coefficient changes we
can see the change in F ' values. So if we can increase this F ' value of course we can get the
higher useful heat gain.
490
So maybe we can solve one more problem. So it goes something like this a flat plate collector
with tube in-line with the absorber plate, so these configurations will be something like if you
have kind of configurations. So it goes something like this, this is in-line fluids are flowing in
this channel. So overall loss coefficient is given as 5.8 so this Ul is something like 5.8 W/m2-
K.
The inner and outer diameter of the tubes are given. So Do is given as 14 mm Di and D
naught is 18 mm and center-to-center distance this W is 12 centimeter. Fluid to tube heat
transfer coefficient is given as 205, so hf is given as 205 W/m2-K. So we are interested to
calculate collector efficiency factor that is F ' for the configuration of something like tube in-
line and absorber plate material two different materials are to be used.
So in the first case is copper having thickness 0.2 mm and second case absorber material is
galvanized iron and thickness is 1.3 mm and thermal conductivity of these two materials are
1
given. So let us start with this expression F '  and also we
 1 1 
WU l   
U l W  Do   Do  Di h f 
know the expression for  .
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 mW  Do  
tanh  
So this    2
mW  Do 
. So these values are known to us so straightaway we can
Ul
calculate which is  before that we must know what is m. So m  . So if we
k p p
substitute the values of Ul, Ul is 5.8 then what is kp, kp is so if we consider copper so in the
first case kp is 350 and  p is 0.2 103 so this thickness is  p .
So on substitution what will be the value of m it will be 9.10 this is the value. So this will be
in 1 by meter. So if we use this m here so I will just write tanh this will be 9.1 then W is how
much, it is 12 centimeter. So this will be in meter 0.12 and Do is 18 mm so this is 0.018. So
this divided by 2 and this will be m is 9.10 then we have 0.12 minus 0.018 divided by 2. So
this gives a value of 0.93389.
So if we use this  here and then substitute all those values. So here straightaway we can
substitute those values. So 1/W value is we have 0.12×Ul is 5.8 then we will have 1/Ul is
again 5.8 then you have I will use this then W is how much (0.12-Do) is 0.018 then  how
much we got already 0.93389 then we will have Do what is the value of Do here 0.018 then
1
plus is 0.014 ,hf is 205.
Di h f
So this gives a value of 0.880. So if we change the value of this thickness 1.2 and material is
galvanized iron and conductivity will change it will be 35. So what value we will get is about
0.856 as per my calculation. So we can see this one is always better than 856. So always we
will go for this copper based absorber plate. So that is how the kind of material to be used for
a particular applications will be decided by those calculations. So once we know this
F ' values then we can decide, so which one will be the best for the particular application, so
that is what it is demonstrated in this example.
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Also sometimes transient analysis is important because you need to know what is happening
with time, how much time it will take to get an uniform temperature of the absorber plate. So
this kind of expressions can be generated for transient analysis. So this expression can be
used either to find the time taken by the collector to reach the mean plate temperature
corresponding to the prescribed fluid inlet temperature or to determine the mean plate
temperature after a certain amount of time has been elapsed. So straight away we can use this
equation for those two conditions.
And this slide shows the specifications of a commercial flat plate collector. So all the
information are here as you can see like overall collector area, aperture area, absorber area,
weight capacity then the solar glass transmission then solar radiation absorption, solar
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radiation emission then efficiency and efficiency coefficient, maximum operating pressure,
stagnation temperature and then material and construction, the kind of material, absorber
sheet what are the material it is aluminum, absorber plate coating.
So what kind of coating it is a selective coating we will discuss those selective coating may
be in the next class. Then absorber tube what kind of tube material used as a absorber tube
then frame glazing all the information we must know when we go for purchase of this kind of
solar flat plate collector for may be commercial purpose or may be research purpose. So I
hope by now you understand the importance of those terminologies what we have discussed.
So as a layman all people know about this, but now technicality we must know how these are
connected with commercial aspects.
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Now we will learn something about combination of flat plate collectors. There might be some
cases when we need to connect the flat plate collectors in series or may be in parallel or may
be both means series and parallel. So in case of parallel connections, the upper and lower
headers of each FPC are connected to increase the volume of the water to be heated. The
mass flow rate per FPC is the total mass flow rate divided by the number of FPCs.
The outlet temperature or outlet water temperature is the same as the outlet of each FPCs
because these are connected in parallel and these are the headers. So this may be one
temperature say inlet and outlet so outlet temperature will be same this outlet temperature
will be same. This temperature, this temperature, this temperature will be same for all the
collectors when it is connected in parallel. So this FPC models can operate in natural as well
as forced mode.
This may be thermosiphonic because of this density difference mass movement of the fluid
will be there as temperature increases that is called natural or if some kind of pumps another
devices are used that becomes forced. So for series connection what happens this is the
collector 1, this may be collector 2, so it may be inlet, this is outlet. So outlet will be
connected to inlet here and then this outlet will go to the other collector. So other collector
here as a inlet so that way we can maximize the temperature. So here we can maximize the
volume.
And here we can maximize the temperature. So volume of water and this temperature of the
water if water is a heat transfer fluid. So this outlet of one row of FPC is connected with the
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inlet to the second row of the FPC and that continuous as per the requirement. The mass flow
rates are the same for all the rows. The outlet temperature depends on the number of rows of
FPC connected in series.
So this temperature depends on the number of this kind of FPCs are connected in series. So
such series connected FPC module can only operate in the force mode. So here
thermosiphonic mode will not work so we need to apply some kind of active devices like
pumps and of course we will have some other configurations like mixed connection
combination.
So the first FPCs are connected in parallel for a given capacity of the hot water to make one
row and such modules formed are connected in series to increase the temperature as per the
requirement. So this is generally referred to as arrays. So we know the arrays for PV systems
and we can also define similar kind of configurations here in case of flat plate collectors. So
this FPCs arrays will only operate in the forced mode, we need to apply some kind of active
devices.
So here we can see the parallel connections so this FPC 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 these are connected in
parallel so this is header and this is one more header this is for inlet, this is for outlet so this
temperature are same for all the collectors or we can maximize the volume of water to be
heated or required for particular application.
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And in case of mixed connections we will have this kind of configurations. These tubes are
connected in parallel again these are connected in series. This three are connected in parallel
and then these are connected in parallel but know these shapes, this one and this one are
connected in series so in order to get the desired temperature and mass flow rate. So this kind
of configurations are really applicable in community places like may be hostels or may be in
apartments.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:00:34)
So let us summarize what we have discussed today, we discussed energy balance of an

absorber plate then thermal resistance network then temperature profile of a FPC. So what
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happens in the x direction and y direction. So if we consider two tubes its variation will be
something like it varies then it will be something like this. So here heat is carried by the fluid
so there is no rise in temperature, but in between this rise will be there and also you have
studied how heat is conducted to this tube through conduction as well as the amount of heat
received from the solar flux.
So we have analyzed the collector efficiency factor as well as collector heat removal factor
and also we have understood the importance of these two factors in designing flat plate
collector and also we have studied instantaneous efficiency and collector efficiency. And also
we have studied the series and parallel connection of collectors and what condition we can
use series connection and what condition we can use it as a parallel connection. Of course we
can combine both as per the requirement of amount of volume of water required and
particular temperature required. So thank you very much for watching this video. Thank you.
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Centre of Energy
Lecture 22
Influence of various parameters on the performance of LFPC
Dear students, today we will be discussing about the effect of various parameter on the
performance of flat plate collector and evacuated tube collector.
So there are different parameters which include design parameters, operational parameters,
meteorological parameters and environmental parameters.
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So while considering prominent parameters, we normally consider selective surfaces, number

of covers, collector tilt, cover transmissivity, fluid, inlet temperature, dust on the top cover,
spacing between the covers, shadings. So these are the prominent parameters which directly
influences the performance of a flat plate collector. So these parameters will be discussed one
by one.
So now, let us first discuss about selective surfaces. What is selective surfaces? The absorber
plate surface what we understand now, what is the absorber plate so we consider now the
absorber plate surface. The absorber plate surfaces which exhibit the characteristics of a high
value of absorptivity for incoming solar radiation and a low value of emissivity for outgoing
500
re-radiation are called selective surfaces. So this surface is desirable because they maximize
the absorption of solar energy and minimize the emission of radiation loss. These selective
surfaces would yield higher collector efficiency than obtained when the absorptivity and
emissivities are equal in case of non selective surfaces.
So this possibility of having selective surface in flat plate collector was first introduced by
Tabor followed by Gier and Dunkle. So what he has done, so he used to use this spectral
distribution of extra terrestrial radiation and blackbody radiation from a source which is
nothing but absorber plate. So if we plot it, so this peak is for the spectral distribution of extra
terrestrial solar radiation.
So peak is received normally at around 3 micron and it diminishes at 4 micron and if we talk
about this black absorber plate is something like our absorber plate what we are considering.
So if we maintain that temperature of 350 Kelvin, so if we plot this radiation spectrum, so we
will get something like this. So peak will be there at around 8.3, here is the 8.3 and very less,
no overlap has been observed here.
So if the surface that has high absorptivity for wavelength, so this is the wavelength, high
absorptivity of this wavelength of this range and low emissivity of this wavelength range. If
we can make such kind of system, then we can maximize the absorption of solar radiation. So
what we can comment on it. So if a surface that has a high absorptivity for wavelength less
than 4 micron, so here less than 4 micron.
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So it is more than 4 micron and this side is less than 4 micron and low emissivity for
wavelength greater than 4 micron can be prepared it would have the characteristics desirable
for an absorber plates surface to act in a selective fashion. So for an ideal selective surfaces
what are the desirable characteristics, this absorptivity and emissivity should be 1 for
wavelength less than 4 micron and this absorptivity and emissivity is 0 for wavelength greater
than 4 micron.
If we can make this kind of system, then we can maximize the amount of solar radiation
received in the collector system. So this layer normally less than 1 micron, the kind of layer
what we are talking about, say for example, this is an absorber plate, so on the top of it this
layer is placed. So this thickness of the layer is normally less than 1 micron. So this is nothing
but selective surfaces.
So what are different methods used for making the selective surface, maybe electroplating,
chemical conversion, then anode oxidation, maybe RF magnetron sputtering, then reactive
DC magnetron sputtering. So there are different methods of preparing these selective
surfaces. There are host of literature, people have done research on investigation of best
selective surfaces for maximization of solar radiation absorption. So it is a very good active
research.
So this most of the commercialized selective surface coatings are metal dielectric composite
coating known as Cermets. The Cermets consist of fine metal particles in a dielectric or
ceramic matrix or a porous oxides impregnated with metal. These thin films of these
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composites are transparent in the high wavelength region and strongly absorbing in the solar
wavelength region which is very, very important. Thus they form a selective surface when
deposited on a highly reflective metal surface.
This coating developed include nickel black, black chrome and nickel pigmented alumina and
this is suitable for flat plate collector applications up to a temperature of 100 degrees C.
Normally, for these kind of selective surfaces absorptivity varies from 0.88 to 0.94 and
emissivity varies from 0.28 to 0.49. So this is the range of these 2 parameter; absorptivity and
emissivity.
Now, let us see the effect of this selective surfaces, once we apply on the absorber plate, then
what happens, what benefit we are getting, so that will be demonstrated now. So this data is
an experimental observations taken from a book on solar energy principles of thermal
collection and storage written by Sukhatme and Nayak. So here what is shown, 2 different
selective surfaces and 1 non selective surfaces are considered.
So in case of selective surface 1, so absorptivity considers to be 0.94 and emissivity is 0.14

and selective surface 2 will have absorptivity is 0.95 and emissivity is 0.085 and for
nonselective both absorptivity and emissivity are same, which is equal to 0.94. So if we see
this table very precisely what we can see, in case of nonselective surface we can see the
losses, this is the overall loss coefficient which is about 7.26.
But when we apply this selective surface, what we got is overall loss coefficient is 4.12. It is
a significant reduction of losses. And here again, if we increase the selectivity, or if we
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increase the absorptivity, so we can further reduce the losses to 3.83. And if we see the
instantaneous efficiencies of all the 3 cases, so what we can see here, it is 43.6 for the first
selective surface, which is far higher than the non selective surfaces. And also you can see if
we improve the absorptivity we can have higher instantaneous efficiencies.
So what we can conclude, by utilizing this selective surface, we can significantly improve the
instantaneous efficiency of the collector. And also we can see how these losses can be
reduced by applying selective surfaces over the flat plate collector.
Now, let us consider the case if we increase the number of glass cover on the top of the
absorber plate when we apply selective coating. So for example characteristics of the
selective coating is something like absorptivity is 0.94 and emissivity is 0.14 and we have
considered 3 cases, one for single cover system, one for 2 cover system and one for 3 cover
system. As we can see this transmissivity absorptivity product for beam and diffuse radiation
is decreasing with increase in number of cover system.
So here in case of single cover system it is 0.8041 then in 2 cover system it is 0.6892 and here
you can see 0.5932 for 3 cover system. Similarly, there is a reduction of transmissivity
absorptivity product for diffused radiation, as number of cover increases from 1 to 3. So if we
see this instantaneous efficiency, which is found to be best for single cover system compared
to double and triple cover system.
So what does it mean? So single cover system is the best when we apply selective coating, so
that can reduce the maintenance cost of the flat plate collector. So with the addition of more
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covers efficiency of the collector goes on decreasing what we have observed in the
experimental table.
Now, let us have a look on the non selective surfaces, what happens here. So let us consider
the characteristics of  , that is absorptivity is 0.94 and emissivity is also 0.944 for a
nonselective case and also 3 cover system we have considered, so in the first case single
cover, in the second case 2 cover system and third case it is 3 cover system. So absorber plate
then glass cover 1, glass cover 2, glass cover 3. It is absorber glass cover 1, glass cover 2,
glass cover 3.
So as you can see this transmissivity absorptivity product for beam and diffuse radiation as
the number of cover increases, so this value is decreases. Then if we look into this
instantaneous efficiency part. So it is observed that when 2 cover systems are employed,
instantaneous efficiency is found to be best among these 3, which is about 35.3 percent. So if
we increase further this number of covers efficiency decreases.
So in case of non selective surfaces, if we increase the glass cover from 1 to 2, then it is
expected that we will get higher instantaneous efficiency. But if we increase further, so there
is a decrease in instantaneous efficiency. So as the number of cover increases the value of
beam and diffuse transmissivity absorptivity multiplication decreases, thus the flux absorbed
in the absorber plate decreases.
The addition of more covers also decreases the value of Ul which is nothing but overall loss
coefficient. For this region that useful heat gain goes to a maximum value with a certain
505
number of covers. So that optimized number of covers need to find out. So from our
investigation it is found that 2 cover system without selective surface is the good solution for
getting higher conversion efficiency.
Now, let us discuss something about collector tilt. So at what angle we need to maintain for
maximization of solar radiation absorption in the collector system. So what does it mean, if
we make this kind of collector, we have to maintain some kind of  , this is nothing but tilt.
So tilt angle. So this tilt angle is very, very important and this is a location specific and then
time specific. So these FPCs are normally used in a fixed position.
No tracking is employed in case of flat plate collectors and not track the sun, therefore, the
tilt angle at which they are fixed is very important. Because it will be fixed throughout the
year, so when we decide what angle to be fixed for the installation, then we need to be very
particular, otherwise we will be losing a lot of solar radiation. So optimum tilt depends on the
nature of the application, this is also important and there are host of literature, we have
developed many correlations and mathematical expression which can give the optimum value
of  or tilt angle for a particular location.
So Morse and Czarnecki, they have used extra terrestrial radiation falling on a collector and
they have used this expression for calculation, this is the annual insolation which will be watt
per meter square and integrating with this hour angle. And then finally, the amount of solar
radiation which is received in the extra terrestrial radiation can be calculated on annual basis.
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So they have defined a term called relative annual insolation which is nothing but the ratio of
the annual insolation for given values of  , this is  and  to the annual insolation for  is
equal to 0 and  is equal to 0. So once we know this, then from that also we can conclude
many more thing. So let us draw what they have investigated. So if we plot it in a vertical
axis, maybe relative annual insulation and in the horizontal axis we will have latitude which
is  .
And this is valid for  is equal to 0, which is nothing but azimuth angle. So if we have to
make, so maybe we can use this coordinate 10, 20, then we have 30, then we have 40, this is
something like this and maybe we can start with 0.7 here, then you have 0.8 then you have
0.9 and then we have 1. So it goes something like this, then we will have this, so this is an
important observation and it goes something like this and then this goes something like this.
So these are the experimental points and maybe you can plot it here. So this first line is for 
is equal to 0.95  and second plot is for  is equal to 1.2 into  and in this case  is equal
to 1.5 into  and this is  is equal to 0. So what we can conclude here, this latitude up to 30
degrees, so this is the 30 degree, small deviations of a degree or 2 from the optimum tilt will
not cause much change in the relative insolation. So this is the best one, so  is equal to 0.95
 , where we can get the maximum solar exposure.
So this plot shows the variation of relative annual insolation with respect to latitude. So if
latitude is more than 30, then we can see this relative annual insolation actually decreases. So
there are many correlations which can be used for calculation of this  optimum for
maximum solar radiation absorption in the collector.
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So for winter, the recommended value of tilt is   10 or   15 . So  is known and then if

we add 10 then that may we know we can consider for winter months. So what are the
applications in the winter months for water heating, space heating. So these are applications
in the winter month, if we have to use solar collector for this kind of applications. And for
summer months, this tilt angle variation maybe we can give   10 or   15 .
So in summer applications are absorption refrigeration plant. So once we know latitude, so

from that we can calculate the  value. Now, our concern is, say for some time we are trying
to install a collector system to meet the demands in the winter months. So in that particular
case, we need to find out the optimal  value for maximum exposure to the solar radiation
for the applications like space heating. And sometimes maybe throughout the year we are
interested, throughout the year we would like to maximize the amount of solar radiation
received by the collector.
And sometimes it might so happen that only summer months we are interested or people are
interested for maximization of receipt of solar radiation. So for all these 3 cases, we need to
find out what will be the best beta value. So how to find out. So this monthly average value
of the energy falling on a collector plane per unit area can be calculated by using this
expression. So this alpha a is nothing but monthly average altitude angle at noon. So monthly
average altitude angle at noon.
And total flux falling on the collector over the year can be calculated by using this
expression. So there are certain cases where we need to apply some other expression here. So
508
   
instead of  ai   , sometimes we need to apply  ai   . So these are conditional specific.
And again  s or  values how these will vary. So this discussion maybe we can take up when
we solve the problem.
And for annual flux to be maximum then from this expression, we can differentiate it and we
can find out this optimum value which is nothing but (tan-1Hbi). So this is i varies from 1 to
12, so for 12 months, we need to find out Hbi value and then we need to multiply with
tan    i  So  will also vary with months and finally, summation of Hbi we need to
consider.
Now, let us take a problem of something like this. The following radiations are measured for
the place having  value 8.48 North and then longitude is 76.95 degrees East. So we need to
calculate maximum tilt of a flat plate collector for 3 different cases. In the first case,
insolation falling on the area over the whole year is to be maximized. So now I want to
maximize the solar radiation received by the collector throughout the year. So for that we
need to consider all the months.
And second case insolation for the months of December, January and February is to be
maximized. And third case insolation for the month of April, May, June to be maximized. So
there are logics why these months are considered because we have specific application during
these summer and winter months. Actually this is degree and it is minute, this is in degree
509
and this is minute, this is degree and this is minute. So if this is so then what you can do we
can convert the entire  to in degree.
And these data are given to from January to December, Hb values are given in the problems
and N values we can take the middle of the month and we can sum it and delta can be find
 360
out by using the equation of what we have done already 23.45 sin  284  n  . So by
 365 
using this expression we can find out the  value for all the months. And once we know 
and  is known to us then    i  can be calculated here and then we can multiply this term
and tan    i  and we can see the results of this multiplication and finally, we can add these
values.
So as per the expression what we got. So  optimum for maximum absorption of solar
radiation we can use this expression. So if we substitute these values, then what we will get is
a 12.01 degree. So this tilt angle you need to be maintain in order to maximize the solar
radiation. And what will be the optimum tilt angle for case 2, December, January and
February? So here we need to find out these values, we need to find out December, January
and February, what are those values. So this I can explain here.
So  opt is something like tan inverse. So here positive we have to apply because this part is
 1.951  2.393  1.833 

positive. So  opt  tan 1   . So if we do the calculation then this
 3.101  4.162  4.442 
optimum value will be 12.01° and for this case again we need to consider April, May and
June. So for this we need to consider these 3 values, and then these 3 values.
So once you consider and of course, you need to apply minus here because it will be minus,
so minus sign we need to apply here. So we will get  opt is equal to 4.44. So what will can
conclude from this numerical exercise. So when we are maximizing the solar radiation
absorption for the entire year, then we need to keep a value of  at about 12.01, which is the
optimum value of tilt angle which gives the maximum exposure to the solar radiation.
And if we are targeting for only December, January and February months application, then
we need to maintain a tilt angle of 16.97° and for summer months, we need to maintain a tilt
angle of 4.44. So this is a very important problem and we understand how this beta value is
important for getting the maximum exposure to the solar insolation.
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Now, let us move to the spacing between the covers. So maybe absorber plate is here, Abs,
then we have glass cover 1, GC1, maybe GC2. So this spacing is also very very important. This
spacing must be such that the values on the convective heat transfer coefficients are
minimized, this is very very important. The spacing at which the minimum and maximum
values occur vary with the temperature difference and tilt. So this temperature difference
between this cover system and the tilt.
So this will be always installed at certain angle. So this is beta, this is horizontal. The spacing
which the minimum maximum values occur vary with the temperature difference and tilt,
which is shown here. An optimum value of spacing is difficult to specify as the collectors are
designed to operate at different locations with varying tilts and under varying service
conditions. Hence the best to use a sufficiently large spacing array from the local minimum
and maximum. Let us learn what is minimum and maximum here.
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So this curve was generated based on the experiments. So it is founded when Nusselt number
is 1, this conduction region with the minimum occurring at a spacing corresponding to the
RaL cos  is equal to 1708. What does it mean? So this figure shows the variation of heat
transfer coefficient with spacing between the covers and this is an example when Tmean was
70 °C and  was 20 °C. So what happens as this space increases initially drops to a
minimum and then further increase of spacing immediately jumps to the maximum heat
transfer coefficient.
Then it decreases and with increase in space, finally it may come again to the below of this
minimum. So that may come something like this. So the spacing of 4 to 8 centimeter is
suggested by Buchberg et al, these are correlations which can be applied under different
conditions. So when Nusselt number is 1, so we can use this correlation which gives the
minimum heat transfer coefficient. For large spacing about 5 centimeter collector area
requirements can be reduced by 2 to 8 percent, this is also one of the important observation
and this heat transfer coefficient h varies with temperature difference and tilt what you can
see here.
So when T is 10, so its variation is something like this when T was 20 so its variation is
something like this. So it varies with temperature difference and tilt. So this tilt angle is very
very important for capture of more solar radiation. And also this effect of shading is very
very important during early in the morning and evening hours.
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So because Sun will be oblique and then one of the tubes will shade the others or some part
of the absorber plate shades the, some portion of the absorber plate, so that way shading is
also important. So investigation of shade is really important for precise calculation of heat
transfer taking place in a collector. So shading reduces the radiation absorption by about 3
percent which is estimated by many of the researchers. Now move to the next slide.
So which shows the effect of one of the most important operating parameter called
temperature. This fluid inlet temperature strongly influences the performance of a flat plate
collector. As you can see here, as the fluid inlet temperature increases, this efficiency is
decreases. So this can be seen in this plot also. This plot shows the variation efficiency with
respect to the increase in fluid inlet temperature. And other values can also be seen.
So this qu is decreases which is nothing but useful heat gain is decreases with increase in inlet
fluid temperature. So this decrease in efficiency with respect to rise in temperature is because
of the higher temperature level at which the collector as a whole operates when the fluid inlet
temperature increases.
As a result, the top loss coefficient as well as the temperature difference with the
surroundings increases. Hence, heat lost increases and useful heat gain decreases. So
temperature of the inlet fluid is very, very important as far as performance of a flat plate
collector is concerned.
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Now, let us study about the effect of cover's transmissivity on the performance of the
collector. So this transmissivity of the cover affects the performance of the collector
significantly. So you can realize now, because you know now how to develop the energy
balance equation, there the role of transmissivity, you can realize how important this
parameter is. Higher the transmissivity means lower extinction coefficient of the cover
material, also you know, what is extinction coefficient.
So what extinction coefficient we need to maintain for higher transmissivity. So as reported

the efficiency of the collector increases from 43.6 percent to 47.4 percent as the extinction
coefficient decreases from 19 to 4. Normally 4,5,6 that range is suitable for flat plate collector
applications. So as you can see here, 2 different selective surfaces are considered. So one for
absorptivity is equal to 0.94 and emissivity is 0.14 and in the second case absorptivity is 0.95
and emissivity is 0.085.
So if you see this transmissivity absorptivity product for beam and diffuse radiation, you can
see there is a rise in those values. So also you can see the increase in efficiency from 47.4 to
49.2 percent. So by increasing the absorptivity of the selective surface, we can really increase
the efficiency of the collector significantly. So once we increase this, then our transmissivity
absorptivity product for beam and diffuse radiation also increases. So higher the
transmissivity, better is the performance of the collector that we understand now.
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So dust which is accumulated with time on the flat plate collector as well as PV collectors are
also important, because this dust is nothing but it is a resistance to the flow of photons or
flow of heat. So when the collector is deployed in a practical system, dust gets accumulated
over it and that reduces the transmissivity of the glass cover. That is why it is recommended
that that glass cover or say PV system need to be cleaned time to time. Of course, it is
recommended to clean daily but it is not possible to clean daily, but cleaning is generally
done in a few days.
So because of this dust, which is accumulated over the glass cover in the flat plate collectors
and on the PV modules the intensity reduces, that is why we need to multiply with a
correction factor. So what is correction factor? This correction factor is the ratio of normal
transmissivity to a dust laden cover to the normal transmissivity.
So in general a correction factor of 0.92 to 0.99 is considered in Indian context and this range
is also varied for PV system or PV modules. Also this accumulation of dust depends on the
material of the cover, maybe sometimes glass or sometimes plastics are used and tilt of the
collector and frequency of the cleaning.
515
Now, move to the evacuated tube collectors. So what are the objective of development of this
alternative collector? To improve the efficiency, to reduce cost, to increase the operating
temperature and to reduce the weight of the collector. So how this is done, by reducing the
heat lost by convection from the top of the cover system. So there are many configurations.
So first configurations what we can see is a flat plate type with heat pipe. So heat pipes are
used I will explain in the coming slides, how does a heat pipe work.
And then double walled evacuated tubes. So evacuation is maintained, this vacuum is
maintained between the tubes so that convective heat losses can be minimized. And the third
configuration is the water in the glass type, here some kind of reflectors are used to heat the
fluid. And finally, this is collected at the storage tank. Let us learn in a deeper sense this
evacuated tube collectors.
516
This evacuated tube collector consists of a number of rows of parallel transparent glass tubes
connected to a header. So these are the headers and these are the tubes through which heat
transfer fluid flows. These glass tubes are cylindrical in shapes, as you can see here,
therefore, the angle of the sunlight is always perpendicular to the heat absorbing tubes which
enables these collectors to perform well even when the sunlight is low.
So this is very, very important point, even though sunlight is low this evaluated tube collector
will work perfectly. These evacuated tube collectors are particularly useful in the areas with
cold and cloudy weathers, so that we should keep in mind. This tube diameter normally keeps
in the range of 25 to 75 mm and length is about 1500 to 2400 mm. So this each tube consists
of a thick glass outer tube and a thinner glass inner tube which is covered with a special
coating that absorbs solar energy but inhibits heat losses.
So selective coatings are applied so that energy absorption can be maximized. The tubes are
made of Boro silicates or soda lime glass which is strong, resistant to high temperatures and
has a high transmittance for solar irradiation. These parameters are very, very important as far
as evacuated tube collectors are concerned. So what is the difference between this collector
and conventional flat plate collector?
These evacuative collectors do not heat the water directly within the tubes, instead air is
removed or evacuated from the space between the 2 tubes forming a vacuum. This vacuum
acts as insulator reducing any heat loss to the surrounding atmosphere. So these are the tubes,
so here is this is the vacuum and since no medium is there, so once heat is introduced the heat
517
cannot be come out. So it is an insulation. With the assistance of this vacuum, the evacuated
tube collectors generally produce higher fluid temperature, which is more than flat plate
collector. Sometimes we can get a temperature more than 130 °C.
So it is seen that heat pipe technologies are used in evacuated tube collectors. What is heat
pipes? Heat pipes is nothing but a heat exchanger which combines the principles of both
thermal conductivity and phase transition to effectively transfer heat between two solid
surfaces. So what happens if we consider this configuration. So fluid is here in this tube when
solar radiation is exposed here, then this fluid will be evaporated.
And then this latent heat of evaporation will be released here in the condenser part, this is the
condenser part where heat will be carried. And then once it is condensed, it will flow in the
tube under the action of gravity or capillary. So this will maintain and this will be circulated
again and again. So heat will be carried by this fluid and which is deposited here, where heat
is collected and then it is condensed and this comes back to the original position and it moves
in between the close circuit.
And this is vacuum, this vacuum is maintained, so that energy losses are minimized and this
is the glass tube and liquid return is as shown here and fluid is something like alcohol like
fluids. And this is called vaporizers and this is as a whole call heat pipe, this part is heat pipe,
this is heat pipe. So in heat pipe evacuated tube collectors, a sealed heat pipe usually made of
copper to increase the collector efficiency in cold temperatures is attached to the heat
absorbing reflector plate within the vacuum sealed tube.
518
The main advantage of this heat pipe evacuated tube collector is that there is a dry connection
between the absorber plate and the manifold. So there is no wet connection, no fluid will be
contacted, so this is a dry connection. So this is a very good technology and efficiency is
very, very high but somewhat costly.
And also direct flow evacuated tube collectors are in place. So here 2 heat pipes running
through the center the tubes are used. So as you can see here, solar radiation falls here. So it
is a cold fluid in and hot fluid out is here, and then evacuation is maintained and it is a U
tube. And of course this energy absorption can be maximized by using this kind of plane
reflectors. So one more advantage is that these direct flow evacuated tubes can collect both
direct and diffuse radiation and do not require solar tracking. So principle of working is same
as heat pipe collectors.
519
There are other collectors like BNL collector, then polymer solar collectors and concrete
collectors. So we will not discuss more on it. So these are the available collectors and most of
the collectors in under research condition. So we can summarize what we have discussed
today.
Primarily, we have discussed different factors which influences the performance of a flat
plate collector. Primarily we have discussed selective surfaces, how selective surfaces can be
manufactured, what are the importance of selective surfaces and what are the range of
absorptivity and emissivities for selective surfaces, how we can enhance the absorption
capability by increasing the absorptivity of the absorber surfaces.
520
Also we have seen the effect of number of covers with selective surfaces and without
selective surfaces. Also we have studied the influence of spacing between the covers, also we
have studied the role of collector tilt and dust on the top cover. Finally, we have understand
how this evacuated tube collector works and what are the need of development of this kind of
technology, of course for increasing the conversion efficiency by reducing the cost. I hope
you have enjoyed this lecture. Thank you very much for watching.
521
Centre of Energy
Lecture 23
Testing and application of LFPC
Dear students today we will be discussing about testing of liquid flat plate collector and its
application. So this testing of flat plate collector there are three standard procedures for testing
which is suggested by ASHRAE. ASHRAE is nothing but American society of heating
refrigeration and air conditioning engineers.
The essential requirements for all the procedures are number 1, arrangement for the inlet of fluid
at constant temperature with flexibility to set different values of the inlet temperatures,
pyranometer to measure the solar radiation on the surface of the flat plate collector then
provisions for recording of mass flow rate and different temperatures has to be there. Then
equipment for measuring pressure and pressure loss across the FPCs need to be attached.
522
Then why this testing is required, because standard testing and rating procedures provide an
equitable basis for comparing the efficiency of different types of collectors and an essential basis
for their selection for a given applications as well as their design improvement.
Now let us discuss how this solar flat plate collector can be tested with a standard protocol. So
what figure is shown here, is a setup for characterization of a flat plate collector. So it composed
of a flat plate collector which need to be characterized, a liquid pump, a heat exchanger with a
cooling coil then storage tank of course bypass valve is also required and flow meter.
523
Of course to know the inlet fluid temperature and outlet fluid temperature we must have some
kind of temperature sensor. This is temperature sensor or thermocouple this is for Tfi, this is for
Tfo. Of course we need anemometer for wind speed, one anemometer is required, anemometer
and pyranometer, pyranometer for solar radiation, which is global solar radiation and rotameter
for flow measurement.
So what happens we need to perform experiments at fixed values of mass flow rate and Tfi and
we need to do the experiment at different days. So what is the purpose of this heat exchanger?
Because we need to provide control amount of fluid through the collector at particular
temperature so in order to control this temperature we need to arrange the assembly.
So we have to cool this fluid what is coming out from the collector and then if it is lower than
what is required then we need to heat it by using electrical means. So in this storage tank one
electrical heater is attached, so that this fluid can be heated to a particular temperature. And this
bypass valve is attached to control the amount of flow which need to be flows inside this flat
plate collector.
So this measurement recorded in each data set are fluid flow rate, fluid inlet and outlet
temperature we need thermocouples. Here we need some kind of rotameters. Solar radiation
incident so we need pyranometer which gives global radiation falling on that particular place.
Ambient temperature of course we need one thermometer or maybe one temperature sensor and
wind speed we need to know.
So for that we need to have a anemometer so once we have those equipment or instruments we
can measure all those parameters. So these two assembly the combination of the heat exchanger
and the storage tank with an electric heater provides a means for adjusting and controlling the
inlet fluid temperature to the collector to a desired value.
So what is required for inlet that has to be controlled by using this arrangement we can control
the temperature and we can know fit the temperature to this flat plate collector. The testing
standard specifies that the collector shall be tested under clear sky conditions to determine its
efficiency characteristics. On a given day data is recorded under steady state condition for fixed
values of mass flow rate and fluid inlet temperature. So what is steady state conditions?
524
So a collector is considered to be operating under steady state conditions if the deviation of the
experimental parameters is less than the following specified limit over a 15 minutes period. So
this variation of global radiation incident on the collector should be in this range ±50 W/m2. And
ambient temperature should be in the range of -1 to +1 °C.
And fluid flow rate is ±1 % and fluid inlet temperature variation should be ±0.1 °C and
temperature rise across the collector should be in the range of ±0.1 °C. And also this IT value the
total radiation which is falling on the collector should be greater than 700 W/m2and this wind
speed should vary from 2 to 5.
And this fluid flow rate should be 0.02 kg per second per square meter of the gross collector
area. So this has to be controlled and this arrangement or say this measurement is valid for both
indoor and outdoor testing. In indoor of course we need a solar simulator for testing. Now for
fixed values of mass flow rate and fluid inlet temperature equal number of tests to be conducted
before and after solar noon.
So that is at 11 o'clock, 11:30, 12:30 and 1 or 13:00 hour LAT which is solar time or local
apparent time. And also any bias due to transient effect is eliminated during the trace procedure.
The tests are to be performed at four inlet temperatures on different days minimum of 4 days is
required to characterize a flat plate collector. So hence a total of 16 data sets are obtained if we
perform for 4 days during the time mentioned here.
525
Now if I am interested to know the efficiency of the collector then straight away you can use this
qu
expression  i  . So qu is the useful heat gain AC is the collector area and IT is the total
Ac I T
solar radiation which is falling on the collector and qu is nothing but m mass of the fluid which is
flowing and Cp is the specific heat of the fluid. Then T fo  T fi I T .
Also we know the famous equation for measurement of useful heat gain which is given by Hottel
 
Whillier Bliss equation. So this qu  FR AP S  U l T fi  Ta  . So this expression qu is related with
Tfi. If we know the fluid inlet temperature and ambient is known and if other values are known
then straight away you can calculate what will be the useful heat gain.
Now we will relate this to efficiency because of that we need to do something. So we divide this
expression by
qu q
then what happens here u 

FR AP S  U l T fi  Ta . So we can bring this
Ac I T Ac I T Ac I T
AP
side here then it will be . Of course FR will be multiplied then this expression will be
Ac
something like this. Also this S can be expressed something like this here so I T  avg .
So it includes both beam and diffuse radiation. So when we talk about average values of
transmissivity and absorptivity. So on substitution of this S  I T  avg then what we will have
526
A  U T  T 
so this expression will be modified to something like  i  FR  P   avg l fi a  . Now
 Ac  IT 
for a particular collector this FR  avg Ul are constant.
So if we see then and this part is constant always for a particular collector so this will be constant
here so this will be something like y=mx-c or I can write c -mx. So c is nothing but this constant
part here and m will be this multiplied by Ul will be m and x will be this part. So this will be a
some kind of straight line with negative slope.
So if we plot it then what will happen so we will get some kind of this kind of plot so if we tell
this is y axis and this is x axis. So this intercept is nothing but this value so this intercept will
give the value of this part and the slope will give this part. So for a typical case so we will get an
expression something like this so we will explain how this can be generated, so this will be the
expression. So this is something like a straight line equation with negative slope.
So let us take a commercial FPC say this is the characteristics curve for a commercial FPC
having single cover and selective copper absorber plate with area of the collector is 2.27 m2 and
mass product of 0.0456 kg/s. So if we use this then we will have this kind of configuration. And
this least square yield will give this straight line fitting equation.
527
So these expressions you can get from this scatter data so we will get lot of data so if we have a
dotted line then we can generate this kind of equation. So if we compare this equation with the
AP
earlier what we have described just now so this for a collector is given as 0.909. And if we
Ac
use this information for calculation FR  avg then this will be something like this. And also FR
Ul we can calculate so this will about 4.427 W/m2-K. So this is how we can calculate the value of
FR  avg and FRUl once you know this intercept and slope.
Now for liquid flat plate collectors, changes in mass flow rate do not appreciably affect the
performance because of the relatively high value of liquid side heat transfer coefficient. And for
this region although the efficiency curve of a collector is determined for a particular value of
mass flow rate, it can also be used for predicting the behavior of the collector for other flow rates
which differ a little from the value used during testing. We will demonstrate how this can be
done in a numerical example.
528
Also sometimes we are interested to know what will be the performance of a flat plate collector
over a day. So this data was taken from a book, Solar energy principles of thermal collection and
storage by Sukhatme and Nayak. So what it is shown here the variation of efficiency with time.
What we can see as the time increases so if efficiency is increasing first, so at noon it is
maximum and then it is decreasing. So here also you can see here how these efficiencies are first
increasing with time and then reaches a maximum value here and then decreases.
Also you can see here other values so this Ut is also decreasing. So this variation was plotted
with an assumption that water flow rate then water inlet temperature, ambient temperature and
wind speed are not varying during that time. So what you can conclude here with increase in
solar radiation that efficiency can be improved. That is what it is demonstrated in this slide.
529
Now let us take a numerical problem. So it goes something like a water heating flat plate
collector is fitted with two glass covers and a non-selective absorber plate of dimension 1 by 2
meter the collector is tested by the standard procedure and the following data is obtained. So
AC
 avg is given, mass flow rate is given, Cp of water is given and is given.
AP
Now we need to calculate the values of instantaneous efficiency and plot this against the
parameter
T fi  Ta 
. Then we need to draw a best fit straight line and determine the values of Ul
IT
and FR. Again in the second case how does the values of FR change if the value of mass product
is increased to 1.3 kg per minutes. Assume that the value of F’ does not change significantly
because of increase of mass flow rate. So let us solve this problem. So given values are here
530
AC
So straight way you can use this expression is given as 1.2, hence AC  1.2  AP which is
AP
qu
nothing but 1.2  2 1 . So it will be 2.4 m2. And under testing conditions this  i  . And
Ac I T
also we know this is nothing but mCp dt is nothing but Tfo -Tfi.
So first I will show one sample calculation then I will move to this generation of straight line
fitting. So this sample calculation by using first set of data which is given in the exercise so for
531
first set what is given in the problem, so Tfo is given as 93.98 degree then you have Tfi is 84.95
degree and Ta is given as 23 degree.
This can be seen here so this that I am talking about so Tfo is 93 then Tfi is 84 then Ta is 23 and I
is 885. So IT is equal to 885 W/m2. So now using this expression means  i can be calculated so
m is how much 1.1 minute, so 1/1 divided by 60, it will be kg/s. Then Cp value is 4.18 103
which will be 4.1 kJ, so we have converted to joule
And what is the temperature difference is 93.98 degree Tfo then Tfi is 84.95 degree and then we
will have Ac and IT, so Ac is already we have calculated which is equal to 2.4 and then IT is 885
for this first set of data. So it will be so if we multiply it by 100, it will be in percentage so it will
be 32.58 %. So now I will show how for all the values  i can be calculated by using a
spreadsheet.
532
So let us click here and let us learn how this can be generated. So here so what we need to do
f 0  f i , so what is f 0 here so I will use this so this is f 0  f i . So this will be something like this.
So if we drag it then we will have something like this. And then what we can do this divided by
IT so this divided by, divided by IT is here.
So I can take this value and we can expand it for all the calculations and for calculation of  i , so
this part if we substitute m and then multiply it C p and divided by Ac then this will be something
like this for this case. So for all the calculations this will be fixed mCp divided by Ac so here
mC p
what happens what we have learned so this , so this part is constant for all the values.
Ac
So here what happens we can straight away calculate this value, so this 31.93 we have star or
multiply by this part. So we can give enter and it will be the efficiency values not in the
percentage in the fraction. And here also we can calculate so this value we can calculate so once
we know Tfi, what is Tfi here this is the Tfi. Then we have to deduct minus Ta then divided by so
this will come outside divided by we will have IT.
So this is d and then we have this value, so this is Tfi, then we have Ta then IT. So I can use this
so this will be I can drag it something like this. So now we need to plot this versus this so I will
take this data out from this calculation sheet and I will paste it here which number and here I can
paste and then we have these values. So now these two because this will be in the x axis and this
will be in y axis.
533
So we can plot it, we can plot it here, so this is the plot. And again we can add that trend line and
we can get the equation, display the equation then R square value. So the equation is something
like this here. So as you can see this part is nothing but intercept part and this is the, this part is
slope part. So what we have done we have generated the trend line or say this you know fitting
line and we can use this equation for calculation of FR and Ul. So this equation is required now.
So now we will go back and see how this can be calculated. So here what I can write is the
 T fi  Ta 
expression what we have got there so this  i  2.9467   0.538 . So this is known to us
 IT 
now. Now also we know the expression for  i when we use Hottel Whillier Bliss equation. So
A  U T  T 
this  i  FR  P   avg l fi a  . So if we this may be equation 2, this may be equation 3.
 Ac  IT 
If we comparing equation 2 and 3 we have this 0.538 so this part is intercept is equal to
A 
FR  P  avg . So if we substitute those values what we have straight away we can calculate
 Ac 
what is FR value or maybe we can simplify FR which is equal to 0.538Ac. Then you have
AP  avg . And if we substitute those values, so

AP
is this is something like it will be 0.538 then
Ac
we have 1.2 and then  avg value is 0.74 which is given in the problem.
534
So if you substitute then we will get a value of something like 8724. So FR value is found to be
0.8724. So now our next calculation will be for Ul. So overall loss coefficient how to calculate
this overall loss coefficient? So we can use this part. So FR A pU l which is equal to this part. So
this part is equivalent to this part, when you multiply this part and this part is actually this part.
535
A 
Now if we calculate Ul then we have to use this expression FR  P U l which is equal to 2.946.
 Ac 
2.946
So if you substitute this values of FR so this U l  , so this is the value here. So if we
 AP 
FR  
 Ac 
substitute these values then what we will have Ul will be 0.533 W/m2 if it is in Celsius then
Celsius. So Ul value you calculate. So this is the solution for the first part, solution for the first
part. So what is the next part? So next part again we need to calculate FR value if we change our
flow rate is increased to 1.3 kg per minutes.
So again we will go back to this spreadsheet and already I have done this calculation for this
case. So similarly these equations are known only change will be this part 37.735, this part will
be there. So here once we use those calculated value and then use in this calculation then we will
get this kind of values.
T fi  Ta
And for will get these values and if we take out these two and then plot it then what we
IT
will have this kind of plot and then our equation will be something like this. So similarly if we do
the calculation then we will get these values. So in our earlier case it was also about 0.8724 so it
is almost constant. So even though this mass flow rate is varying but this FR is not changing.
536
That is why in case of liquid flat plate collector only single mass flow rate is enough to
characterize the entire flat plate collector. So there is no point of doing the characterization at
different mass flow rates. But in case of solar air heater, experiments are need to be performed at
different mass flow rates because heat transfer coefficient in the air side is much lower than heat
transfer coefficient in the liquid side. So we got a very close value of FR.
537
Now let us solve one more problem. So this problem is something like a liquid flat plate collector
has the following characteristic parameters FR   is given, FR Ul is given. So here Ap by,
 AP 
  are same so this is 1. So there is no variations are considered normally Ac is about 1.2
 Ac 
times Ap. Sometimes we can represent this instantaneous efficiency in terms of mCp dt in terms
of i  Ap also. So this can also be represented in terms of plate area.
So it is operating under following conditions like solar flux incident on the collector plane is 900
W/m2, water flow rate is given as 1.015 kg/s-m2 of the absorber area, ambient temperature is 20
°C, inlet water temperature is 40 °C. So now we need to calculate the mean absorber plate
temperature of the collector if the collector efficiency factor is given. So F’ this is nothing but F’
is given to us and we need to calculate what is TPM, mean temperature of the absorber plate. And
second question if the circulating pump fails what is the maximum temperature attained by the
plates.
So it may so happen that temperature is very, very high. So under that condition your material
may damage, for that condition we need to find out what will be the maximum temperature if
that circulation pump is not working. So we can use this expression for calculation of different
parameters. So we need to calculate TPM and then maximum temperature, maximum Tmax or
Tmax(pm) also we need to calculate. So now let us start this solution.
538
So here we know this expression  i , first I will write this  i , so  i is nothing but FR. So we
T fi  Ta
assume that Ap and Ac are same so we have  i  FR  avg  FRU l .
IT
And if we substitute those values because FR  avg is given to us, FR  avg is given and then
FRUl is given so we straight away you can use those values here. So it is 0.68-6.1 into this
temperature difference is 20 then IT is 900 what is given in the problem. So this  i is found to be
0.544. This is  i or efficiency of the collector.
539
We can also find out what will be the Tfo. So once you know this instantaneous efficiency we
mC p T fo  T fi 
know this  i  . So if you substitute here in all those values so this will be 0.544
Ap I
and m is given here. So what is the m 0.015 so this is something like m/Ap. So this is m/Ap is
given as 0.015 kg/s-m2.
So we can put a dot here because it is a flow rate. So this value is given so this value is 0.015 and
this Tfi is given as 40 and I is 900. So on substitution what we can calculate is Tfo which is found
to be 47.8 °C. So this can also be calculated and also we know the expression for FR what is
given in the last slides. This is the expression for FR.
So we can write this expression FR. So this FR is something like mCp then you have Ul then Ap
 
  F U l Ap 
'
and then this is 1  exp .  . So now we need to find out what is FR. So Ul we can
 mC 
 p 
represent or we can omit this Ul here already we know the value, so what value is known to us
FRUl is equal to 6.1. Then Ul will be 6.1 divided by FR.
.
So we can use this here. So then what will happen m Ap is known to us then Ul will be FR, so this
Cp will be there, FR will be here and then we have 6.1. And then similarly this expression also
changes. So  F ' value is known to us which is 0.9 and Ul is nothing but 6.1 divided by FR and
Cp value is known. So this is Cp we can write, so Cp is nothing but 4.18 103 and multiplied by
mCp.
So this value is also known to us. So this is Ap and then we have m. So these values are also
known to us. So if we substitute and this FR and this FR goes off then what will have once we
 0.0875 
simplify it so we will get something 0.9  exp   . So we can calculate what will be the
 FR 
FR by taking ln or log.
It will be 0.83. So once we know FR, now we can use the other expression, so
 
qu  FR AP  avg I T  U l T fi  Ta  or we can simplify
qu
AP
 
 FR  avg I T  U l T fi  Ta  .
540
So this expression I can marked as 1 maybe and for FR  avg is equal to 0.68 and from here we
can calculate what is  avg . So 0.68 to what is FR value here is 0.83 which will be equal to
0.819. And again we can calculate what will be UlFR is known and so if we substitute FR value
here in this expression so we can calculate what will be Ul.
So Ul we can calculate which will be equal to 7.349 W/m2, what is the unit here, let me see, yeah
we can in this kelvin, sometimes it is in Celsius also. So Ul we know now,  avg is known to us,
qu
so this is known, this is known and Tfi is known, so from that we can calculate what is . So
AP
qu
now equation 1 implies on substitution of these values.
AP
So we will get a value of 498.01 W/m2 because all values are known to us, Tfi is known, ti is
known IT is known, these are calculated now, so we can use this, FR is known. So we can straight
qu
away calculate what will be or heat flux. So once we know this again we can use the
AP
equation this equation for useful heat gain. So if we use that equation
 I T  avg  U l T pm  Ta  .
qu
AP
498.01 is equal to IT is known 900 and the  avg is known

qu
So if we substitute the value of
AP
now 819 and Ul is also known 7.349. Now we need to calculate what is TPM and Ta is also
known to us its value is 20. So on calculation we will get TPM value is equal to 53.8 °C. So this is
the solution for first part. So now we have calculated what will be the mean temperature of the
absorber plate if the characteristics parameters are given for a particular collector.
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Now our next step is if the circulating pump fails, so pump will circulate there and then if
circulating pump fails there is no useful heat gain. So under that condition if there is no useful
heat gain so in the second part of the problem is useful heat gain or qu is nothing but useful heat
gain, useful heat gain which is equal to 0. And already we know what is the expression for
qu  Ap S  U l T pm  Ta  because we need to find out what will be the mean plate temperature if
that circulation pump fails.
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That means what will be the maximum temperature will get in the collector if no heat is
collected. So this qu is 0 and here Ap S  U l T pm  Ta  . So if we simplify we will have this Ap Ap
is common for both the expression, so we can take out as this part and S is nothing but  avg I T
and this will be something like U l T pm  Ta  .
So this we can calculate now, what will be these values something like already we know FR,
what is we know FR is 0.68 by  avg and of course we can use what we have calculated but
independently also we can solve this 6.1/Ul then by using this, so since both the expression same
so 0.68/  avg is equal to 6.1/Ul.
So from here we can calculate  avg /Ul is nothing but 0.68/6.1 which is equal to 0.111. So if
 avg
we simplify further this will be I T  Ta  T pm . So if you substitute these values so what
Ul
we will get TPM will be about 119.9 degree so which is equal to 120 °C. So this is TPM.
So this maximum temperature what we will get is 120 if no heat is collected from the collector
on the particular day. In earlier case what we got TPM was 53.8 °C. Now you can see the rise in
temperature. So this is the maximum temperature which can be seen if no heat is collected from
the collector. So I hope that you understand the way we have solved these two problems. So this
has got a lot of practical applications so that is why this problem has been discussed in this class.
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Also let us discuss something about applications of liquid flat plate collector. There are multiple
applications of liquid flat plate collector, so namely indoor swimming pools nowadays it is quite
common, so people are using solar energy for heating water in the swimming pool.
So the water heating is a primary concern. Milk pasteurization also this is seen application of flat
plate collector and power generation for low temperature. Power generation this kind of systems
are used, drying, then solar water heater for biogas, so it is seen that if we maintain certain
temperature by using some kind of heat inside the biogas plant then of course we can maximize
the biogas production.
So it is nowadays solar collectors are used to circulate fluid inside the biogas plant to get
maximum biogas generation. Then slurry drying is also one of the applications of liquid flat plate
collector. So here two examples we have shown. In the first example use of solar energy for
indoor swimming pool, what you can see this is a collector so number of collectors required will
be decided based on the capacity of the water to be heated.
So collectors will be installed normally at the rooftop or maybe you know some kind of structure
and then hot water will be pumped through filter and this will be circulated in the swimming
pool, again it will pump back, again it will pump back so it will work in a closed loop. So if we
consider this inlet, this is the outlet, so after it will go through this and then it will move this way
and then after heat loss is taking place then water has to be circulated.
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So this is the circulation loop so this will work in a closed loop. And this figure shows the
application of liquid flat plate collector for power generation. So we have this liquid flat plate
collector, so hot water is generated and this is also working in a closed loop, so pump will be
there so water will be circulated it goes and heat exchange will be there. So this is a heat storage
tank.
Again we need to have some kind of heat exchanger so that the amount of heat what is generated
that has that can be provided to other working fluid. And that working fluid will move in a
circuit that is also in a closed loop and this working fluid is different and it will evaporate at low
temperature and this, this will expand, vapor will expand in a turbine and then energy will be
generated and remaining it will condense in a condenser and it will pump again through this heat
exchanger and it will work in a closed loop.
So of course we need some other devices like cooling tower because this has to be cooled. So
this is an assembly so here ORC is used. So ORC is nothing but organic Rankine cycle because
organic fluid is used because of that it is known as organic Rankine cycle. So here hot water at
temperature at around 100 °C is stored in the thermal storage tank so here about 100 °C the water
temperature which is stored in this tank.
And then low boiling point working fluid vaporizes at vapor generator at around 90 °C and
leaves the condenser at 35 degree, so here it is at 35 °C. So this will be maybe 90, 95 some losses
will be there, so maybe 90 °C. So that way even though carnot efficiency is very, very low, still
sometimes this configuration can be applied for generation of small amount of power.
This expansion will be there from 90 to 35 here. So this working fluid normally used R11, R13,
R114 then methyl chloride etc. so having low boiling point. So this is also working in close loop
and this is also working in close loop we need to have a heat exchanger to exchange the heat
what is generated via this flat plate collector and then it is expanding the turbine and electricity is
generated and then rest is now condensed and then it is circulated again and again.
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So in this presentation we have learnt details about testing of liquid flat plate collector what is
the need of liquid plate collector testing and then how this can be tested and we have solved very
interesting problems to strengthen the understanding how this liquid flat plate collector can be
tested. And we have also learned the applications of liquid flat plate collector. So thank you very
much for watching this video.
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Professor. Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Indian Institute of Science, Guwahati
Lecture No. 24
Solar Air Heater
Dear students, today we will be discussing on Solar Air Heater and its performance analyzes. So,
what is Solar Air Heater?
The solar air heater is a thermal device in which the energy from the sun is captured by an
absorbing medium and is used to heat Air. This Solar air heating is a renewable energy heating
technology used to heat or condition air for buildings or process heat application. So, other
applications are Drying of agricultural products, Industrial processes and Space heating.
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So, as far as solar heating is concerned, so, what are the different components of a solar air
heaters? One glass cover at the top, then we need to have an absorber plate and then that through
which air flows. So, this may be the inlet of the air and this may be the outlet of the air from
where we can collect the hot air and use it for applications and also we need to provide sufficient
insulation to reduce the heat losses which is generated inside the air heaters.
So, these are the insulations in the bottom side of course, we need to apply some kind of
insulations into sides as well. So, this solar air heater eliminates the need of transfer of heat from
one fluid to another fluid. Because in case of liquid flat plate collector what happens so, heat will
be absorbed in the absorber plate, then that has to be transferred to the fluid. So, that part is not
required here. So, that is why it eliminates the need to transfer heat from one fluid to another.
And as I have shown that it consists of an absorber plate with a parallel plate below forming a
small passage through which air to be heated. So, this transparent cover is provided above this
absorber plate for transmitting solar radiation to this absorber plate, and then finally we need a
sheet metal container with insulation to hold the structure.
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This solar air heater face area ranges from 1 to 2 meter square similar to what we have
considered for liquid flat plate collector. The material of construction and size are similar to
those used in liquid flat plate collectors. The Absorber plate is a metal sheet of thickness 1 mm
usually made of GI or steel GI means Galvanized Iron or other material derived from steel. And
this thickness of this glass is about to 4 to 5 mm.
And nowadays plastics are also used in this kind of air heaters. Mineral wool or glass wool have
thickness 5 to 8 centimeter is used for reducing the heat loss at the bottom and side. And finally,
the whole assembly is contained in a sheet metal box and incline at a suitable angle with this tilt
angle to be maintained, which was discussed in the last class what angle will be appropriate for a
certain locations.
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So, what are the advantages of using this Solar Air Heater if we compare with a liquid flat plate
collector? So, in case of solar air heater, corrosion and leakage problem is very, very minimal.
And the solar air heater does not require any special attention at temperature below 0 degree
Celsius, but in case of liquid flat plate collector, we need to think about it if it goes below 0
degree and if we use in a place like Ladakh then what will happen it will freeze if we use what
are in that flat plate collector.
So, we need to use different kinds of fluid so that it will not freeze if that ambient temperature
goes below 0 degrees C. So, this is one special advantage of this solar air heater and what are the
disadvantages, like heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and the air is low whose
results in lower efficiency. And in this case, large volume of fluid have to be handled.
Hence, this electrical power required is very high if the pressure drop is not kept within the
prescribed limits. So, these 2 are very, very important aspect we need to look into as far as
design of a solar heater is concerned. And of course, we can increase the heat transfer coefficient
by different means, two of the means are doing roughened surface so, that no turbulence can be
created.
If we can increase the turbulence then we can augment the heat transfer coefficient and
sometimes longitudinal fins are also used to increase the heat transfer from the plate to the fluid.
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So, there are different types of Solar Air Heaters what you can see there are 3 configurations. So,
in the first configurations what happens we have this glass cover 1 indicate glass cover and 2
indicates absorber plate and 3 indicates this bottom plate. So, here in the first configuration what
happens, fluid flows between this absorber plate and this bottom plate and this is a glass cover.
And the second case what happens we have glass cover and there is no bottom plate only
absorber plate we have and in this case airflows between glass cover and absorber plate again
between absorber plate and this bottom plate.
So, different types we can classify. And for all this types, we can have these kind of
configurations. So, without fins, so, sometimes know we can use the solar air heater without
using a single fin and sometimes we can use multiple fins in order to augment heat transfer
coefficient. And also sometimes we can know use this kind of configurations to increase the
turbulence and in all the cases our attempt is to increase the heat transfer coefficient between the
plate and the fluid. So, that is what it is shown in this slide.
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So, this slide, shows the energy flow of a solar air heater. So, here if we use double cover here,
then solar air falls here through this glass cover and it is received on the absorber plate. So,
energy is received here and then it is transferred to the fluid. So, as you can see if we consider
this 100 % energy is coming from the solar and then some of the energy is absorbed here in the
absorber itself.
And since fluid is flowing from here to here, inlet to outlet and heat will carry, so it is found that
useful energy by the transporting medium carries 60 % heat and then 10 % goes to convective
losses or convection losses and radiation losses will be 8 % and re-radiation once it strikes on
this absorber plate it will re-radiate. This re-radiation loss will be about 8 %.
Of course, we need to estimate the amount of losses taking place from the bottom of the collector
which is estimated to be about 4 %. So, all these things we can know right in terms of thermal
resistance. So if we consider this qu which is useful heat gain. So, this the amount of heat which
is goes out for utility that is nothing but useful heat gain and what happens when solar radiation
is falling on this device.
So, radiation transmits to this glass cover that is received on the receiver again heat exchange
will be there in between this absorber and this back cover. So, when heat exchange will be there
then what happens, some amount of heat will be absorbed in this plate and this also contribute in
increasing the temperature of this incoming fluid. So, if we consider this Tb is the temperature or
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say mean temperature of this back plate and Tp is the mean temperature of this plate Tp and in
between fluid is flowing. So, this is the useful heat gain.
So, fluid temperature is maybe Tf at particular section or particular point. So, there will be heat
exchange between this plate to this fluid and then this plate absorber plate to this fluid so, this is
from back plate to the fluid and this is from the absorber plate to the fluid. So, this is the one
kind of thermal resistance and top loss will be there. So, top loss will be there and this estimates
the amount of losses taking place from the top of the collector.
And if we combine these two, what we will get? This is the heat transfer that is the amount of
heat transfer what is know taking place here in between these 2 plates and then finally, we can
estimate the amount of thermal resistance that is overall thermal resistance or what we can say
total loss coefficient. So, this way we can calculate and also it tells the kind of heat transfer takes
place in this solar air heater.
Now, let us study the performance of a solar air heater. So, we will follow the analyzes proposed
by Whiller. So, we need to draw the collector first and this is a glass cover and then we will have
this absorber plate and we will have in this is the back cover and of course, we will have this
insulation. So, this is insulation, insulation, insulation and we will have Tfi we will be here Tfo
fluid outlet temperature is Tfo. And this is the heat transfer coefficient hfp and this is a heat
transfer coefficient hfb from the back plate and we will have we will consider a section here.
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So, this may be dx and it will start from here and this may be Tpm Tpm. So, mean temperature of
the absorber plate and this maybe we can consider Tbm. So, this is the mean temperature of the
back plate. And if we consider Tf here, fluid temperature here if this section dx if it travels then
maybe no it will have some kind of higher temperature. So, (Tf +dTf) and maybe I can consider
 p is the emissivity of this plate and this  b may be the emissivity of this plate.
And bottom loss will be there Ub and top loss I can represent by Ut. So, this part, this length is L1
and width that way it will go so it will be L2. So this is width and L2- 1 is the length from inlet to
the outlet. So, now we will consider a slice this is the slice and width is L2. So, along this
direction and the thickness is dx at the distance x from that inlet. So, that that is shown in the
figure.
So, before we derive the expression for qu, so, we need to assume some of the parameters like
temperature changes from Tf to (Tf +dTf) in the section dx, m is the air mass flow rate which is
know constant and Tpm is the absorber plate temperature and Tbm is the bottom plate temperature
and this variation of Tpm and Tbm are neglected and side losses are neglected. And also we will
learn at what condition we can cancel Ub. Now, energy balance for absorber plate we can write
so, this is the amount of radiation which is falling on the section what we have considered.
So, this S into this part is L L2/dx. So, this will go something like this if we if we visualize this
will go something like this. So, dx so, this, this will be something like this. So, this dx multiplied
by L2 this is the area multiplied by S to the amount of solar radiation received at that section. So,
equal to some losses top losses and then heat exchange between this plate to the fluid and then
heat exchange between this plate this is absorber plate already you know abs absorber plate and
then this is bottom plate, bottom plate. So, this radioactive exchange will be there in between
these two, two plates.
So, that way we can develop this energy balance for the absorber plate. So, this is the losses and
this part is a heat transfer from plate to the fluid. And this last portion is for the radioactive
exchange between both the plates.
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And then we are interested about energy balance for the bottom plate. Now, we are interested
about this bottom plate. So, what will happen, so, these bottom plates also contribute to this fluid
because already some amount of energy is absorbed here due to these exchange. So, heat will be
giving to this fluid and then radioactive exchange will be there in between these two plates. So,
that way you can develop. So, this is the radioactive exchange between these two plates and this
is the heat exchange from this bottom plate to the fluid. And then this is the bottom losses.
So, from here we will have bottom losses. So, losses will be there and then heat exchange
between the plates and the fluid. Then, we are interested about energy balance for air steam, so,
air entry is there, air entry is here and then heat transfer or energy is coming from both the plates.
So, that way, so, mCp dT the amount of know heat finally, is gain is equal to h f L2 dx is the area
in that segment and Tpm  T f  that is the plate to the fluid and then this is for absorber plate to
the fluid and this is the bottom plate to the fluid.
So, again there is an assumption that we can assume this hfp is equal to hfb, this is the heat
transfer coefficient between the fluid and the plate and then fluid and the bottom plate. So, now
we will introduce an equivalent radioactive heat transfer coefficient
 T 4 pm  T 4 bm 
hr Tpm  Tbm   .
 1 1 
   1
 
 p b 
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 
So, T 4 pm  T 4bm . So, this term is known as equivalent radioactive heat transfer coefficient hr.
So, for small temperature difference between the absorber and the bottom plate, this temperature
Tpm  Tbm
difference can be approximate is as 4Tav3 . Tav  . So, we can have this kind of
2
expression. So, already defined what is Tav.
So, if we use this then this expression 4 because becomes something like this so, hr
4Tav3
hr  . So, this is nothing but equivalent radioactive heat transfer coefficient.
 1 1 
   1
 
 p b 
Now, assuming Ub is very, very less compared to Ut. So, this Ut is very, very high because to
reduce the heat loss sufficient insulation is provided from the bottom. So, because of that this Ub
can be neglected compared to Ut. So, under the condition this original equations are reduces to S
is equal to this expression and than hr would be something like this and then finally, this last
expression.
Now, when we talk about the energy balance in the fluid, then this will simplify something like
this, then if we use the equation 7 again to calculate Tbm, so, our expression will be something
like this and so, this Tbm is equation 9. So, this if we use this Tbm and use the equation 6, then Tpm
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will be something like this. So, where h is the effective heat transfer coefficient between the
absorber plate and air which is given by something like this.
So, this effective heat transfer coefficient is a function of heat transfer coefficient between
applied to the fluid then radiative part and then bottom left to the fluid and then this expression,
then we can introduce these he in equation 10 and we can have this expression.
.
m C p T
So, we will have is something like this, this is an energy equation for the fluid or
L2 dx
energy balance in the fluid and then this substituting 12 in 13 what we have got in the equation
12 then we can simplify this equation and it will be something like this. Now, we can define this
efficiency factor F this or collector efficiency factor F this which is nothing but this and this and
equation 14 becomes the following differential equation.
So, we will get this kind of differential equation and this can be solved by applying the boundary
conditions Tf is equal to Tfi at x is equal to 0. So, if we solve this then we will get an expression
of something like this.
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Now, similarly useful heat gain rate from collector can be calculated by using this expression
where FR is the collector heat removal factor. So, this expression is something like this which is
similar to the liquid fluid plate collector what we have derived in the last class. So, if the
assumption Ub is very, very less compared to Ut was not considered then equation 16 would have
been something like this.
Where, U´´l is the equivalent overall loss coefficient and F´ and Ul are given by this two
equations and U´l will be something like this and he will be something like this. So, we know
now how to calculate FR, how to calculate F´, then we know how to calculate qu or useful heat
gain of a solar air heater.
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So, now this qu you can be related with Tfi and Tfo. So, this is Fr is something like this. So, as
you understand in order to calculate those heat transfer coefficient like hfp like hfb, we need to
rely on some kind of correlations. So, people have done extensive research and there are some
well formulated correlations which can straight way can be used for calculation of this heat
transfer coefficients.
Some of the most widely used correlations as far as this solar air heater is concerned, the
correlations developed by Kays which is something like this and Malik and Buelow is something
like this. And for these as you can see this Nusselt number is a function of Reynolds number in
both cases. So, when we are interested to find out this Reynolds number we must know how to
calculate the equivalent diameter.
So, this equivalent diameter is defined as 4× (cross sectional area of duct)/weighted perimeter.
So, for example, if we consider a circular duct, so what will happen? So, what we will get de
d 2
here? 4× (cross sectional area of duct) it is and then we will have wetted parameter which is
4
nothing but d . So, these 4 goes cancel is finally d. So, for a circular pipe, so, this equivalent
diameter will be the diameter of the pipe.
But in case of the section what we are considering now, this kind of section. So, if we know this
b and then this is L, we must know this area, d will be 4× (cross sectional area of duct) is some
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maybe this was L1 b into so, this is real on the length any anything we can consider. So, here
maybe I can say a otherwise it will be confusing. So, a b then we will have 2a  b . So that
way we can calculate the equivalent diameter and that diameter is required to calculate Reynolds
vd
number so, this is Re  . So, this diameter is considered sometimes and this diameter is

nothing but equivalent diameter now, so it will be d or L.
So, once you know this, then you can calculate Reynolds number by knowing these values at
mean values of this plate. So, this Tpm and Tbm we need to take the mean of these two means
Tmean is equal to (Tpm- Tbm) for any two parallel surfaces if we know that the temperature of these
two surfaces then we can find out what is the Tmean at this Tmean you need to find out the property
of the air. And diameter is known, then once you know this, then we can calculate what is the
Reynolds number or Reynolds number.
And once you know, we can substitute there and we can calculate what will be the heat transfer
hL
coefficient because Nusselt number is known to us Nu  or d equivalent by K. So, from that
K
we can calculate what will be the heat transfer coefficient. Also, we need to calculate friction
factor for this kind of arrangement because as you can understand here we need blower to blow
air. So, if we have very rough surface over which air flows what will happen pressure drop will
be there.
So, pressure drop is directly related to the amount of power consumption. So, for that we need to
find out f friction factor then we need to find out pressure drop. So, this is very, very important
because in solar air heater blower is one component which consumes huge amount of power. Just
an example.
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If we know a value of Reynold number for a flow then we can find out what will be the f. So,
once we know this f, then we can substitute in this expression which gives pressure drop. So, this
4 fLV 2
is nothing but . So, this pressure drop once you know then we can calculate the power
2d e
requirement and all.
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Now, let us discuss some of the experimental observations of different air heaters. So here, two
air heaters are compared; in the first air heaters what happened air flows within the glass cover
and then one more glass cover and under the beneath of this class cover one absorber plate is
there and again air moves below the absorber plate as well. So, this is a bottom plate and the
second configuration what happens these two are glass cover and air flows between glass cover
and the absorber plate and an absorber plate to the bottom plate. So, it goes something like this,
this is called two pass Air heaters.
So, in the first configuration this better heat up to an inlet air temperature difference of 20° has
been observed, but in this case what happens better heat up or better upto an inlet air temperature
differents of 50 degree C. So, as per the experimental observations, it is found that, this outer
glass cover temperature lowered by 2 to 5 degree by using these configurations. And efficiency
of this type of collector is measured to be about 10 to 15 % higher than a conventional air
heaters. So, these are the developments.
So, again here what happens porous medium is applied this porous medium is nothing but some
kind of steel rules to increase the absorption of solar radiation so, that efficiency can be
maximized. We have glass cover and then absorber plate and then we have bottom plate. So, this
solar radiation and width of the flow channels are varied and efficiency was found to be 70 %
which is 10 to 20 % higher than that of the collector without porous medium. So, in this kind of
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configuration, the outlet temperature of 90 degrees C at a solar radiation of 900 to 100 W/m2 can
be achieved at the flow rate of 0.0995 kg/s. So, this is one kind of experimental observations
where porous medium is used to increase the efficiency of the collector.
Now we will discuss some of the other solar air heater designs mostly Matrix air heater, the
plastic Air heater and Transpired air heater. In all the 3 cases, collector with porous absorber
plates are used and it yields higher efficiency than conventional design because of large flow
areas these designs have small pressure drops. So, these are very, very important aspects of a
solar air heater.
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Now, let us discuss first about matrix air heater. So, as you can see its configuration is totally
different than the conventional solar air heater. So, what you can see here it is a cover this is not
a glass cover what is transparent the solar radiation is directly falls on these matrix absorber and
air goes across these matrix. So, what is matrix here? This matrix is made by stacking wire
screen meshes or slit-expanded metallic foils and normally very low cost material like glass bids,
crushed glass wool, etc are used as matrix media in order to observe more solar radiations and
here what happens when air moves, it gets more time to interact with the metals which is heated
up by using this solar radiation.
So, in this kind configurations, it is found that top losses reduce significantly and matrix provide
large heat transfer area to volume ratios and most importantly higher heat transfer coefficient due
to increase turbulence of air following through the matrix, which is important, if you can
increase the contact time and roughness, then of course, you can augment the heat transfer
coefficient and of course, higher collection efficiency can be obtained by using this kind of
configurations. So, as per their findings or researchers findings, with an air inlet temperature of
21 degrees C, the efficiency is reported to be about 75 % which is found to be quite good
efficiency.
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So, there are some cases where and this matrix can be used in two pass air heater. So, this is
some kind of matrix in order to increase the outlet temperature of the heated air. So, this is glass
cover, two glass covers and then we have matrix. So, much higher efficiency than conventional
air heater can be obtained and pressure drop is high compared to conventional air heater. This is
one of the disadvantages of this configuration. So, that has to be maintained properly and
otherwise power consumption will be very, very high. So, pressure drop has to be maintained.
And there are certain air heaters called Plastic air heaters. So, in those kind of configurations, the
absorber plate like porous black textile of polyester is used as absorber plate and for transparent
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sheet polyvinyl chloride is used. So, these are transparent sheets, solar radiations falls here and
absorber is some kind of porous black textile of polyester, which is absorbed, it is a black
surface, this is absorber plate and airflows here. So, this is an absorber this is a plastic cover.
But this is a highly transparent and airflows in between these. And it is a flexible plastic sheet, it
is a very, very flexible and as per research findings its area varies from 10 meter square to 20
meter square and this wide is 1 meter, this is 1 meter and area is about maximum or about 20
meter square can be fabricated. And best thickness is found to be 6 centimeter. So, if we
maintain 6 centimeter, then is the best efficiencies achieved and efficiency reported to be 67.9 %
at a volume flow rate of 770 m3/hr and then solar insolation of 759 W/m2 capital.
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And one more plastic air heater which is used for a greenhouse has been shown here. So, here
what happens there are two parts, this is one part this is the second part. In the first half or first
part, only polyethylene sheets are used and the second part another layer of plastic wrapping
film, with air bubbles to reduce the convective losses are done here. Then, this greenhouse dryer
attached. So, there are different ways you can keep many agricultural products or other products
for drying. And normally, its length is about 5 meter and diameter is about 0.365 meter. And of
course, this is suitable for agricultural product drying.
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And one more solar air heater what you can see this is nothing but inflatable tunnel plastic solar
heater. So, this is a blower, air is supplied from this blower and there are a number of trays where
raw materials can be kept and drying can be done and this is the exit part. So, you can see length
is about 50 meter people have made and this width is about 5 meter. So, this absorber is a layer
of pebbles and is painted black.
So, pebbles are used and is black because of you know that has to store more thermal energy.
The cover is a UV stabilized polyethylene sheets of thickness 178 micron the thickness of that
sheet based on their observations they found that after an exposure of 6.5 hours outlet
temperature was reported to be 53 degrees C at an airflow rate of 4.36 kg per second and
insolation of 850 W/m2.
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Now, let us discuss about unglazed transpired collector on a vertical wall. So, this is a vertical
wall what you can see here and this is planum over which or say through which air flows and this
is a perforated absorber plate. So, is ambient air will move in through this small perforations. So,
one blower will be here it will suck and then air will flow and it will be distributed as per this
kind of perforation devices or say ducting.
So, this kind of concepts normally applied in cold countries for space heating applications. Of
course, this can be applied for crop drying and other agricultural product drying and this porosity
of this absorber plate is about 0.5 % this is maintain in most of the cases. As per the investigation
that mass flow rate varies from 0.01 to 0.05 kg per second per square meter and this planum rate
ranges from 5 to 30 centimeters.
So, this is maybe 5 centimeters to 30 centimeter. So, this, this portion is known as planum this
portion. So, this is the wall. So, air will move through this and it goes there in the header and
then it will be distributed through ducts in order to maintain the room temperature.
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Now we can see how this ducting is done. So, once we have this then this blower will suck and
then there are some holes or ducting a distribution ducting then so, this may be no this may be
for one room this way for one room or maybe two holes are for one room. So, that way this can
be arranged and room heating can be carried out. So, as we have said it is a dark perforated
absorber captures solar energy and this fan draws air through collector.
And control regulate temperature dampers and auxiliary heating and air is distributed through
buildings and wall heat loss recovered. So, normally what happens this wall heat recovery can be
done by using this methodology.
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So, now, let us solve one problem related to this unglazed transpired collectors. So, the
temperature rise T of air through a vertical south facing unglazed transpired collector is found
to satisfy the following empirical relation which is T  0.03IT  3.0 For an airflow rate of 36
m3/h-m2 of UTC. This IT is nothing but the total solar radiation incident on UTC and T is in 0
C is in Celsius assuming this relation to be valid, calculate the efficiency of a vertical south
facing UTC for the following data.
So, we need to find out the efficiency  i , the location is given as 28 degree 35 minute north and
77 degree 12 minute East and date is December 10, hour angle is given as 15 then air flow rate in
given, then global solar radiation Ig is given and diffused radiation is given us Id. So, once we
know these two, then we can calculate what is Ib. So, this Ib can be calculated by deducting Id
from Ig. So, it will be 543 minus 144. So, this will be 399 W/m2 and reflectivity of the surface is
given as 0.2. So, so we know what is instantaneous efficiency.
qu
So, this can be calculated by using i  this area is that area. So, this is so, this area this
IT A
wall area we need to find out. So, this is the so this wall area. So, we also know what is qu, is
. T
nothing but mCp or m we can write is . So, normally in case of conventional collectors we
IT A
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place AP or AC but here what happens this side, this wall this wall area we need to consider this
wall area, this wall you need to calculate.
. .
m m C p T
So, this is given is given is given here is 36, then we have this may be equation 1
A A IT
and also we can simplify this m dot A. So, this is 36 m3/h-m2 so, it will be 36 multiplied by
density of air. So, it will be (m3/h-m2 × kg/m3). So, this will go off and then finally what we will
have? So, what is the density of air is 1.2 1.2 kg/m3. So, once we multiply these 361.2 it will
.
2 m
be 43.2 kg/h-m . So, this is in Kg.
A
Normally, this is volume flow so, we can write volume flow also but we can convert it to mass
flow rate per area. So, this part is known to us now. So, what we need is IT and this
T  0.03IT  3.0 . So, if we know this IT then straight way we can calculate what is T ? So, if
we know T then we can calculate what is  i . So, now, our next step is to calculate IT. So, how
to calculate IT now. So already we know the expression for IT, IT  Ibrb  I d rd  Ib  I d rr we
have to calculate what is rb, what is rd and what is rr? Let me give a name of this equation maybe
2. Let us calculate what is rb, rd and rr,
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cos
So, this rb if we substitute those values rb  already we have done many exercise. So,
cos z
before we start, we need to maybe I can write this other expression as well. So, this
1  cos   , then we will have  1  cos  
rd  rr  . So, before we start let us know the values.
2 2
So,  will be here 90° because it is a vertical surface. And what will be the  so,  is given as
28  35
15° and  will be we have in the problem  is so, you can write here itself   . So,
60
which will be 28.58° and December 10 is the date.
So, we need to know what is n and so, n value we need to calculate  is known what is the value
of  28.58, 28.58° and n will be so, we can start from January this 31 then we have 28 then we
have 31, then we have 30, 31 January, February, March, April May, June, July, August
September, then we have October, November, then 10 okay so, then this will be calculated to be
344. So, n is known, so, if we know n then we can calculate what is  what is
 360
  23.45 sin  284  n  . So, this n is nothing but what 344. So, if we substitute then what
 365 
we will get  is equal to -23.04 °.
So, we know all those values now, so, we can calculate rb value now. So, this rb
cos sin  sin      cos  cos  cos   
rb   . So, if we substitute those values here, then
cos z sin  sin   cos cos  cos 
what we will get so, this rb value will be 1.295 those all values are known to us  is known
minus 22.4, then  is known  is 28.58,  is 90. So, that way we can substitute here and we
can do the calculation and this rb is found to be 1.295.
And rd just to substitute the value of  here  is 90 cos 90 is 0, so 1 by it will be 0.5. So, it will
be 0.5 so, here it will be 0.5  0.2 so, this will be   0.2  0.5 it will be 0.1. So, now, we know rd
value, rr value then rb value so, what we can use, we can calculate IT, this equation 2 what we
have given the name. So, this equation 1 in equation, equation 2
implies IT  Ibrb  I d rd  Ib  I d rr . So, Ib value we already know what is the value of Ib
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calculated which is IT  399 1.295  144  0.5  5430.1 . So, if we do the calculation this IT is
found to be 643.0 W/m2 this IT is known.
So, once we know IT then we can calculate what is T by using the equation 1, equation was not
given. So, this equation may be star I can write this is star. So, equation star T  0.03IT  3.0 .
So, if we substitute this value here then T will be 22.29 °C . So, T is 22.29 °C. So, once we
know this T , then we can go back to the equation 1, equation 1 implies we will have  i is
equal to mass flow rate mCpdT. So, m what we have calculated here is 43.2. So, this is 43.2. So,
we need to convert to second. So, it will be 3600. So, it will become kg/m-s2.
.
m
So, this is know now, then IT what we have calculated is 643 and we will have Cp is
A
4.18 103 and then we will have T so, this T is here 22.29. So, now, if we do the
calculation, so this eta is found to be 41.88%. So, this efficiency is found to be 41.88%. So, what
we have shown here, so, in case of transpired unglazed collector or say unglazed transpired
collector, if this radiation parameters are given then we can calculate what will be the efficiency
of the collector.
So, what we have learned in this presentation. So, we have basically learnt about the
fundamentals of solar air heaters. What are the advantages of using the Solar Air Heaters and
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what are the disadvantages of using this solar air heaters and also we have analyzed performance
systematically and also we have seen the functioning of different solar air heaters and the
research trends. And finally, we have solved one numerical exercise to strengthen the
understanding how to calculate efficiency of a collector. So, thank you very much for watching
this video. Thank you.
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Solar Engineering and Technology
Professor. Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Department of Centre of Energy
Lecture No. 25
Solar Air Heaters
Dear students, today we will be discussing about Testing of Solar Air Heater and Application
of Solar Heaters in Drying and Electricity Generation.
So, this figure, so the experimental setup by which solar air heater can be tested. So, it is a
closed loop consisting of a solar air heater. This is the solar air heater. One blower is required
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to blow air, this is the blower. Of course, we need measurement instrument, so this is a
Manometer, this is a manometer. And we need flow measuring device, maybe Mass Flow
Meter or maybe Rotameter. So, I am talking about very sophisticated mass flow meter or
maybe rotameter can be used for measurement of flow. And we need an air reconditioning
apparatus, because we need to perform the experiment at constant Tfi.
As you can see, there are positions to measure the temperature. So, these are the
thermocouple sensors position. So, we can average it out later on, so once we know the
temperature at different locations. And also, here, we need to have some kind of Mixing
Vanes, because this is air. So, at different locations temperature variation will be there. So,
we need to use this kind of vanes to make uniform temperature, then only we can attach this
thermocouple sensor for measurement of temperature.
So, as a whole here, this air inlet is here and outlet is here. And then this air again flow
through the same circuit but conditioning has to be done, because this air will be passing
through this tube at Tfi, that has to be fixed. That is why this air conditioning apparatus is
installed here. And we need to vary this mass flow rate. So, we need to perform here at
different mass flow rate means, these characteristics of this solar heater is to be performed at
different mass flow rate. So, which is different than in case of Liquid Flat plate Collector.
And while doing the experiments, we need to do some kind of precautions. Say, for example,
this exit air has to be well mixed before the temperature is measured. So, this mixing is done
with the help of vanes, as I have shown here. And this temperature need to be measured at
different locations across the duct cross-section, because of this non uniformity of the
temperature. And this setup works in a closed system.
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Now, if you see this typical performance curve of the solar air heater, you can see these two
are at different mass flow rates. And this is the experimental results of Gupta and Grag. And
as you can see, there is a scatter off data. And the scatter is very-very large. And in case of
liquid flat plate collector, what we are doing, only single mass flow rate was giving the entire
characteristics of the liquid flat plate collector. But in case of solar heater, this is not so. So,
we have to perform the experiments at different mass flow rate. So, why this is so?
If we compare both liquid flat plate collector and solar air heater, so in case of liquid flat
plate collectors, changes in the value of mass flow rate do not appreciably affect the
performance because of high values of liquid side heat transfer coefficient. That is why a
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single test curve is therefore, generally adequate for predicting the behaviour of such
collectors. But in case of solar air heaters, the changes in the value of mass flow rate
appreciably affect the performance because the value of air side heat transfer coefficient is
relatively low. This is the primary region.
So, in order to obtain complete information on a solar air heater, it becomes necessary to
conduct test over a range of mass flow rates with each flow rate yielding its own efficiency
curve. So, that is why we need to perform the test at different mass flow rate, keeping the
inlet fluid temperature constant.
Now, let us take an example to calculate efficiency of a solar air heater and the corresponding
mass flow rate under a given set of operating conditions. The example goes something like a
solar air heater of length L1 is equal to 1.2 meter and width L2 is equal to 0.9 meter is tested
under a range of flow rates varying from 25 to 200 kg/hr, and the efficiency curve so
generated is shown in Figure 1.
So, we need to calculate the efficiency and the corresponding mass flow rate under the
condition like air inlet temperature of 54 °C, air outlet temperature of 74 °C, ambient
temperature of 26 °C. And the solar flux incident on solar collector face is equal to 950W/m2.
So, let us solve this problem to, solution, I will write. The figure what you have seen here, its
efficiency curve which is plotted based on the absorber plate area. What you can see here, the
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T f  Ta
variation of instantaneous efficiency with respect to this parameter . So, with
IT
increase in mass flow rate, how this efficiency curve changes that can be seen here.
Now, it is given that Tfi is equal to 54 °C , then Tfo is equal to 74 °C, ambient temperature Ta
is 26 °C, and IT the amount of solar flux which is falling on the solar air heater which is given
us 950 W/m2, so which is equal to 0.95 kW/m2. So, why we have converted to kW/m2?
Because if you see the horizontal axis of this efficiency curve, so this IT is in kW.
Now, let us calculate first the average fluid temperature. So, T f which is nothing but average
T fi  T fo
fluid temperature, and which can be represented by T f  . So, if we substitute the
2
value of Tfi, which is equal to 54 and then Tfo 74 divided by 2, which is equal to 64 °C. So,
for the given condition, the x-axis parameter, so I will write, for the given condition the x-
T f  Ta
axis or the horizontal axis parameter, which is nothing but , which will be equal to
IT
64, Tfi, we have calculated to be 64 minus Ta is 26 and IT is in kilowatt, it will be 0.95. So, if
we do the calculation it is found to be 40°C-m2 /kW so unit will be something like this.
Now, what we need to do, we need to do a trial and error procedure in order to find out the
required values of instantaneous efficiency and mass flow rate. So, if we see this 40 here, this
parameter is calculated to be 40 in our case, and if we consider this mass flow rate, maybe 25
if we consider initially, then we have to find out that cross-section point here. So, 40 it will
go here and it will cut here. So, if we draw a line, something like this, so we can find out the
corresponding value of the instantaneous efficiency.
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So, now, let us do the calculation. So first, let us assume m dot, which is mass flow rate equal
to 25 kg/hr. So, from the efficiency curve, so we can find out the point, because this point is
known by using this plot, as this is at 25 kg/hr first line followed by 50 then 100 150 and 200.
So, know this value, and we have find out this cross-section point and then corresponding
T f  Ta
efficiency we need to find out. So, at that x-axis parameter , which is equal to 40°C-
IT
m2/kW. So, this efficiency is found to be 24.2 %.
So, if you use a scale and take the point, then what we will get,  i is equal to 24.2 %. And
this is nothing but the instantaneous efficiency at mass flow rate of 25 kg/hr. Again, we know
instantaneous efficiency  i , it can be defined as useful heat gain, useful heat gain to heat
supplied. Then what we can write here, mathematically, qi by qu by, heat applied is nothing
but I, IT multiplied by AC. So, this I is nothing but solar radiation incident on the solar
collector and AC is the collector area. So, if we are interested about qu, then qu  i  I T  Ac .
Now, we know the value of instantaneous efficiency at 25 kg/hr, which is equal to 24.2 %, so
we can write, 0.242. So, 24.2 divided by 100, it will be 0.242 multiplied by IT is 950 and area
of the collector is 1.2  0.9 . So, if we do the calculation, then qu is found to be about 248.3
.
.
watt. So, this is at mass flow rate of 25 kg/hr. Also, we know, we have qu  m C p T . So, this
is nothing but useful heat gain can be represented in terms of mass flow rate, specific heat
and temperature difference.
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.
qu
So, from this, what we can calculate is the mass flow rate. So, which will be equal to
C p T
.
So, if we substitute these values of qu Cp and T , then we can find out what is m . So, qu
already we have calculated, which is equal to 248.3 divided by Cp is 1.007 multiplied by 74
minus 54. And we need to multiply this in 103, because this is in kilojoule per kg per degree
temperature.
.
So, again we need to multiply this, which is 3600, because we want m in kg/hr. So, this will
.
be equal to 44.38 kg/hr. So, m is found to be now 44.38. But what we did? We initially
assumed that mass flow rate is 25 kg/hr, but what we got it is 44.38, then we have to see what
will be the appropriate mass flow rate. Now, let us assume this m is equal to 50 kg/hr, and let
us do the calculation, what happens.
So, this m dot is now 50 kg/hr. So, this is the assumption we made. So, at this mass flow rate,
we get the value of  i is equal to how much? So, here we have to extend this curve till here.
So, this is the curve and then we have to extend this. So, if we do a very precise calculation,
then this value is found to be about 28 %. So, of course, that has to be at 40°C-m2/kW. And
we know qu expression what we have used earlier, which is nothing but qu  i  I  Ac .
So, if we substitute the values of instantaneous efficiency, which is 0.28 multiplied by 950
and then AC is 1.2 meter by 0.9 meter. So, if you do the calculation, this qu is found to be
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287.3 watt as per my calculation. So, qu is found to be this one. And also, we know
. .
. . qu
qu  m C p T . So, this m , we can calculate . So, this is, Cp is the specific heat of air
C p T
and this value is also known to us and qu is also known, which is equal to 280 7.3 divided by
Cp is 1.007 103 and T is 20, straightway you can write, which is nothing but 74 minus 54.
.
So, if we do the calculation, then m dot is found to be 51.354 kg/hr. So, since the value of m
.
calculated from the useful heat gain rate does not match, let us now assume a value say, m is
equal to 51.354 kg/hr. So, we have initiated with 50 and we got 51.354, which is not exactly
matching. Then let us try one more time by considering m dot is equal to 51.354 kg/hr.
Now, let us do the calculation. If we see the efficiency curve again, now what happens, we
are now interested about 51.354, so we will extend this curve, and this is for 50, and 51.354 is
in between 50 and 100. Value will be somewhere here. So, we need to do the interpolation.
So, how to calculate? By using interpolation, we can calculate a  i at 51.4 kg/hr, and at of
course, x-axis parameter by IT, which is equal to 40°C-m2/kW.
So, at this condition, we need to find out this instantaneous efficiency. So, how we can
calculate? See here, already we know this efficiency, which is equal to 28. So, we will use
this. And than efficiency is increasing, we think is mass flow rate at that particular condition.
So, we will see that difference here. So, if we consider here, maybe this condition, so
interpolation, you can use it.
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30  28
So, there is something like, you can use , and here 51.354 minus 50. So, here, if we
100  50
draw this line is, this is 100. So, this is somewhat higher. So, it will be this is for 25, 50, then
we have 100, and that this will be about 31.5, something. So, if we do the calculation, so it is
about 28.05. So, that much of instantaneous efficiency we will get.
And once we do this, then what we can calculate? We know qu  i  I T  Ac . And if we
substitute the values of  i , which is equal to 0.2805 multiplied by IT, IT is about 950, then AC
is about 1.2 and 0.9, which is equal to 288.2034, to be precise, so that much of watt we will
.
. .
get is qu. Now, we know qu  m C p T , and from here you can calculate m , which is found
to be 51.516, which is in kg/hr. The m dot, assume the earlier, which is equal to 51.354,
which is very close to this value. So, we can accept this value as the solution to that problem.
So, this is the procedure by which you can calculate the instantaneous efficiency and mass
flow rate. So sometimes, if we can use a scale and all, then from that also you can calculate
what is the instantaneous efficiency at this condition. And finally, we can use qu, and once
.
you know that qu, then by using the expression qu  m C p T . And from that, we can
calculate what is mass flow rate. And in this case, it is found to be 51.516 which is very-very
close to the assumed values. So, this maybe the solution to this problem.
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Now, let us discuss about solar drying of agricultural products. The use of solar radiation for
drying is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. Solar drying has not yet been widely
commercialized because of many issues. And these solar dryers are generally of small
capacity. The design of solar dryers are based on primarily empirical and semi empirical data
than in the theoretical design, as you can see many of the cases. The majority of the solar
dryer designs are used mainly for drying of various crops, either for family use or for small
scale industrial production.
So, without delay, let us discuss about drying principles. So, as you can see in this figure, this
figure shows the process of moisture removal from a solid by using thermal energy input. So,
energy input is there, which is thermal and this is the product, which is to be dried and
moisture has to be removed. So, during this phenomenon, hot air is applied and heat and mass
transfers are involved throughout this drying process. The large portion of energy consumed
during drying is for transforming liquid water into its vapour, because as we know it is latent
heat of vaporization at this ambient, so that has to be removed.
The water may be contained in various forms, maybe free water or bound water, which
directly related to the drying rate. This free water is regarded as unbound, and the product is
non-hygroscopic. And this bound moisture is trapped in close capillaries in that material. And
the material is called hygroscopic.
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Now, this moisture content is expressed either on dry or wet basis. So, on dry basis, it is
expressed as the ratio of weight of moisture content per unit of wet material. Mathematically,
mw
it can be expressed as W  . That means kg per kg of mixture. So, mw is mass of
mw  md
water and md is mass of dry solid. And if we are interested about dry basis, so on dry basis, it
is expressed as the ratio of water content to the weight of the dry material.
mw
Mathematically, it can be expressed as X  , which is kg of water per kg of dry material.
md
Normally, agricultural products are analysed based on wet basis and when mathematical
calculations are involved, then dry basis calculations are considered.
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Now, let us discuss about Drying Rate, which is very-very important. And this determine by
the temperature and moisture content of the product, as well as the temperature, relative
humidity and velocity of the drying air. As you can see here, this is drying curve, so there are
different regimes, AB then BC then CE and ED. So, this B to C, this Phase 1, C to E Phase 2,
then E to D is Phase 3. So here, AB is the time spent to heat up the material until the drying
temperature is achieved. So, this is first drying temperature has to achieve.
So, this is the time spent to heat up the material until the drying temperature is achieved. So,
this may be the drying temperature. So here, horizontal axis is the drying time and vertical
axis is the drying rate. Then BC is the constant-rate drying. So, this part is a constant-rate
drying. So, it is, at constant temperature, drying takes place. So, this Phase 1 is nothing but
constant-rate drying. Then CE is the falling rate drying, where flow of moisture from mass
interior is decreased continuously.
So, when moisture is removed from the surface, then Phase 1 is applied. When this moisture
has to be removed from the interior of the material, then this pattern follows, that is falling
rate drying follows. And this point E, there is still moisture inside the product. And moisture
removal takes place slowly by diffusion, and drying can stop at point D. So, this is the
process of diffusion. So, even though this point achieved, further drying might be required in
some cases to reach to this point D.
The drying period of these regimes, this Phase 1, Phase 2 and Phase 3, that is constant-rate
drying, then falling rate drying and second falling rate drying for hygroscopic products
depends on the initial moisture content and the prescribed moisture content for safe storage,
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which is very-very important. So, this drying rate curve is important to understand, how this
drying is taking place if we consider any substance.
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Now, we need to learn what is water activity, and why this is important. This water activity is
of great importance for food preservation as it is a measure and a criterion of microorganisms
growth and probably toxin release of enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning development.
So, as you can see, this is the mathematical expression by which we can calculate what is
water activity. So, pw is the partial pressure of water solution, then pw star is the partial
pressure of pure water at the same temperature. And for every food or agricultural product,
there exists an activity limit below which microorganisms stop growing.
So, for example or your informations, the majority of the bacteria grows at an activity of
0.85, and mold and yeast grows at about an activity of 0.61, and fungi grows at about an
activity less than 0.7. So normally, in drying of many agricultural products, the activity is
maintained below 0.6.
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Also, we need to learn equilibrium moisture content, which is important to understand at

what moisture content we need to maintain for a particular product. The equilibrium moisture
content refers to the moisture content, when the vapor pressure exerted by the moisture of the
product and equals vapor pressure of the nearby ambient air. So, this is very-very important
to know this equilibrium moisture content.
Also, sometimes we need to know Sorption Isotherms. These sorption isotherms are graphical
representation of the relationship between the moisture content at the corresponding water
activity over a range of values at constant temperature. So, as you can see here, this curve is
for absorption curve and this B curve is for desorption curve. You can notice hysteresis
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between these two, because after drying completes, again some moisture absorption by the
product has been observed, and because of that this hysteresis are observed.
So, in the horizontal axis, it shows water activity and in the vertical axis, it shows water
content. So, what it shows primarily, it has slight hysteresis in reabsorbing water when the
product has been dried. So, this is how we got different sorption curve.
Let us discuss about the method of drying. So, there are different methods of drying. So,
primarily it has got two-division, like Active Dryers and then Passive Dryers. So, as you can
say, active dryer means, you need to supply some kind of forces externally. And passive
devices are something like natural circulation. So, again these active dryers can be classified
into many groups like Direct, Mixed Mode and again mixed mode with natural and forced.
And again, natural circulations can be divided into many groups. And these direct dryers are
something like Box-type Dryers, Cabinet Dryers, then Tunnel Dryers.
So, there are different kinds of dryers. So, this figure shows the different methods of drying.
So, let us discuss some of the drying devices, which is used extensively historically.
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So, this is a cabinet dryer. So, solar radiation is falling, through this glass cover, and materials
to be dried, we will keep here in these trays. So, these are trays, so long trays, so different
stages are there for keeping the products, and air is supplied from the bottom. So, finally air
has to be take out, so it will carry the moisture. And this can be taken out with time if we
know the drying time for a particular material.
So, Forced Circulation Dryers are something like this, they have glass cover, solar radiation
is falling through this glass cover, and materials to be dried, we will keep in these trays, and
blower is employed here to suck the air, because it is a active device, so external unit has to
be employed to suck the air. So, drying is performed by using this sucking effect of this air.
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And this is one more forced circulation dryer, which is indirect gain. So, this is solar air
heater, and blower is installed here. Blower blows the air, so of course we need to apply some
kind of electricity to run this blower. So, air will flow through this air heater and then it will
introduce here in this bed. And feeding will be done here, and then drying flow rate can be
collected from the bottom of this vessel, and air can be ejected from the top.
Normally, its capacity varies from 10 tonne to 15 tonne per day, and initial moisture varies
from 11 to 14 %, and final moisture after drying is about 5 % is achieved for this kind of
arrangement.
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So, let us do a calculation. How this drying calculation can be carried out, which is very-very
important? Once we are comfortable about this, then we can do any of the calculations. So,
let us consider a problem. Say, we need to dry a product, say, agricultural product, maybe
grapes or maybe other products. Say, let us consider the mass of the product is 100 kg and
initial moisture content is 75 % and final moisture content is 14 %, and we need to dry this
product in 2.8 hours, and maximum allowed temperature is 70 °C and ambient temperature is
25 °C.
So now, first step is to calculate the water removal. So, water there has to be removed that is
Win  Wout
based on the wet material moisture content. So, which is known by us. This W 
100  Wout
is something like this, 0.71 kg per kg of material. So, that is the water that has to be removed.
So, that much amount of water has to be removed. So, for 100 kg of product, so, this is for
single kg, the water that has to be removed is 0.71× 100, it will be 71 kg for this problem.
The amount of material to be dried in 2.8 hours will be 100 divided by 2.8, it will be 35.72
kg/hr. Now, we need to calculate what is the drying rate, if we need to calculate then what we
need to do, we need to multiply with this 0.71. So, what we get now 35.35 kg/hr is the drying
rate. So now, we need to use this enthalpy-humidity diagram or psychometric chart. So, for
air at 25 °C and relative humidity of 60 %, absolute humidity is found to be 12 gm/kg, and
enthalpy is 56 kJ/kg. And for 70 °C, relative humidity of 6.5, enthalpy is about 100 kJ/kg,
and also, we need to find out this equivalent humidity.
So, because activity is about 0.57 in our case, so it will be equivalent, the humidity will be
100  57
, it will be 78.5. So, for mean humidity of this value, the air humidity at the exit of
2
the dryer is 28 gm/kg, and the corresponding temperature is 35 °C. So, we need to use those
values for calculation of air needed for drying off 100 kg of raw material. So, if we have to
calculate for 100 kg, then we have to multiply with 100. So, Vair, which is nothing but air
needed for drying of raw material, so since it is 100 kg, so we need to multiply by 100. Then
.
m
Vair  100  , which are known to us now, this 12 is known and then we have 28.
air xm  xa 
This 28 minus 12, and these values are known. So, once we do the calculation it is found to
be 129.13 m3/hr. Now, this heat needed to increase the drying air temperature from 25 to 70,
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that also we can calculate very easily. So, this can be calculated by using the values what we
have now. So, Q is found to be this. For 2.8 hours, the drying period, the energy consumption
is, Q is about 19.52 MJ. So that much of heat is required to remove the moisture content from
75 to 14 % if we consider 100 kg of this raw agricultural product.
So, this energy consumption is 19.52 MJ. So, this collector area required may be calculated
from the heat required value. So, this value, so once we know this value, then from that we
can calculate the area required for drying the required amount. So, this collector area required
may be calculated from the heat required value by taking into consideration the solar
collector efficiency and corresponding heat loss. So, this is very-very important. Once we
know this, then we can size the kind of solar air heater required and what capacity. How to
connect those solar air heaters for meeting the requirement?
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Now, you can see this is a psychometry and drying curve. So, since psychrometry is the study
of the property of mixture of air and water vapor, the psychrometric chart is a graphical
representation of the physical and thermal properties of the atmospheric air. So, this
axisshows the dry bulb temperature, this is the specific humidity, and we will have enthalpy
is here, and all the parameters, these are the relative humidity lines. Specific volume is also
here.
So, at particular temperature, say, 20 degree, what will be relative humidity, if we know that
relative humidity say, 40, so we can find out the coordinate. And if we have to know the
enthalpy, then we have to go to here, then we can get the enthalpy. So, these charts are used
for this kind of drying calculations and then psychometric calculation.
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Let us now discuss how this solar air heater can be applied for process heat industries or say
which requires process heat, and we can store energy by using this solar heater. So, this slides
shows the use of solar heater for process heat industries. So, this is a solar collector, the solar
collector. Solar radiation is falling on the collector, and blower is used. So, blower forces the
air, and it goes to the dumper and then we can store, if we have generated more than the
required air, then we can store it by using a Rock Bed Storage or some other devices.
And whenever required, that can be used for process heat applications. So, sometimes we can
use the exhaust of engine to harvest those waste heat for drying of some other agricultural
products. At the same time, we can connect that system with the solar air heating
arrangement. So, when solar is not there, at the time also this facility can be employed for
generating hot air.
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And this is something called Solar Chimney Power Plant. As you can see, this is a very tall
chimney and this is one turbine and these are greenhouse. So, solar radiation is falling on the
greenhouse and then there is a draft. And then this turbine is rotating and electricity can be
generated. So, actually installation is seen something like this. So, this was suggested in
1970s. And it was also known as Solar Updraft Tower Power Plant. And it consists of a tall
central chimney, this is the chimney, then circular greenhouse with transparent cover.
So, this is the greenhouse and it is a very-very transparent to the solar radiation. A metal
frame to hold the green house, so here some kind of frame is required to hold the structure.
And the fan and generator in it, so this is not shown, this is a fan, but it needs to be taken out,
generator part has to be taken out and then the electricity can be generated. So, this sunlight
passing through the transparent cover causes the air trapped in the greenhouse to heat up to
10 to 20 degree C.
A convection system is set up in which hot air is drawn up and continuously replaced by
fresh air drawn in the periphery of the greenhouse. The energy contained in the updraft air is
converted into mechanical energy by a turbine located at the base of the chimney, so this is
the turbine, and then into electrical energy by conventional electrical generator. So, we can
generate electricity from the solar energy.
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So, let us take an example. So, this data is for an installation done at Spain. This is a pilot
plant solar air electricity generating unit. So, its chimney is about 195 meter tall and diameter
is about 10.3 meter. The solar collector area extended to a radius of 122 meter, it is a huge
from the chimney, with glazing being 1.85 meter above the ground, the clearance is about 2
meter. Total area of the glazing is 46000 meter square, it is a huge area. And as far as turbine
is concerned, there are 4 numbers of blade of length 5 meters and rotated at a speed of 1500
rpm to produce a peak output of 50 kW.
The energy conversion efficiency of this kind of solar chimney is really low. And this
maximum conversion efficiency can be calculated by using this expression once you know
the height of the chimney. And then ambient temperature of course, specific heat is known to
us, and g is known to us. So, by using that we can calculate what will be the maximum
conversion efficiency of the solar chimney.
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So, we can solve this numerical. So, this numerical goes something like, with following
assumptions and given data, calculate the maximum possible conversion efficiency
obtainable with the chimney. Also estimate the efficiency of the plant as a whole and the
daily electrical output in a typical summer month of solar radiation about 6.5 kWh/m2. So,
height of the chimney is given us 300 meter, solar collection area of the greenhouse is 50000
m2, so area is known now. Cp value is always known, Ta is known.
And assumptions are something like, the turbine generator get converted only 50 % out of the
maximum available energy into the electrical energy. And second assumption is the
gH
collection efficiency of the greenhouse is 25 %. So, max  , we can substitute
C pTa
straightaway and what we get maximum efficiency is point 0.96 %, which is very-very less.
And if we are interested about overall efficiency, which includes turbine generator and then
collector efficiency, that has to multiply with this, what we got here now. So, 0.25 is the
turbine generator, is the greenhouse efficiency.
And then turbine generator efficiency is 50 %, so it will be 59, and this mixing efficiency is
0.96. So, there is multiply then finally what we got about 0.12 % is the efficiency, which is
very-very less compared to others solar conversion devices. So, this daily electrical output,
you can calculate now. So, which is nothing but 6.5, which is given to us, this value is given
to us, solar radiation, then multiplied by area. So, this is something like I×A and then you
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have efficiency. So, this is like output, so now something like qu, so that can, we can
resemble.
So, if we know this efficiency, then area is known, then intensity is known. So, we can
calculate what is the daily electrical output of the plant, which is nothing but
6.5  50000  0.0012 is equal to 390 kW. There are other installations as well in other
countries, like in Australia they have a plant of capacity 200 MW electrical and its height was
1 kilometre and greenhouse collector area is about 7 kilometres in diameter. So, it is a huge
structure. So, even though efficiency is very-very low, but there are certain conditions at
which we can go for this kind of installation.
Now, let us summarize what we have discussed today. So, primarily we have discussed about
the testing of solar air heaters, what are different instrument use and how this testing is done.
So, this testing is done at different mass flow rates and at fixed air inlet temperature. Also, we
have learned what are different instruments. Like for flow measurement, we need to use
rotameter or maybe sophisticated mass flow meter.
For temperature measurement, we need thermocouples, so we need to measure a different

thermocouples for inlet and outlet temperature. And of course, we need to have some kind of
mixing vanes to regulate or to minimize the fluctuations of the temperature variations goes
out from the solar heaters and then reconditioning unit. And also we have studied the
application of solid air heaters in drying of agricultural products.
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And also, we have studied drying characteristics curve, drying calculations by considering
100 kg of raw materials to be dried from 74 % to 14 %. So, we have understood the amount
of heat required for doing so. And also, we have studied the use of solar air heater for process
heat generation or process heat in industry. And finally, we have studied solar air heater for
power generation. So, I hope that you have enjoyed this video. Thank you very much for
watching.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Centre for Energy
Lecture 26
Fundamentals of concentrating collectors
Dear students, today we will be discussing about fundamentals of solar concentrating collectors
and analysis of parabolic trough collector.
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Now, what is concentrating solar power technology? This concentrating solar power technology
utilizes focused sunlight. The concentrators increases the amount of incident energy on the
absorber surface as compared to that on the concentrator aperture. And this CSP technology
utilizes mirrors or lenses to concentrate Sun’s energy and convert it into high temperature heat.
So, the kind of collectors we were discussing in the last classes, those collectors could be
employed for generation of fluid temperature of about 100 or slightly more than 100 oC. But if
we have to generate high temperature, or we have to think of application of high temperature
application more than say 200, 300 or may be 400, so we need to go for concentrating solar
collectors.
So, how it will work? That is what, we have explained here; and with the help of other slides, we
will understand what is the importance of this technology as far as high temperature application
generation is concerned.
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So, this concentrating solar power technology follows sun so that the beam radiation are always
focused on the absorber. So, as you can see here, a solar concentrator generally consists of a
reflector, there is a reflector or concentrator, we can say and this is a receiver. So, solar radiation
comes and strike on this reflector and it reflects to this absorber. That is how it works and heat
transfer fluid flow through this receiver and then that can be collected in a collection unit and
that can be applied or used as per the applications.
So, we need a focusing device, this is nothing but a focusing device, an absorber or receiver. So,
this is an absorber or receiver, so that may be with or without transparent cover. Sometimes, so if
we draw this tube through which heat transfer fluid flows, so this may be steel or maybe copper,
so material of construction is copper and just above it, will have a glass transparent cover. This is
glass, so this is glass, so that is why it is said, with or without transparent cover.
And of course, we need a tracking device for continuously following the sun. So, in case of flat
plate collector, that kind of systems are not required. So, that is installed in a location based on
the phi value or latitude value and that is fixed throughout the year. But in case of concentrating
collector, we need to rotate the device based on the solar radiation or to capture solar radiation
throughout the day.
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So, there are some advantages of this kind of technologies. So, first is, it is a better
thermodynamic efficiency; because its operating temperature is higher or range of temperature is
higher. And less material requirement compared to flat plate collector and reduced storage cost.
So, these are the primary advantages of these solar concentrating collectors.
And as we can say, or as we have said, temperature as high as 3500 oC have been achieved by
using this kind of collectors. So, these are high temperature collectors. These solar collectors are
used for thermal as well as PV conversion of solar energy. So, there are some drawbacks, like we
cannot employ diffused radiation for energy conversion, only beam radiations are applied in case
of CSP. And that is why, we need a clear sky or cloudless sky for installation of this kind of
devices.
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So, how this solar concentrator works if we have to see, this concentrating solar power system
generate electricity with heat, that we must know. This concentrating solar collectors use mirrors
and lenses to concentrate and focus sunlight onto a thermal receiver similar to a boiler tube like
conventional power plant.
The receiver absorbs and convert sunlight into heat. The heat is then transported to steam
generator or engine, where it is converted to electricity. So, when we talk about solar PV system,
so it converts sunlight to electricity directly. But in case of solar concentrating collectors, we are
utilizing thermal energy to generate electricity. So, first we have to convert this solar energy to
heat, then heat has to be converted to electricity by using this generator.
So, CSP technology generate electricity for a variety of applications, like ranging from remote
power systems as small as few kW upto grid connected applications of 200 to 350 MW or more.
A concentrating solar power system that produces 350 MW of electricity displaces the energy
equivalent of 2.3 million barrels of oil, so which is very-very advantageous.
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And now let us pay more attention on this thermo-mechanical system. How this heat energy is
converted to electricity? So, as we say thermo-mechanical system, which convert solar thermal
energy to mechanical energy through heat engine using Rankine cycle may be, maybe Stirling
cycle, maybe Brayton cycle. So, this mechanical energy produced may be used as shaft power
such as water lifting. And this mechanical energy produced may also be converted to electricity
using generator.
So, what are the limitations of this conversion? This conversion efficiency is low. It is about 9-18
%. The efficiency of the collector system decreases as the collection temperature increases,
which is reverse in case of heat engine. The efficiency of the heat engine increases as the
working fluid temperature increases.
The solar collectors are generally more expensive than engine, and a part of thermal energy is
lost during the transportation of the working fluid from the collector to the heat engine. That has
to be considered. A very large area is required to install the solar collector system. And due to
intermittent nature of solar energy, storage of thermal energy is also important.
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Now, let us see this picture how this high temperature heat which is generated in the receiver
system. So, as we can see thermic fluids are used in the tube through which heat exchange takes
place. Solar radiation, so may be this is the collector, so radiation falls here, beam radiation falls
here and strikes in the receiver system; so heat transfer fluid flows.
So, here this heat will be very-very high, if we talk about parabolic trough, may be 350-400 oC. It
is a very high temperature, so the thermic fluid will be heated up. And then that will move to
thermal generator or maybe heat exchanger, so that heat will be utilized, and then that heat will
be used for heating the secondary fluid. And then it will pass through the steam turbine. Because
once that fluid what is used in this Rankine cycle will be expanded in the turbine, and that
mechanical energy can be converted to electrical energy by using this generator.
So, of course, heat rejection will be there from the turbine. So, this will work in a closed loop.
So, this heat transfer fluid or say the fluid what is used in this cycle may be different from the
fluid what is used in this concentrator cycle. So, this is how from thermal collectors to the
electricity generation takes place.
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Now, let us learn some of the parameters which characterizes solar concentrators, like aperture
area. So, if we talk about this tube and this is the reflector part, so this area is nothing but
aperture area. The area through which solar radiation is incident, is nothing but aperture area.
And this absorber area is something like that, it is a very long tube if we talk about parabolic
trough.
The total area of the absorber surface that receives the concentrated radiation, it is also the area
from where useful energy can be obtained. And then acceptance angle, which is represented by
2θs, which defines the angular limit to which the incident ray may deviate from the normal to the
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aperture plane and still reach the absorber or receiver. So, this is the aperture angle, what you can
see here. So, this is sun and this is the receiver, earth surface.
And also, we need to know what is intercept factor, which is defined as the ratio of energy
intercepted by the absorber of a given width to the total energy redirected by the focusing device.
So, the amount of radiation which is striking onto this absorber. So, some of the radiations may
not be striking here, so it may goes off or maybe it is coming in that way and then it might not be
striking this absorber. So, that is why, this factor need to be considered. Of course, we are
looking for unity, but always you will not get this unity.
And also, we need to know what is optical efficiency. So, this optical efficiency defines the
energy absorbed by the absorber to the energy incident on the concentrators aperture. It includes
the effect of mirror or lens surface, shape and reflection transmission losses, tracking accuracy,
shading, receiver cover transmittance, absorptance of the absorber and solar beam incident or
solar beam incidence effects.
So, let us define concentration ratio. So, how we can define concentration ratio? Concentration
ratio is the ratio of aperture area to the absorber area. So, as I am writing this again and again, so
Aa
this is an aperture area, so maybe Aa I can write and this is the absorber area, so this C ,
Ap
which is concentration ratio. The local concentration ratio can also be defined which is the ratio
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of solar radiation at any point on the absorber surface to the incident radiation at the aperture of
the solar concentrator.
So, we can see the definition of C here. And this is very important point like a concentrator with
large acceptance angle, needs only seasonal adjustment; while a concentrator with small
acceptance angle is required to track the sun continuously. So, this is very very important, so
sometimes we need to design the concentrator in such a way that it has to operate continuously
and sometimes intermittent adjustment is also fine. So, this defines acceptance angle is important
for deciding this adjustment.
Now, let us see the radiative exchange between the sun and the receiver. So, if we consider a
black body, sun is always considered as a black body having temperature Ts and the radiation
from the sun on the aperture or receiver is the fraction of the radiation emitted by the sun which
r2
is intercepted by the aperture, which can be represented by this expression, Qs r  Aa  Ts4 .
R2
So, sigma is known to us, it is Stefan’s Boltzmann’s constant and a perfect receiver such as black
body radiates energy equal to Ar Tr4 . This is the receiver temperature and the function of this
reaches the sun, and the fraction of this reaches the sun. So, this can be expressed by using this
expression.
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Now, if I am interested for estimation of maximum concentration ratio, then we need to do

something. Like when Tr and Ts are the same or fixed values of this Tr and Ts, the second law of
thermodynamics requires that heat transfer from source to the receiver or sun to the receiver
should be equal to receiver to the sun. So, if we use this expression, then what we will get, this
kind of expression.
Now, since the maximum value of Er→s=1, the maximum concentration ratio for circular
1
concentrator is found to be , this is for circular concentrator. So, geometry of the
sin 2  s
concentrator may be different, so this is for circular concentrator. And for linear concentrators,
1
the maximum concentration ratio is found to be .
sin  s
So, if we know this θs = 0.257o, the maximum possible concentration ratio for circular
concentrator is calculated to be about 46000 and for linear concentrator, it is found to be about
215.
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Now, let us pay attention about the different configurations of concentrating collectors. As you
can see, these are tubes and one reflector is placed at the bottom of the tubes. And this is one
more configurations, which is nothing but tubular absorber with specular cups reflectors. So, this
kind of configurations are there to increase the concentration ratio.
So, normally what happen in case of flat plate collector will have concentration ratio is equal to
1. So, if we can increase the concentration ratio, so we can increase the operating temperature of
the collector. So, these are different attempts. And this is a compound configuration, so where
we can have more radiation exposure and then we can get slightly higher concentration ratio.
And this configuration is, for say, parabolic trough. So, receiver is here, this is a reflector, so
these rays are focused on this axis, because this is a long tube not a point. And this configuration
is for Fresnel reflectors and this configuration is for arrays of heliostats with central receiver
system. So, we will learn details with time.
1
So, as we understand for point focus system, this concentration ratio can be defined as
sin 2 
1
and for line focus system, this is . So, if we know this θ value, then we can straight away
sin 
calculate what will be the maximum concentration ratio for a point focus system and for a line
focus system.
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And as I said, so these are the attempts to increase the concentration ratios, though this first
three, the maximum concentration ratio can be achieved is 4. And the other configurations, of
course, concentration ratios are quite high. The actual value of this concentration ratio, C is much
lower since the acceptance angle is usually greater than 0.267o. This includes tracking errors,
imperfections in the reflecting or refracting components of the concentrator, mechanical
misalignments, et cetera. So, these are the causes of reduction of this actual concentration ratio.
And this slide shows the collector type based on concentration ratio. So, as we can see this planar
and non-concentrating type, which provides concentration ratios of upto 4 and are of flat plate
type. So, if you see this figure, this vertical axis shows concentration ratio and horizontal axis
shows receiver temperature. So, these are the lower limits and this is the band. Normally, this is
the band at which the concentration ratio falls, when temperature increases.
And the ranges of operation, or ranges of concentration ratios are shown. So, this is for
paraboloid, you can see the range of operation, of course that can be adjusted by using different
means. And for conical configurations, we can see this is the range and for cylindrical, this is the
range. So, for line focus system, we can have concentration ratio up to 10 and for point focus
system, it is very-very high.
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So, this slide shows about the comparison of flat plate collector and concentrating collector. As
already we are aware that, this flat plate collectors are normally used for low temperature
applications. So, maximum may be 100, 110 oC. For this kind of configurations, for concentrator,
it may go up to 3500 oC, starting from 260 oC.
And here, in case of flat plate collectors, what primary advantage is, we can employ both normal
and diffuse radiation, but in case of concentrator, only normal radiations are applied for energy
conversion. So, diffuse radiation cannot be employed. Or even though diffused radiation falls on
these devices, contribution of these radiations are very-very less.
And here no tracking is required but in case of concentrating collectors, tracking is must. And
because of this, mechanically, it is unstable and then it requires maintenance, but in case of flat
plate collector, maintenance is very-very less.
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So, let us classify the concentrating collectors, there are different modes of classification. So,
based on the aperture type, it’s a reflecting type utilizing Fresnel lens or refracting type utilizing
mirrors. So, if we have to use mirrors, then refracting surface may be parabolic, spherical or flat;
that may be continuous or segmented.
And classification based on image formation, may be non-imaging system or non-imaging type
or maybe imaging type. So, under imaging type, again we have two classes; like line focusing
type or point focusing type. And based on operating temperatures, may be low temperature,
medium temperature and high temperature.
And then fourth category of classification is based on tracking system. So, single tracking system
or two axis or double tracking system. Sometimes we need double tracking system to track the
sun in order to capture more beam radiation.
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Now, let us see different CSP technologies what is available. So, first technology is parabolic
trough, then dish stirling, central power receiver system, then Fresnel collector. So, what we can
see here, so this is a concentrator, this part is concentrator and this is receiver system. So, solar
radiations falls here and is reflected to this focal axis. So, reflector, then absorber tube, then this
is solar field piping.
So, here as we can see, this is an absorber tube, then over it, this is a glass cover. So, this is
maintained vacuum, so this is vacuum, in order to reduce the heat losses. So, in case of dish
stirling system, so reflector is something like this and it will focus on this system. So, engine is
placed, normally stirling engines are attached here. It is a external combustion engine, so heat is
supplied here and then expansion of fluid will be there and from that, electricity can be generated
directly.
And this is central power receiver system. So, here lot of heliostats are there, so these are
heliostats, mirrors. Solar radiation falls and it is reflected to this receiver system. So, normally
molten salt and oils are used so that may be collected and later on, will have powerhouse here.
So, this heat exchange will be there to the secondary fluid of this Rankine cycle and then from
that if we have generator, we can generate electricity. This is solar tower and Fresnel collectors
are something like, these are segmented pieces of mirrors, solar radiation falls here and strike on
this absorber tube and then heated fluid can be taken out for applications.
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And we can compare those technologies with different aspects like for parabolic trough
collectors whether possibility of storage systems are there or not, or what are the other
advantages, we can list it out. So, if we talk about possibility of integration of storage system, it
is yes, it is possible and advantages includes relatively low installation cost and large
experimental feedback is there in case of parabolic trough collector.
And disadvantages are relatively large area occupied, low thermodynamic efficiency due to low
temperature. So, since this temperature difference is low, because of that, will have lower
thermodynamic efficiency. And in case of linear Fresnel reflectors, storage is possible and
advantage is relatively low installation cost and disadvantages include low thermodynamic
efficiency due to low operating temperature, which is primary.
For solar power tower, it is highly desirable, that kind of storage system because that has to be
stored. Huge amount of heat is generated and that has to be stored for night use or maybe when
demand is very-very high. And its thermodynamic efficiency is high as the operating
temperatures are high, but it requires large space area and relatively high installation cost and
high heat losses are taking place for this kind of technologies.
And in case of parabolic dish, it is difficult to install storage system. Advantages are relatively
small area occupied and high thermodynamic efficiency, but disadvantages are relatively high
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installation cost and little experimental feedback. So, this slide shows about the comparison of
four different CSP technologies.
Now, let us pay attention about thermal analysis of concentrating collectors. So, under steady
state condition, the energy balance on the absorber plate can be written as something like this.
So, this qu is the useful heat gain and Aa is the effective area of the aperture of the concentrator
and S is the solar beam radiation per unit effective aperture area absorbed in the absorber and ql
is the rate of heat loss from the absorber.
So, if we write ql, that is, rate of heat loss in terms of overall loss coefficient, so we can use this
expression. So, ql U l Ap Tpm  Ta  . So, Tpm is average temperature of the absorber surface and
Ul is overall loss coefficient. So, if we use it here, qu  Aa S U l Ap Tpm  Ta . And if we, so this

is Aa, so if we take out Aa, qu  Aa  S  U l
Ap
Tpm  Ta  .
 Aa 
So, we can define concentration ratio now. Already we know what is concentration ratio, the
aperture area to the absorber area. So, this will be 1/C. So, qu  Aa  S  l Tpm  Ta  . So, this is
 U 
 C 
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l, so this will be useful heat gain. So, that is how we can write this expression,
qu  Aa  S  l Tpm  Ta  .
 U 
 C 
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And this slide shows the efficiency vs receiver temperature. So, this is the system efficiency and
this is the receiver temperature at different concentration ratios. So, these are different
concentration ratios. So, it goes maximum and then it come back to 0. So, it shows the variation
of efficiency with respect to receiver temperature at different concentration ratios.
So, for flat plate collector concentration ratio is 1, for parabolic trough it is about 80, for solar
tower it is 500, parabolic dish about 2000. So, this overall efficiency of a CSP plant can be
expressed something like this, system collector carnot . So, if we know the Carnot efficiency and
collector efficiency then straight way, we can calculate what will be the system efficiency of the
plant.
So, with increasing temperature, this collector efficiencies decreases but Carnot efficiencies
increases, so that is how we can get higher system efficiency if Carnot efficiency is significantly
higher.
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And this slide shows the applications of CSP in commercial scale and domestic level. So, for
commercial scale, the CSP can be applied for power generation in stand alone mode or maybe
grid connected system or maybe hybrid system or maybe to meet the demand of thermal
requirement; hot water and steam generation, air conditioning, absorption chillers, desalination
of sea water by evaporation.
Solar chemistry, manufacture of metals and semiconductors, hydrogen production may be water
splitting or material testing under extreme conditions like, design of materials for shuttle reentry.
Or as far as domestic applications are concerned, it may be applied for hot water generation or
maybe HVAC or air conditioning system and solar steam cooking, solar oven or cookers, then
solar food drying.
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And also, we can compare these technologies with different parameters. So, like relative cost,
then land occupancy, thermodynamic efficiency, operating temperature, solar concentration ratio
and then improvement potential. So, as far as parabolic trough is concerned, it is a relatively low
cost but large land is required.
But thermodynamic efficiency is lower and operating temperature ranges from 20-400 oC and
concentration ratio varies from 15 to 45 and improvement potential is limited. So, for solar
power technology or solar power tower, so it is a very high cost and occupancy is medium, so
not much land area is required. Thermodynamic efficiency is higher and operating temperature is
also higher, concentration ratio we can see, it varies from 150 to 1500 and improvement potential
is very-very significant.
In case of linear Fresnel reflector, it is a relatively low cost and land occupancy is medium,
thermodynamic efficiency is low, operating temperature may go up to 300 oC and concentration
ratio varies from 10 to 40 and there are a lot of scope for improvement. And parabolic dish
collector, so it is a very high cost, land requirement is small, thermodynamic efficiency is high
because operating temperatures are high and you can see the operating temperature 120-1500 oC
and concentration ratio varies up to 1000 and it has got a lot of potential for improvement.
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So, now let us pay attention about the analysis of parabolic trough collector. So, let us consider
this configuration. So, we will have solar field, then you have absorber tube and then reflector.
So, if we take a section, so it appears like this, so this is concentrator and this is the receiver
system. So, when we call receiver system, it includes absorber tube plus this glass cover, which
is placed concentrically and vacuum is maintained in between this.
So, if we consider a section, so this is the tube through which heat transfer fluid flows and if we
take the length of the tube, this is the length of the tube and start from is x = 0, may be x = 0 here
and it moves something like this and take a section dx, so fluid is flowing from this tube, so
maybe at this point, fluid temperature is Tf and at this point, this fluid temperature is (Tf + dTf).
So, we will assume some parameters or some of the information like radiation flux is same along
the length. So, it is assumed that this radiation flux which is falling in the absorber is same. Of
course there will be some differences in actual case but what we will consider is same. And
temperature drop across the absorber tube and the glass cover are neglected. So, this is absorber
tube, this is a glass cover, so temperature drop is neglected, it will be same.
So, this aperture of the concentrator is W which is represented here and length is L is the length
of the tube is L, so this length or we can say this is the length, so this length is L. So, I can write
this way also, this length will be L along the length, so length of this tube and rim angle is ϕr and
it should be here, so rim angle is ϕr, so this is the ϕr.
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And this absorber inner diameter is Di and outer diameter is Do and concentric glass cover, inner
diameter is Dci so here so thickness will be here. So, it has got some thickness and outer diameter
is Dco. And the fluid is heated from inlet temperature Tfi here, at this point is Tfi, Tfi, it is Tfo so
outlet temperature is Tfo. And let ṁ be the mass flow rate, mass flow rate of the fluid that is
flowing through the tube.
And if we are interested about concentration ratio of this configuration, so it will be something
Effective aperture area W  Do L
like this, C   . So, that way if this L is common in numerator
Absorber tube area Do L
and denominator, this will goes off then,

W  Do   C is the expression for concentration ratio.
Do
So, if we know aperture of the concentrator and then outer diameter of the absorber then we can
straightaway calculate what will be the concentration ratio of that configuration. Now, let us
draw an energy balance or write an energy balance expression on the absorber plate.
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So, this energy balance on an elementary slice of the absorber tube at the distance x from the
inlet. So, this gives a relationship of something like this. So, qu is the useful heat gain which is
equal to Ib×rb(W-Do)×ργ×(τα)b, because beam radiation is only employed.
So, this part is the direct radiation which is falling on the absorber tube and this part is for losses.
So, this component is coming from the reflector, so from here, from this reflector solar radiation
is falling here, it will go, this will go. So, first component is contribution from this reflected
radiations, second component is, since it is exposed to the sun, so it will directly fall on this
absorber. And this is the losses. So, Ul, it take cares of this conduction and convection losses
from the absorber tube.
So, this Ib is the beam radiation and tilt this rb is the, that component which has to be multiplied,
because all the radiations are not coming, so some losses will be there. Then this is a reflectivity
of the reflector and this is the γ, which has to be multiplied because all the radiations are not
coming and striking on the absorber. And these values are already defined and these are the
losses. And Tp is the absorber plate temperature or absorber tube temperature, this is the ambient
temperature and is the dx or is the slice.
So, absorber solar flux we can write something like this. So, using this equation, in equation A
then this equation simplifies to something like this. And also heat gain rate, we know
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dqu  h f Di Tp  T fi dx  m
 C p dt , because mass is flowing. So, ṁ is the mass flow rate, Cp
specific heat of the thermic fluid and we know the temperature difference Tfi and Tfo. From that
we can calculate what is the rate of heat transfer is ṁCpdt.
So, now combining this equation C and D what will have, useful heat gain in that particular
section will be something like this. So, Fʹ is the collector efficiency factor, which can be
expressed something like this. And if we combine this equation E and F, then we will have this
kind of equation. And we need to integrate this using the initial conditions, at x = 0, Tf = Tfi,
which is already shown.
So, once you do it then we will get temperature distribution of something like this. So, fluid
temperature is obtained by putting Tf = Tfi and x = xo, so this should be Tfo. So, if x = L, the Tf =
Tfo. So, if we substitute this, then we can have this kind of configuration.
So, now we can calculate what is the useful heat gain rate. So, this useful heat gain rate can be
calculated and it is found to be something like this. And also we can define collector heat
removal factor, which is expressed by this expression. So, once you know this, then we can
calculate what will be the instantaneous efficiency of the collector. So, this instantaneous
qu
efficiency is expressed something like i  .
I b rb  I d rd WL
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So, this is the diffuse radiation component which is coming from the ground. Sometimes this
may be neglected. If we neglect this term, then this equation for instantaneous collector
qu
efficiency simplifies to this equation. So, if we know i  , then straight away we can
I b rbWL
calculate what will be the instantaneous collector efficiency. So, rb already we know for beam
cos 
radiation, what is the rb, that is rb  .
cos  z
So, there is a long expression for all the angles. So, this can be calculated and Ib is known and
see here, no diffused components are present. Only beam radiations are included. So, this
analysis will be very much important to characterize a parabolic trough. So, we must know the
procedure, how this can be characterized.
So, now next phase is how to calculate the heat transfer coefficient. So, once we know those
values, instantaneous efficiency value, Fr value, Fʹ values and then useful heat gain, then we need
to know the heat transfer coefficient. How this heat actions is taking place from the collector to
the absorber, then absorber tube to the glass tubes and then fluid? So, all the things we need to
calculate.
So, this overall heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer correlations need to be understand. So,
this is the ql heat losses, we can express ql in terms of Ul as well and also we can use this
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expression for calculation of heat loss. And then heat transfer coefficient between the absorber
tube and the cover can be estimated by using this expression. This Ra* is the modified Reynolds
number, which is defined something like this. Once you know this, then finally what we can
calculate, the heat transfer coefficient from the plate to the cover.
And then next phase is to calculate heat transfer coefficient on the outside surface of the cover.
So, the correlations proposed by Hilpert’s are normally used. So, it is expressed as Nu  C1 Re n .
So, there are different conditions, for 40 < Re < 4000, this C1 = 0.615 and n = 0.466.
And for a value of 4000 < Re < 40000, C1 = 0.174 and n = 0.618. And for this, so if Reynolds
number is very-very high, which is more than 40000 < Re < 400000, then we need to use this set
of data for calculation of heat transfer coefficient on the outside surface of the cover.
Also we can use some alternate correlations developed by Churchili and Bernstein. So, this
correlation is valid up to a Re = 107 and if 20000 < Re < 400000, then we can go for this
correlation. So, there is slight change in this value, so this is the difference. So, here it will be 1/2
of this section and but here it is 5/8 and then 4/5 whole to the power this bracket section.
So, once you know this Reynolds number and Prandtl number is known at that temperature, and
hL hd
then we can calculate what is heat transfer coefficient. Because Nu  or , now it will be L,
k k
hd/k or sometimes it is d also. So, hL or hd by k. So, once we notice k, L or d then we can
calculate what is h, or heat transfer coefficient.
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So, this heat transfer coefficient on the inside surface of the absorber tube if I am interested to
know, then we need to go for this kind of correlation. Nu = 3.66, for the flow having Re < 2000.
So, if the flow is turbulent having Re > 2000, then we need to use the correlations developed by
Dittus-Boelter, which is something like this, Nu  0.023 Re 0.8 Pr0.4 .
So, we can calculate the heat transfer coefficient on the inside surface of the absorber tube by
using these correlations. But while using this correlation, we must pay attention about this
assumption. Just flow is fully developed, that assumption has to be done and it is valid as L/Di is
larger than 20. So, under that condition we can use flow is fully developed and we can have this
kind of expression.
And Hong and Bergles developed a correlation which is expressed something like this. So, apart
from Reynolds number and Prandtl number, one term is there which is X, is X is nothing but tape
twist ratio. So, sometimes what happens, heat transfer in a flow can be augmented by using some
kind of twisted tapes. So, if this kind of tapes are introduced in that flow tube then heat transfer
coefficient enhances.
So, in order to define this twisted tape or this kind of configuration, we need to define this twist
H
ratio. So, X  , so H is nothing but length over which the tape is twisted through 180o, so this
Di
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is something like twisting. So, once it is twisted and it is introduced in that flow tube, then it is
investigated that heat transfer is augmented or heat transfer can be enhanced by applying twisted
tape in a flow process.
Also once we done with this heat transfer coefficient, researchers are interested to know the
pressure drop. How much pressure drop is taking place? So, there are many correlations to
investigate this pressure drop. One of the correlations which is applied here in concentrating
collectors are proposed by Date and Singham which is expressed something like this,
0.05
 Re 
f Re  38.4   .
 X 
So, this value should be in between this range and also this friction factor multiplied by Reynolds
number can be expressed something like this, if this value is more than 100. So, this C can be
calculated by using this expression. So, X is known to us from here and then if we apply here
and we will get C2, once we know C2 and Reynolds number is known to us, then we can
calculate f which is friction factor. So, once we know friction factor, we can calculate the
4 fLv 2
pressure drop. So, P  . So, that way we can calculate the pressure drop.
2g
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So, let us summarize what we have discussed today. Primarily we have discussed the
fundamentals of concentrating collectors and also the classifications, which are made based on
reflecting type utilizing mirrors, refracting type utilizing Fresnel lenses, imaging technologies, it
may be point focus system or maybe line focus system.
So, if we are talking about point focus system, it is a high concentration ratio and its operating
temperature is very-very high. And in case of line focus system, even though concentration ratio
is compatibly higher, but it cannot achieve as normally done in case of point focus system. And
there is also one basis of classifying its concentration ratio, which is nothing but the operating
temperatures as you can see. So, as the operating temperature increases, this concentration ratio
also increases.
And tracking also one of the classifications, what kind of tracking normally adopted, maybe
single axis tracking, may be double axes is tracking. So, based on the requirement that can be
decided. And also we have learned the energy balance on an absorber plate of a concentrating
collectors. So, this qu can be expressed something like qu  Aa  S  l Tpm  Ta  , where Ul is the
 U 
 C 
overall loss coefficient and Aa is the aperture area, C is the concentration ratio.
So, if we know mean absorber plate temperature or tube temperature, an ambient and solar flux,
we can calculate what will be the useful heat gain. Also, we have learned the analysis of
parabolic trough collectors and heat transfer coefficient. How this can be calculated heat transfer
coefficient can be calculated and how this can be applied for calculation of useful heat gain?
Because as you know qu  SAa  ql . So, in order to calculate this ql, we need to learn this heat
transfer coefficient.
So, once we know this heat transfer coefficient of different system from where to where the heat
transfer is taking place, so once you know this, we can substitute in this equation then we can
calculate what will be the useful heat gain. So, I hope you have enjoyed this video. Thank you
very much for watching.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Assistant Professor, Center for Energy
Lecture 27
Concentrating collector technologies and working principles
Dear students, today we will be discussing about different solar concentrating technologies and
principle which are used for power generation.
So, we have technologies like parabolic trough, dish stirling, central power receiver system,
Fresnel collectors. So, if we talking about parabolic trough, as you can see, this is a configuration
for a parabolic trough. It must have a reflector, this component is reflector, then absorber tube,
then solar field piping. And, if we apply this kind of technologies, we can get a temperature of
the fluid is about 400 oC and these kind of devices use line focusing system.
And concentrators are parabolic mirrors. As you can see, these are the concentrators, these are
parabolic mirrors. And these are linear receiver tube. And this kind of system, it consumes lot of
water, because sometimes water is also used as heat transfer fluid. Of course, some thermic
fluids are used in most of the cases. And heat storage is feasible, because heat can be collected
and we can have independent storage and that can be used as per the requirement.
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And this technology is one of the most matured technology and commercially available
technology. And this technology is very good for hybridized option. We can hybridize with other
technologies, but it requires flat surfaces or flat land, so that this can be focused to a particular
focal point on that particular surface. And it is a good receiver efficiency, but low turbine
efficiency in this kind of arrangement. Let us study more on it.
So, there are parameters for solar parabolic trough collectors. So, here we must know, what is
trough length; already we have analyzed this system, we are already aware, but still I am
emphasizing, some of the important aspects. So, this is the tube or trough length. And focal point
is known here. So, solar radiation falls here and it will direct to this receiver system. So, this is
an axis. In that axis, all the radiation will be received, after reflecting from the reflector. And we
have the aperture, this is the aperture width, sometimes we represent in W.
So, this a is the aperture width. And rim angle, if we draw it something like this, and if we make
this trough, so if we go to outer, outermost part and if we take this half of the trough, and this is
nothing but rim angle. So, sometimes represent this ψ. And what you can see here, so if we use
different arrangement, then we can have different focal points. So, for this kind of arrangement,
say arrangement 1, so you can see, this focal point is here. For arrangement 2, this focal point is
here. So, we can take the appropriate decision what kind of focal length is required, based on
these devices used for reflecting the solar radiations.
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Now, what are the different components of a parabolic trough system? So, it has got mirrors or
parabolic reflectors, then receiver tube, then metal support structure, then tracking system which
includes the drive, sensors and control. And what are different applications of this kind of
systems? So, we can use for generation of thermal energy for industrial processes, may be that
can be applied in food industries, petro-chemical industries, or any other kind of industries.
And of course, we can use this kind of concentrator for electricity generation. Only limitation is,
when we use thermic fluid, that fluid degrades with temperature. So, if we have to operate the
system for a long with the same heat transfer fluid, so it degrades its capability or heat capacity.
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So, these parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like U, letter U. The troughs concentrate
sunlight onto a receiver tube, that is positioned along the focal line of the trough. So, as you can
see, so this is the trough and solar radiation is falling in this concentrator and is reflected to this
receiver where heat transfer fluid is flowing. So, initially what you can see, this is a blue line and
finally what you can see, its a red line. So, that means temperature is increasing from inlet to the
outlet.
So, this is the inlet, this is the outlet. And normally these reflectors are made of silvered glass to
increase the reflectivity. Now, if we talk about this aperture area, normally this area varies from
1 to 60 m2, it is a very large area. And width is 1 to 6 m, so this width is about 1 to 6 m. And this
concentration ratio varies from 10 to 80. And rim angle, what we have defined, it varies from 70
to 120.
So, if we talk about this absorber tube now, so in this absorber tube, diameter varies from 2.5 to
5 cm. And tube material is normally steel or copper. And these tubes are coated with heat
resistance black paint. Sometimes selective coating is also applied to increase the absorptivity of
the solar radiation. So, in modern parabolic troughs, selective coatings are applied, which gives
higher conversion efficiency. Normally, this gap between this glass cover and the absorber plate
varies from 1 to 2 cm.
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As you can see, so this is the absorber plate or absorber tube. And this is the glass cover, it is got
thickness. In between, this is vacuum to reduce the heat losses. So, heat transfer fluid flows
through this tube, and this is the inner diameter of the tube, this is the outer diameter of the tube.
And this is for glass cover. So, sometimes, glass covers are not used, but in order to increase the
efficiency, this kind of glass cover is very-very essential. So, this photograph shows the actual
installation. So, this is, these are the tubes, these tubes are connected and this is the reflector.
And in case of parabolic trough system, it maybe single-axis or maybe double axis or dual-axis
tracking. So, we need to track the sun. So, this structure is rotated to track the sun, or if we are
doing very precise calculation, or we want to capture all the solar radiations very-very
efficiently, we have to go for dual-axis tracking or double axis tracking. So, arrangement of dual-
axis tracking is something like that. So, at the bottom also, we can rotate and this side also, we
can rotate, so that we can maximize the absorption of solar radiation.
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And this is a plant, how solar radiations can be used for heating the fluids and then that heat can
be used for expanding in a turbine and we can generate electricity. We can couple a generator
with a turbine shaft. So, if we use water, then straight way, the water will be at a very high
temperature and that can be expanded in the turbine and we can generate electricity.
And then eject which is condensed and we have to do some kind of condenser, or we have to use
some kind of condenser. Of course, we need some kind of tower, cooling tower. Once it is cool,
then same fluid can be injected again to heat by using this solar energy or parabolic trough
concept. So, we can use storage devices as well, when we are producing more energy. Then that
can be stored and whenever required, that can be delivered.
So, this is the principle of working, by which this water can be also used as a heat transfer fluid
for generation of electricity with the help of this parabolic trough concept. Of course, we can use
other fluid, say thermic fluid, so then we need to use some kind of heat exchanger here. Then this
will work in a close loop, with water. And this will work in a close loop which work on thermic
fluid.
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So, this picture shows about the installation of a parabolic trough system for power generation.
As you can see, it has a flat surface and you see, how these troughs are installed. So, we can
generate the fluid temperature at about 400 oC. So, that will produce steam and then we can
generate electricity.
Now, come to the next technology called dish stirling. So, this kind of dish is used and solar
radiation falls here and then it is concentrated on this point. This is the focal point. So, this is
reflector and this is a receiver or engine. So, some different kind of engines are used, like
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external combustion engine or stirling engines are used here. So, in this technology, temperature
can go up to 800 oC, and it is a point focus system, because it is pointing to a single point.
And this technology uses this concentrator, as you can see here, and of course stirling engines
need to be used. And it provides an output of about 25 kW per unit. Single unit can be designed
for generation of 25 kW. And its efficiency is quite high, it is about 30 %. And dry cooling
arrangement is there in the receiver system. And heat storage is difficult, because this is a very
single point.
So, it is very difficult to accommodate more number of devices. So here, engines are installed
and then electricity can be generated. Of course, there are other arrangement if we look for some
firm of this technology, then that has to be collected. And finally one engine will be there. So,
this heated fluid will go to the engine, then engine will generate electricity. And this technology
is commercially under development. And here dual-axis tracking is mandatory.
So, this parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a large satellite dish, as you can see
here. But has mirror like reflectors. So, these are the mirrors. So, what you can see in this picture
is a mirror like reflectors. And an absorber at the focal point. So, this is the absorber here. So,
this is the absorber here or receiver here. So, of course, it has to use dual-axis tracking.
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So, this is the receiver and this is parabolic dish reflector, solar radiation falls here, which is
reflected to this point. So, as you can see here. And reflector support structure is here. And this
tracking mechanism is here. So, it has to track in two axes mode. And, this figure shows the
installation of a parabolic dish system.
Now, there are some key features of this technology, like this technology uses a computer to
track the sun. It is a very precision tracking system and concentrate the sun’s ray on to the
receiver located at its focal point. A heat engine such as a stirling engine is linked to the receiver
to generate electricity. As we have already discussed, a very high temperature can be attained by
using this technology. It is reported that 1000 oC can be achieved by using this technology.
And that is why, this efficiency is also very very high. Efficiency means thermodynamic
efficiency is very high compared to other technologies. So, what we can see here, it is a farm. So,
there are many this kind of parabolic dish systems are installed. Maybe 1, 2, 3, that maybe many
more. And this heat is collected at the end and then finally, one heat engine is attached and then
that will convert to electricity. If we couple a generator here, so this is the electricity generation.
There are many more this kind of systems are connected in series.
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So, working principle goes something like, receiver is integrated into a high efficiency external
combustion engine. An engine has thin tubes containing hydrogen or helium gas. This
concentrated sunlight falls on the receiver, it heats the gas in the tubes to a very high
temperature, which causes hot gas to expand inside the cylinders. This expanding gas drives the
piston, and then the piston turns the crankshaft which drives an electric generator. The receiver
engine and generator comprises a single integrated assembly mounted at the focus of the
mirrored dish.
So, arrangement is something like this. So, fluid is here, once it is heated, it will actually expand.
When it is expanded, so this is piston cylinder assembly is attached. Then it will move, once this
piston cylinder is start rotating, means this will rotate, our shaft will rotate. And then finally, we
can have mechanical energy and if we couple to a generator, then we can get electrical energy
out of this parabolic dish system.
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Now, come to the central power receiver system, which is quite common in many of the
countries. So, here what happens, we can see one single tower will be there and one receiver will
be there at the top. And these are the mirrors. Solar radiation falls here and then reflect back to
this receiver. So, very very high temperature will be attained here and then that has to be carried
by using some kind of arrangement, we will discuss.
So, in this kind of arrangement, temperature can go up to a value of 800 oC. Of course, it uses
point focusing device. And also you can see, these are flat concentric mirrors, these are flat
concentric mirrors are used. Of course, this systems can also be used for reflecting the sun rays.
And it is a central receiver, only one receiver will be there. And water consumption will be very
high in this kind of arrangement.
And heat storage capability is there in this technology, because while operating, it generates
enormous heat that can be stored and same can be applied whenever required. And it is feasible
on non-flat sites. We do not need very flat surface for installation of this heliostats or this mirror
systems. And it has got high thermodynamic efficiency, because its operating temperature is
higher. And it is commercially proven, already many installations are present across the globe.
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So, a heliostat uses a field of dual-axis sun trackers that direct solar energy to a large absorber
located on a tower. So, this is a tower you can see which is very wide and bright. A power tower
has a field of large mirrors that follow the sun’s path across the sky. As you can see, these are
mirrors also known as heliostats. Single component can be known as heliostat. You can see the
arrangement. So, all are reflected, the radiations and they are received at the top of this tower.
And then heat has to be carried from the top to the bottom for electricity generation. So, if we
consider a single heliostat, it looks something like this. So, this is something like this.
Many of the mirrors are attached in a single heliostat. So, all the radiations what is falling in this
flat mirrors, that will be reflected to this single receiver, which is known as the central receiver.
And, normally molten salt retains heat efficiently, because molten salts are used as a heat transfer
fluid, as it is used to store heat for long time. So, we will draw one picture, how this heat can be
stored for a longer period of time, that will be demonstrated. But what we should know, this is a
single receiver and then this heat, what is generated here has to be carried from this top to the
bottom, where power house is built. So, as you can see here.
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So, let us analyze the central power receiver system. So, if we consider, if we go back to the last
slide, so these are the heliostats. See in between, gaps are there, because if shadow is there,
means if this heliostat is shadowing the others, then what happens, we are losing the efficiencies.
So, that has to be taken care. But what I mean to say, there is a gap in between the heliostats.
That gap has to be maintained.
If we consider this area of a single heliostat is Am and there are N number of heliostats. And if
we consider the ground area, say ground area maybe Ag. And if gap, we maintain, or say gap is
also measured, then we can incorporate the gap factor is ψ, then we can write this expression.
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This N Am  Ag . What is N, N is the number of mirrors. And Am is the area of the single
mirror. And then Ag is the ground area. And this ψ is fraction of ground area which is covered by
the heliostats.
So, the mirrors have to be laid out in such a manner that the incident or reflected radiation
associated with one heliostat is not blocked by the neighboring heliostat. That we should keep in
mind. Now, if we are interested to develop the energy balance on the absorber, then we need to
develop this kind of expression. So, we want useful heat gain, q is the amount of energy which is
received by the receiver minus losses. So, this part, this summation of j=1 to N rbj is nothing, but
average tilt factor.
So, if we have to write the average tilt factor, then it will be rb av 
1 N
 rbj . So, if we use this rbj
N j 1
and what is defined by this equation a and use in equation b, then what we will get is something
like this. Just what we are doing, rb average we are introducing. So, this expression multiplied by
N, so if we multiply N both the sides, then what will happen, N× (rb)av. So, this part, what we
have expressed in equation b, we can replace by this N× (rb)av.
That is why, this N× (rb)av. And this τ reflectivity absorptivity, all the information needs to be
accounted. And then these are the loss factor. And Tpm is the mean temperature of the absorber.
And we can use this expression, so N Am  Ag . So, we can now substitute here and we can
modify this expression something like this. So, our expression will be something like this, if we
define this concentration ratio. So, we need to define the concentration ratio now.
Before we define, let us see ϕr also, how this ϕr can be defined? So, here what happens, this is the
height of the collector, central receiver system. And this is the receiver area. And solar radiation
is falling here in the last heliostat and it is reflected to the absorber, where it makes an angle with
this height of the collector or height of the central power receiver system. So, this angle is known
as ϕr and which is also called rim angle. So, now what we are interested about this length. This
length is nothing but imaging length, or if we have to write this Li will be something like H by
cos of  r . So this Li, we need to know, again add something, that we will discuss now. But this
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H
length will be Li  . And this configuration of this receiver is something different. So, it is
cos r
somewhat spherical. But when we look from here, it is like a line.
N Am  Ag
So, now let us define concentration ratio, which is nothing but C   . So, we can use
Ap Ap
this expression, in the last qu expression, and we can write useful heat gain in terms of
concentration ratio. As we have defined the distance between the outermost mirror and the
H
absorber is . So, when we are interested to investigate the size of the image at the
cos  r
absorber, then we must assume something. Like assumption is the mirror field is circular with
the tower at the centre.
So, mirror field is circular, so all the mirrors are there and this will be at the centre, so receiver
will be at the top. So, if the mirrors are flat, then expression, of this size of the image at the
absorber can be expressed by a Li which is nothing but Li 

H
 s   e   w . So, this θs is the
cos r
angle subtended by the sun at the earth which is fixed always; it is about point 53o. This is fixed.
And this θe is the total angular error associated with the reflection due to factors like mirror,
surface imperfections and mirror orientation.
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So, this has to be accounted in order to calculate the size of the image at the absorber. Now, if
the mirrors are suitably dish, so dish system is there, then this w=0 in case of suitably dish
mirrors. So, under that condition, our size of the mirror will be, or size of the image will be
Li 
H
 s   e  , it should be ϕ. So, at what condition, we can remove this?
cos r
The spread of the image due to the mirror span could be eliminated in case of suitably dish
system. If the mirrors are suitably dished. So, we can use this expression under this condition,
where ω or say w=0. So, this area of the absorber can be calculated by using this expression,
because this configuration is something different. So, these two researchers, they have suggested
the absorber shape could be spherical segment with a conical section.
So, based on their suggestion, they have made the absorber something like that and they have
  cos r 
calculated the absorber area to be something like this, which is Ap  D p2 1 sin r   . So,
2  2 
if we substitute this Li value here in Dp, so at what condition we can do it? Because when we see
from the outer most mirror to this absorber, so it is sphere, but from here if we see, it is like a
line.
So, this is something like Li. So, this Dp can be replaced by Li, so if we do it, then expression of
Ap will be something like this. So, once we know Ap, as we know the expression for
concentration ratio, we can substitute the value here and we can develop the concentration ratio
for dished considered absorber system. This kind of absorber. So, this will be something like
this. N Am, then this expression, multiplied by this expression.
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So, if we take a problem, say in a central receiver collector, the height of the tower is 150 m and
rim angle is 50o, and the diameter of the mirror is 4.5. So, we need to find the size of the image
formed by the outermost mirror at the receiver. So, Li need to be calculated. The area of the
absorber and the concentration ratio need to be calculated. And this has to be calculated for two
different cases, one for flat mirrors and other for dished mirrors.
So, when we need to consider dished mirror, then this diameter of the mirrors need to be
eliminated. So, this is the sun, and this is the moon and then this is the receiver. So, this angle is
0.53o, always. And once we know this degree, then we can convert it to radian, so this is (0.53o ×
π/180), we can calculate what will be the radian. So, we can calculate the radian values.
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H
So, we can use those equations what we have discussed now. So, Li is known for us, . So,
cos  r
in order to calculate this Li, we need the variable like H, θs, θe and w. w is nothing but the
diameter of the mirror. Then area of that configurations, what proposed by the researcher, so
same area need to be considered, because which is found to be the best for energy conversion.
And concentration ratio expression is known to us. So, we will take case by case. So, let us
consider the first case, for flat mirrors.
So, this Li, if we substitute those values, H is known to us and this value 32/60 is nothing but
(0.53o × π/180). And then this radian, this angle is always radian, which is given to us and
diameter is given, then we can calculate the size of the image, when mirror is flat. And also, we
can calculate what will be the area of the absorber by using the expression proposed by the
researcher. So, we can substitute those values of Li here and we can calculate and this found to
be 115.67 m2.
And if we calculate this concentration ratio, which is found to be 330. So, now we consider the
second case for dished mirrors, so what will be the Li here? Because this part will be not present
in this expression. So, this Li = 2.64 m. Earlier it was 7.14 m. Accordingly, we have to calculate
this Ap value. So, just we have substituted this Li value here and then ϕ values, and this found to
be 15.80 m2.
Now next phase, we will calculate what is concentration ratio. So, this concentration ratio is
found to be 2412. See the difference in concentration ratio, in the flat mirrors it was 330, and in
case of dished mirrors, it is 2412. You can see, how much concentration we can increase. So, we
can generate intense heat by using this dished mirror system, or dished mirrors. So, this is very
very important problem to understand the difference between two mirrors and how we can
increase the concentration.
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Now, this picture shows the installation of a MW level power tower system. As we can see, these
are the heliostat and this is the tower. Receiver is at the top, so radiations are reflected from here
to here, here to here. So, this is heated up to a very high temperature.
Now, if we have to understand this molten salt storage, let us draw one picture. So, maybe I will
write this is an absorber. And I will draw this. And maybe this is a base, this is a tower. And
fluid will flow and I will write two lines. Because one will heat carry and other will be cold
fluids will be injected. And maybe this one, and this one, I will do. So, here we will write this
kind of, draw a line and then we will have this.
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So, these are the heliostats, solar radiation falling here, maybe solar radiations falling, it goes
here, so it is falling here. This maybe here also. Solar radiation is falling maybe here and it goes
there. So, when it comes here, then we need to have a heat exchanger. And of course, this heat
has to be carried. So, maybe I can draw a this kind of block, this is a heat exchanger. And this
will come here. And this will go to turbine, this will go to turbine.
And then we need to have condenser, we need to have condenser. And if we have condenser,
then we need to have this kind of cooling tower. This maybe cooling tower. And we have to have
a pump. And this will work in a close loop. And we can have storage as well, here somewhere.
So, what I have shown here, this is a absorber of the central receiver system. And this is a
Rankine cycle, the Rankine cycle, where water is used as heat transfer fluid.
So, this is pump, Wp is the work required and this is the Wt, is the turbine work. And if we have
generator then, generator, then we can generate electricity. So, this is a mechanical power
development. And then if you are interested to generator electricity, we need a generator and
finally, we can have electricity. So, if we use molten salt, so we need to use some kind of pump
to pump this cold molten salt and it will goes to the top of this receiver and it will be heated up to
a very high temperature.
And then that has to be collected, then it will go through this heat exchanger. Then heat will
exchange from here to here, where we have water as a heat transfer fluid in this circuit. Water
flows and then heat developed here will carry by this water and then this is something like our
boiler. So, steam will be generated which will be expanded in the turbine and electricity will be
generated by using this generator. And then, this has to be ejected.
So, low temperature water will come here, and then condenser will be there to cool the fluid and
that has to be pumped back, by using this pump. So, this molten salt, once heat is extracted from
the molten salt, so electricity is generated, but it is cooling down. So, if sometime this electricity
is not generating, then we need to have storage, or if even though electricity is generating, but we
have generated enough heat, so that can be stored in a storage system.
And that can be utilized wherever or whenever required. So, this is best suited for the large scale
applications, as we can say it is 30 to 400 MW, it is a big unit. And liquid salt is pumped from a
storage tank through the receiver where it achieves about 1000 oC and hot salt is pumped to the
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steam generator, or steam generating system that produces superheated steam for a conventional
Rankine cycle turbine generator system. That is what it is shown here.
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And if we talk about the particular heliostat, so it carries lot of mirrors, as we can see, there are
mirrors, there are many mirrors, so about 12 modules of particular sized mirrors are hold by this
structure. And this structure is known as heliostat. So normally, a reflectivity of this kind of
heliostat is about 0.903, but due to this accumulation of dirt, this reflectivity reduces to 0.82. So,
it is a concern.
And, in case of Barstow solar one, it has got about 1818 heliostats and height of the tower is
about 80 m. And it can produce 10 MW of electrical energy. So, e stands for electrical energy.
So, this each heliostat, that is 1m×3m is the dimension, has an assembly of 12 slightly concave
glass mirrors, mounted on a support structure and gear drive to control azimuth as well as
elevation. And, its reflective area is about 39.3 m2. So, this is a heliostat. So, there are many
heliostats will be there, in case of a central power receiver system.
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So, if we talk about the receiver, which is a very very important component of a central power
receiver system. So, it has the ability to accept large variable heat flux. So, it must have the
ability to accept heat flux in the range of 100 to 1000 kW/m2. So, which results in high
temperature, high thermal gradient and high stresses. You can see the receiver systems. There are
many configurations of this kind of absorber.
Normally, there are two types, external type and cavity type. So, in a cavity receiver, the solar
flux enters through one or more smaller apertures in an insulated enclosure. So, we can have
higher optical efficiency in this configuration. And, of course, we can use different working
fluid, not only molten salt and water. We can use air as well for this kind of arrangement.
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So, there are different plants which is already in operation. As you can see, this location is in
Spain, there are two; Italy one, in Japan one and France and then USA, which is Barstow, which
is one of the largest central power tower system. So, output power we can say, it is 0.5 MW. And
Spain we have 1 MW. Then Italy, it is 0.7 MW. And largest one is at USA. So, that was installed
in 1982. So, it was a operating well for a certain period of time. It was, had some issues. Then
they have modified something and thereafter it was working for three and half years, and then it
stopped working. So, but it is a very good technology to harvest solar radiation for power
generation.
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And let us discuss the last technology called Fresnel collector. So, as we can see, these are the
curved mirrors and receiver is here. So, solar radiation received here and is reflected to the
receiver. So, here the temperature can go up to 500 oC and it is a line focusing system, it is in
line, no not the point, it is a line. And it is a linear receiver, as you can see, this is a linear
receiver.
And flat or curved concentric mirrors can also be used and its concentration ratio varies from 10
to 70. And normally, as heat transfer fluid, thermal oil and molten salt and pressurized water are
used. And this technology is commercially under development. And it has got storage ability, so
storage can be done. Because heated fluid can be collected and we can have a storage and that
can be used as per the requirement.
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So, configuration of this linear Fresnel collector system is shown here. So, solar radiation is
falling here and these are the mirrors, this is reflected and this is the receiver. So, these are
segmented. So, an optical device for concentrating light, that is made of concentric rings, that are
faced at different angles so that light falling on any ring is focused on the same point. So, this is
very very important. So, photographs of this kind of installation is shown here.
And components, if we say, so collector is one component. This collector is nothing but Fresnel
lens or mirrors. And receivers, we have secondary concentrator and absorber tubes. These
absorber tubes are here, absorber tubes are here. And tracking mechanism and steam drum is
required, because at the end, steam will be collected and that will be expanded in a turbine for
electricity generation.
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So, how it works, solar radiation fall on these mirrors and is reflected to this receiver. And
receiver receives those energies and fluid is heated up and then if water is used, then water is
expanded in a turbine. And then electricity is generated, if the shaft is connected with a
generator. And then that has to be condensed by using a condenser and cooling tower. And same
fluid can be circulated again and again for harvesting energy.
One more concentrating collectors which is stationary, you do not need any tracking devices. So,
this stationary concentrating collectors use compound parabolic reflectors and flat reflectors, for
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directing solar energy to an accompanying absorber or aperture through a wide acceptance angle.
As we can see, solar radiation falls here. And this is like a compound structure. So, it is a wide
acceptance angle.
And once radiation is introduced, that cannot go out and that is utilized for energy generation.
The wide acceptance angle for these reflectors eliminates the need for sun tracker. So, sun
tracking is not required. So, this class of concentrator includes parabolic trough, flat plate
collectors, flat plate collectors with parabolic boosting reflectors and solar cookers. So, these are
the technology normally used for making this high heat production system. In this kind of
technologies, concentration ratios can be improved, maybe up to 4 or 5.
Also, we can see the different technologies which can generate electricity. So, we have two ways
of generation of electricity. First way is to concentrate or concentric solar PV, solar PV
technology. And second one is solar thermal. So, there are different categories again, like low
temperature applications, moderate temperature application and high temperature application.
So, as far as low temperature applications are concerned then we will go for flat plate collectors,
solar chimney, then solar pond.
For medium or moderate temperature applications up to 400 oC, we will go for parabolic trough
and Fresnel collectors. And for high temperature applications, we will go for central power tower
receiver system and parabolic dish system. So, we can generate electricity by using thermal
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energy, by using these routes and we can generate direct electricity from solar energy by using
solar PV technologies.
So, here it shows a schematic of parabolic trough power generation. So here, these are the
parabolic troughs and these are thermal energy storage devices. So, hot salt will be collected
here. And then we need a one heat exchanger to exchange these fluid with the secondary fluid,
which is flowing in the circuit, this is nothing but water. And then once water is evaporated, it is
expanded in a turbine and then if we connect this turbine to a generator, we can generate
electricity.
And then, some amount of heat is to be rejected in the condenser. And then once we say
condenser, this condenser is attached with this kind of cooling tower. So, normally in big power
plants, this rivers are there, so rivers are also used as a release of cold water there. So, that water
is used for cooling this condenser. And then we need a pump to circulate the fluid again and
again in the close room.
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So, we have this technology, you can see, the large parabolic troughs are installed. And you can
see the power plant, it is a big power plant for generation of electricity by using solar thermal
technology.
And as we can see, this is the figure for central power receiver system. See here, the circular
fields are there. And then, these are the reflected rays and this is absorber. So, which is a big
power plant for generation of electricity by using central power receiver system.
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And this is for solar parabolic dish system. And we can see, sometimes solar furnaces are also
used for different purposes we can say. So, this is the solar furnace, a very high temperature can
be achieved. And this is called lens collectors. So, lens collectors are also used for generation of
electricity by using thermal route.
And this slide shows the comparison of three most importantly used concentrated solar power
technologies like, parabolic trough, it goes size from 30 to 320 MW. Then dish engine, it goes 5
to 25 for a single unit. And power tower can go 10 to 200 MW. Operating temperature, we can
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see here. So, dish system operating temperature can go up to 1382. In case of power tower, it is
about 1049.
We can compare the annual capacity factor is 23 to 50 in case of parabolic trough. 25 % in case
of dish system and for power tower, it is about 20-77 %. A peak efficiency is maximum in case
of dish followed by power tower and parabolic trough. And if we talk about commercial status,
so dish, dish has been demonstrated and parabolic trough is in already in place. And dish power
tower is available for demonstration.
And we can hybridize this technology, parabolic trough technology with other technologies. And
of course, dish can also be done and power tower can also be done. And cost wise also, we can
compare. So, cost of this is somewhat higher compared to dish. And of course, power tower is
also, also high. So, cost we have to compromise in those cases for generation electricity by using
thermal routes.
So, we can summarize what we have discussed today about this solar concentrating power
technologies, its working principle and those technologies which are applied for generation of
higher temperature. So, we have primarily discussed this principles of different concentrating
collectors. And we have compared the technologies and it is found that, that power tower and
parabolic troughs are best suited for large grid connected power projects in the range of 30 to
200 MW.
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This dish or engine systems are modular and can be used in single dish applications or grouped
in dish farms, to create large multi megawatt projects. The parabolic trough systems are the most
matured solar power technology available today and the technology most likely to be used for
near future deployments. The power tower systems with low cost and efficient thermal storage
promise to offer dispatchable high capacity factor, solar-only power plants in the near future. So,
hope you have enjoyed this lecture. So, thank you for watching this video.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Assistant Professor
Centre for Energy
Lecture - 28
Tutorial: Concentrating Collector
Dear students, today we will be discussing about a tutorial on solar concentrating collectors.
So, this tutorial goes something like this.
We need to calculate heat removal factor, the useful heat gain, the exit fluid temperature, and
the collection efficiency for a cylindrical parabolic concentrator having 3 m width and 10 m
long. The outside diameter of the absorber tube being 7 cm and that has to be calculated on
15th April at 12:30 hours local apparent time.
Consider the latitude and slope as 19.12o and 9.625o respectively. The temperature of the
fluid to be heated at the inlet is 160 oC, with flow rate of 480 kg/hr. The incident beam
radiation is 750 W/m2, the ambient temperature is 27 oC. And optical properties are also
given.
So, this ρ, which is nothing but specular reflectivity of the concentrator surface. And this τα
for beam radiation is given to be 0.78 and γ, which is nothing but intercept factor, so this is
intercept factor. Intercept factor, which is equal to 0.93. So, what is intercept factor? The
fraction of the reflected radiation intercepted by the absorber tube. And ρ, what I said before
is specular reflectivity of concentrator surface. And for 15th of April, n = 105.
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And ϕ = 19.12o and beta, which is nothing but slope, which given as 9.625o and ω, because
this is 1230 hours. That means 1 hr = 15o, 1 hr = 15o and half an hours is 7.5o. But since it is
afternoon, so we will use negative sign. So, ω = -7.5o, which is nothing but hour angle. So, if
we know n, then from that we can calculate what is δ or declination.
So, we know the expression for declination, which is nothing but   23.45 sin
360
284  n .
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So, if we substitute the value of n, which is equal to 105, then this δ = 9.415o. So, declination
is known. So, know now ϕ, then β, slope; then hour angle, and declination. So now, what is
next, we to calculate tilt factor, because we need to find out the absorbed solar flux.
So, before we initiate the calculation, let us draw the figure first. That means cross section of
a cylindrical parabolic collector. So, if we consider, this is the tube, and this is the glass
cover, and concentrator is something like this. We can extend this somewhat and draw this.
This is nothing but the concentrator. Solar radiation is falling here and it is going here, falling
here and is reflected to this absorber. And maybe, I will name it as this may be 1, this may be
2, and this may be 3.
And we can draw this here and may be we can draw here and here. So, this part is W, which
is nothing but the width, and length is towards this, it will go something like this. So here,
one is nothing but absorber tube, absorber tube; then two is nothing but the glass cover, and
three is concentrator. And also, we can see how this fluid flows. So, fluid is flowing inside
the tube. So, Tfi may be the input inlet fluid temperature; so that we can do it.
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So, fluid is flowing to this tube. So, may be Tfi one things and then Tfo in the other side, and
like. So here, W is the aperture and length is L and also, we can define this rim angle if
required. This is the rim angle, which is nothing but ϕr. And inlet fluid temperature is Tfi,
outlet fluid temperature is Tfo. And if we consider a fluid having specific heat is Cp, this is the
specific heat of the fluid.
Now, we need to find out the tilt factor. Because if we write the expression for absorbed
absorbed solar flux, that means the amount of solar radiation which is absorbed in the
absorber tube. So, this is the absorber tube and this is the glass cover and this is the reflector.
Solar radiation is falling on this reflector that is reflected back to this absorber. Again, some
component of radiation is falling directly on this absorber through this glass cover. So, we
have done the entire derivation. Now, we are interested about the absorbed solar flux, which
is represented by S.
 Do 
So, we can write S  I b rb   b  I b rb  b   . So, this is the expression by which
 W  Do 
we can calculate the absorbed solar flux in the absorber. Now, these values are known, Ib is
known, ρ and then intercept factor, τα for beam radiation beam radiation. Do, W, Do
everything is known, expect rb, which is common in both the parts of this expression.
Now, let us calculate what is rb. rb is nothing but the tilt factor for beam radiation, which is
defined as the ratio of the beam radiation flux falling on the tilted surface to the radiation
cos 
falling on a horizontal surface. So, this is something like we have rb  . So, if we write
cos  z
the expression for this, this will be something like,

rb  .
sin  sin   cos  cos  cos 
So, we know the values of δ, ϕ, β, ω so if we substitute here, then what we will get? So, let us
sin 9.415 sin 19.12  9.625  cos 9.415 cos  7.5cos 19.12  9.625
substitute rb  .
sin 9.415 sin 19.12  cos 9.415 cos  7.5cos19.12
So, if we do the calculation then this rb is found to be 1.0142. So, this is nothing but rb. So,
this value is known now then we will use this value of rb in the expression 1, which is nothing
but absorbed solar flux.
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So, use the equation 1, equation 1 implies, we will have
0.07
S  750 1.0142  0.85  0.93 0.78  750 1.0142  0.78   483.184W m 2 . So, this is
3  0.07
the flux received. So, once we know this S, then other parameters can be calculated like
instantaneous efficiency and qu.
So, for that, again we need to calculate one parameter call heat removal factor. So, how to
calculate this heat removal factor? So, heat removal factor FR, it is normally represented by
m C p   F DoU l L 
FR. So, this is the expression FR  1  exp    ok.

Do LU l   m C p 
So, this ṁ, what is given here; so ṁ = 480 kg/hr. So, we need to convert it to kg/s. So, 480
divided by 3600, which will give kg/s. And, if we simplify it, so it will be 0.133 kg/s. This is
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ṁ. So here, we have to use this kg/s, maybe we can write this as equation 2. And we can
calculate this term, so this term, because this term is common here also. So, once we calculate
then, it will not be so complex.
So, this term,

m C p


0.133 1.256  10310.85 . So, this value is found to be 10.85.
Do LU l   0.7 10  7
  F  
So now, if we use equation 2, what will happen? This FR 10.85 1  exp 1   . So, it
  10.85 
becomes very easy to calculate now. So, this FR value, if we substitute Fʹ, which is given as
0.85. So, if we substitute, then FR = 0.817. So, FR is found to be 0.817. So, in the next
calculation, we need to find out qu.
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So, lets us write down the expression for useful heat gain. Useful heat gain
qu  FR W  Do L  S  l T fi  Ta  . So, we need to find out the concentration ratio now. Tfi-

 U 
 C 
Ta, as we know the other parameter. So, FR, we have calculated and only unknown is C here.
So, how to calculate C? So, let it be equation 3.
And C is nothing but concentration ratio, concentration ratio which is defined as effective
aperture area to the absorber tube area. So, this is nothing but C 
W  Do L  W  Do  . So,
Do L Do
we know the value of W and Do. So, if we substitute here, then what we will get
C
3  0.07 13.32 .
  0.07
So, we know now concentration ratio values for this configuration, which is about 13.32. So,
let us calculate the useful heat gain. So, this is qu or we can write here equation 3 implies,

qu  0.817 3  0.07 10 483.814 
7
160  27   9893.35 W qu.
 13.32 
So, once we know qu, then from that we can calculate what will be the instantaneous
 C p T fi  T fo . So, this maybe
efficiency. So, how to calculate this? So, we know qu  m
equation 4. So, once we substitute the value of qu here, then from that we can calculate what
will be the value of Tfo.
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So, qu = 9893.35 and then mass flow rate is 0.133 multiplied by Cp is 1.256 ×103 and Tfo, we
need to calculate. So, this expression we we have to reverse it; so (Tfo-Tfi) ok. So, it will be
(Tfo-160). So, from here, we can calculate what is Tfo. So, which is found to be 219.22 oC. So,
we have calculated what is Tfo. Now, what we need to calculate is the instantaneous
efficiency.
Instantaneous efficiency, ηi, which can be expressed
qu 9893.35
i   100 %   100 %  43.35 % .
I b rbWL 750  1.0142  3  10
So, what are the parameters we have calculated? First, we have calculated S value; so S was
calculated to be 483.184 W/m2. Then we have calculated FR; so this FR was found to be
0.817. And then, we have calculated the concentration ratio, which was 13.32. And then, we
have calculated useful heat gain, which was found to be 9893.35 W. And after calculation of
 C p T fo  T fi .
these, we have used the expression, qu  m
So, based on this calculations, what we have calculated, Tfo, which is found to be 219.22 oC.
And finally, we have calculated instantaneous efficiency, ηi, which is found to be 43.35 %.
So, in this problem, we have demonstrated, how this solar absorbed flux can be calculated,
then how to calculate qu. For calculation of qu, we need the value of FR and Fʹ. So, FR is
nothing but heat removal factor and then, Fʹ is efficiency factor of the collector. So, once we
know this, then we can calculate, what is qu. Of course, we need calculate concentration ratio
and after that, we can calculate Tfo and instantaneous efficiency.
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So, this kind of problems are very, very practical. And I hope you have enjoyed this video
and hopefully, you are now capable to design a solar concentrated collector. So, thank you
very much.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Assistant Professor
Centre for Energy
Lecture - 29
Sensible Heat, Latent Heat and Thermochemical Energy Storage
Dear students, today we will be discussing about thermal energy storage system, which
includes sensible heat storage, latent heat storage and thermochemical storage system. So,
before we study in details about these three technologies, let us learn the need of this kind of
storage system.
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So, this includes to supply energy reliably, efficiently, and economically, first. Followed by
to meet the peak demand. To offset the adverse effect of fluctuating demand of electricity. To
assure a steady output from power plants, to supply energy at demand period for intermittent
generation technologies like wind and solar energy, where production varies with demand.
And to provide renewable with a zero greenhouse gas emission backup.
So, if we look into this figure, it tells about the relationship between power supply and
demand curve for a day. So, as you can see, this constant line, which is parallel to the
horizontal axis, it tells about the supply. Supply is fixed and then demand as you can see, it
varies with time. So, at certain period of time, demand is very, very high than supply and
certain period of time, the demand is lower than the supply. So, from this figure, we
understand that in order to provide consistent power supply, we need to have a reliable
storage system.
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This figure shows the diurnal variation of power production by renewable sources over a
typical sunny days. So, this 1 indicate the energy produced by solar energy and then, 2
marked in the curve shows the variation of energy generated by wind power and then 3 in the
figure 1, shows about the power generation by hydroelectric power and other miscellaneous
sources. So, this is more or less constant.
And as you can see, this variation of solar is increases and reaches a value at solar noon, and
then it decreases. So, this window is from 8:00 to 4:00 p.m., so during that time, wind
generation will be there. So, beyond that time, we do not have energy generation from wind
energy. So, we need to store this energy to meet the demands at other periods.
So, next figure what is shown here is, the comparison of diurnal variation over a typical
sunny days. So, one represents the production and then two represents the demand. So what
you can see here, till 8 o'clock very nominal power generation or almost negligible. And then
it reaches a peak in a solar noon and then it decreases and reaches a very minimal value at
around say 4:00 p.m. on a particular day and then again decreases.
Now, what happens, if you look into the figure 2 or line 2, it shows the demand. So, demand
is decreases sometimes, there is increases but more or less, it is constant. But here, supply is
more, so if we can store this energy for certain period of time and that energy can be supplied
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to meet the demands for other time. So, that is a very good business. So, we will give more
attention about this storage of energy.
Now, let us pay attention about different schemes and what are different factors which
influences the energy storage system. So, if we consider the factors, these are the factors
which influences the performance of a energy storage systems. Like temperature range of
application, then energy density, minimum heat loss, then cost, efficiency, then
environmental impact.
So, what are the different schemes? We have, we have thermal energy storage, then
electrochemical energy storage, pumped hydro energy storage, compressed air energy
storage, energy storage by flywheels, magnetic energy storage, chemical energy storage and
then maybe hydrogen storage. So, in our discussion today, we will emphasize on thermal
energy storage.
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So, what is the need of this thermal energy storage system? As you have understand the
background, now we will specifically study about thermal energy storage. The intermittent,
as you can understand from the previous curves, the variable and unpredictable nature of
solar radiation generally leads to a mismatch between the rate and the time of collection of
solar energy and the load needs of a thermal application.
So, since there is a mismatch between the demand and supply, so we need to do something in
between. So, it is often required to put energy storage system in between. So, the kind of
curve, what we have discussed, that was purely on sunny days. So, if we consider on the
cloudy days, as you can see, it is a lot of peaks and valleys, so we will not get a standard peak
which has appear in case of sunny days.
Then for that condition, we need some kind of autonomy. So, how it works, the storage
system stores energy when the collected amount is in excess of the requirement of the
application and discharges energy when the collected amount is inadequate. So now, look
into the sizing. So, the size of a storage system is largely determined by the specific purpose
for which it is used, so kind of system or maybe the scale. So, if it is very large then we have
to think of some other configuration. If it is very small then we have to think for another
configuration.
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So, so what are different situations for using thermal energy storage? As you can understand
now, if you consider this kind of system where one flat plate collector is involved where solar
radiation is received and useful heat is generated and that can be stored at a particular time
and whenever required that can be utilized.
So, there are different situations. Let us consider the first situations about buffer storage. As
you can see in the figure for this buffers storage, here energy requirement is essentially the
same as the collection. So, during this period, energy requirement is there, this shaded area
and then this variation of energy collection is shown here. So, we are concentrated about this
portion or this time only.
So, as you can see, this one means this is the portion where energy is collected and the shaded
portion is the load requirement. So, store energy for short interval of time and small in size.
Let us study the next situation, is the diurnal storage.
What happens, our energy collection is in this period and then requirement is throughout the
day. So, for this kind of configuration, a system larger than a buffer storage having the
capacity to store energy for a day or two is required. And the third situation is for annual
storage, so long term storage is required. There are many configurations for long-term
storage.
As far as thermal energy is concerned, this storage system store energy during the summer
when the collection is in the excess of the demand and delivers the excess energy in the
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winter when the collection is less than the demand. A large long-term storage system is
required for this kind of situation. As you can see here, so storage will be for six month and
then delivery will be for another six months.
So now, let us study about basic methods for storing thermal energy. So, what are different
methods? As you can understand now, so we have sensible heat storage, then we have latent
heat storage, and thermochemical storage. So, for sensible heat storage, where there is no
phase change occur, only temperature rise will be there. The amount of energy stored is
dependent on the temperature change of the material.
So, if water need to be heated from say ambient, say, 20o to maybe 70o, so that range is
nothing but sensible heat and the way we can store is known as the sensible heat storage. So,
this can be represented by this. So, if E is the energy and m is the mass of the substance and
temperature change is from T1 to T2 and Cp is the specific heat and that’s a time. So, this T1
minus T2 is also known as temperature swing.
And the next situation is latent heat storage. So, heating a liquid or a solid which undergoes a
phase change. The amount of energy stored is depends upon the mass and the latent heat of
fusion of the material. So, mathematically, this can be represented by two situations. In the
first situation, storage operates isothermally at melting point of the material.
Normally what happens, this isothermal condition cannot be achieved when we use sensible
heat storage system. For in case of latent heat storage, we can provide isothermally, or
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constant temperature heat. And this can be represented by E = m×L, m is the mass of the
substance and L is the latent heat of fusion.
And the second situation is if isothermal operation at the phase change temperature is
difficult, the system operates over a range of temperature which includes melting point, then
mathematically we can represent something like this. So, m is common and then T1 to T2 is a
first change. Maybe if we consider from, say, -15 to 0 and 0 to again, say, 60o. So, 0 to 0 that
phase from solid to liquid phase change will takes place. So, this L will come into play and
then we will have this, again change of temperature from 0 to 60 and this is for specific heat
of the solid, specific heat of liquid.
So, the final category is thermochemical storage. So, using heat to induce a certain chemical
reaction and then storing the product, the heat is released when the reverse reaction is made
to occur. So, that way, energy storage can be done.
And if we see that the kind of material used for all these thermal energy storage system, we
can see what are the different materials can be used for sensible energy storage. We can use
variety of material like water, then concrete blocks for solids, and for high temperature
application, thermal oils, molten salts, liquid metals, then earth materials.
And in case of latent heat storage system, we can have variety of substances. May be organic,
maybe inorganic, or maybe other compounds. Under organic, we may have, paraffin, which
is a very good phase change material; non-paraffin is also there like fatty acid, esters,
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alcohols, glycols. And under inorganic we will have salt, salt eutectics, salt hydrates, then
metals and alloys. And for other compounds, we may have ice. So, ice can also be used as
energy storage material. Then sodium nitrate, sodium hydroxide, and many more materials.
And for chemical energy, as we can see, there are different chemical reactions like methane
reacts with water vapor, it produce hydrogen plus carbon monoxide. So that way, we can
have reactions and that will be forward reaction and then backward reactions. That way, we
can store the energy.
So, there are design considerations we need to follow like the temperature range over which
the storage has to operate. So, when we have to design, first we should know at what
temperature the system will operate. So accordingly, we will decide the kind of material to be
used. The capacity of the storage has a significant effect on the collectors. A smaller storage
unit operate at a higher mean temperature.
This results in a reduced collector output as compared to a system having a larger storage
unit. And then heat losses from the storage have to be kept at a minimum value. And finally,
we must see the cost, which includes cost of storage medium, the containers, insulation, and
then operating cost. So, these are the design considerations.
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So, this storage capacity of solar thermal storage systems depends on availability of solar
radiation, nature of thermal process, economic assessment of solar versus auxiliary energy,
then physical and chemical properties of the storage medium, which are going to be
employed.
Now, come to the sensible heat storage system, which is simple in design than latent heat or
thermal chemical storage system. But it has got some disadvantages, like it requires a bigger
size of systems. And it cannot store or deliver energy at constant temperature, that is the
major drawback.
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And then what kind of material can be used as a sensible heat storage? First thing, if we talk
about liquid then of course, we will go for water and if the temperature requirement is less
than 100 oC. And if our temperature requirement is more than that, then we will go for other
heat transfer fluids like oils, molten metals, inorganic molten salts. And sometimes, we can
go for solid materials for sensible heat energy storage, like rocks, pebbles, and refractories.
For example, if we are interested to use water, then water being used for temperature below
100 oC. And if we are interest of to use the refractory bricks, then this refractory bricks being
used for temperature around 1000 oC. That way, you can see the distinction between the use
of liquid substance or use of solid substance for energy storage as far as sensible heat storage
is concerned.
An important criterion for this sensible heat storage system is the selection of material for this
storage, which is defined by ρCp value. ρCp is nothing but heat capacity of a particular
substance. And for a system of having 1 m2 collector area, we need to have a storage unit of
about 75 to 1000 L. That means, if we have to store 75 to 100 L, then the collector size
should be 1 m2.
The sensible heat storage medium is very, very important. The choice of the storage media
depends on the nature of solar thermal process. It maybe water storage, maybe air based
thermal storage, which is done in packed bed storage, maybe storage walls and floors, maybe
by earth thermal storage.
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The table shown here is the properties of sensible heat storage material. Different kinds of
materials are used for storage of energy. So, first column is the material, second column is the
specific heat, and third column is density. So, if we multiply the specific heat then density, it
becomes heat capacity. So, that is a volumetric specific heat, which is represented by kJ/m3
K.
So, in this case, if we compare two substances, like rock pebbles and water, so if we see the
properties, in case of rocks pebbles, specific heat is about 0.88, and density is about 1600. If
we multiply these two then what we will get is 1410. So, in case of water, specific heat is
4.18 and the density is 1000, if we multiply this will become 4180.
So now, if we look at this value, 1410 for rock pebbles and 4180 for water, so if we divide
4180 by 1410 is about 3 times. So, that means what, this water has 3 times more heat capacity
then rock on a volume basis. It means, rock requires three times more volume than water to
store the same amount of sensible heat. So, this is important observations that tells about the
kind of or size of vessel required for storage of same amount of energy.
So normally, water is used in most of the cases and this water is used as heat and mass
transfer medium in the collector. And also it is used because, it is low in cost and has a high
specific heat. So, these are the configurations by which solar energy can be stored in a storage
tank and that can be used based on the applications.
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So, second figure, what is shown here is solar space heating with water storage tank. So here,
this is a solar collector, and we have a storage tank, and finally, we can have this room
heating arrangement. So, a solar space heating system can also be use water as the storage as
well as transport medium.
So, this collector is liquid flat plate collector. So sometimes, we will discuss about solar air
heater. So, air will introduce and then that air will be stored in a packed bed and that can be
applied for other applications.
So, this is the case what we are discussing about. So here, this is our solar air heater where air
is heated and that can be stored in a rock packed, or rock bed storage, that is a packed bed.
And whenever required, that can be used based on the applications.
So, as a thumb rule, as far as sizing is concerned, about 300 to 500 kg rock per m2 of
collector area for space heating is required. So, we must know the quantities of rock required
for this kind of heating applications.
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Now, we will discuss one very basic problem, how this sensible heat storage can be
calculated. So, calculate the energy required to heat 270 L of water from 15 to 55 oC,
assuming that no heat loss is taking place from the tank where water is kept. So, values given
are density of water is 993, Cp is 4.18 kJ/kgK, price of the electricity is 6 kWh; then 1 J= 1
Ws. And ΔT = 40 oC.
So, Q can be calculated by mCpΔT. So, this is 270 L×10-3 again this 993 kg/m3. And if we
multiply with 40, then what we will get, is the amount of heat stored that is 12.45 kWh. So, as
you know, the price of electricity is Rs 6 per kWh then at an electrical energy cost of 6 Rs per
kWh, this energy cost will be about 74.7 Rs.
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Now, we will analyze one very important aspects of well mixed storage tank. So, what does it
mean? So, this is a liquid storage tank. So, this is insulated tank, where liquid is placed inside
the tank. So, let the tank is at Tl and say, for example, these are the arrays of collectors. These
are connected in series and parallel to achieve to a required temperature and that is supplied
to this storage tank, and let ṁ is the mass of the water, which is introduced in the tank. And
this is coming from the collector.
And maybe this Tfo is the fluid outlet temperature of the collector which is introduced in the
insulated tank. And this Tfi = Tl, which we will introduce again into the collector. And maybe
ṁload, I will write, which is connected to the load, so that we can use it. And this may be Ti,
and Ta is the ambient temperature and this temperature is at Tl. So here, Tl is the delivery
temperature.
So, well mixed situation means, here it is assumed that temperature of the fluid is at Tl. There
is no variation of the temperature. Now, if I am interested to develop an energy balance on
the tank, then how we can write it? So, this (ρCpV)l, this is for liquid and (ρCpV) for the
tank. If tank is very large, then we need some kind of angles to attach to hold the structure.
So, heat capacity of those structures or angles need to be considered.
So, dTl/dt because this will vary with time and then qu is the useful heat gain. So, this is qu,
which is coming from the collector and I can write this as qload, qload, when required we can
again collect it from the storage tank. And UA is the overall heat transfer coefficient which is
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multiplied by the area of the tank. And Tl is the temperature of the fluid and Ta is the ambient
temperature.
So, these two can be coupled and we can give an effective. So, which combines both, the
(ρCpV)l and (ρCpV)t. And this can be represented by (ρCpV)e, equivalent. So, this can be
reduced to this form. So maybe, I can give an equation name, maybe A. And these equations
need to be solved by using this initial conditions.
So, at T = 0, this Tl = Tli. At initially, the condition is something like that. And if we rewrite
this equations, it will be something like this and if we define it a term,
l t   qu  qload  UAt Tl  Ta  , and we use the initial conditions at T = 0, θl (t) = θli. Then if
we differentiate with respect to time this equation, then we will get this kind of expression.
Now, what we will do, we will substitute this dTl/dt here in the equation A. Then let us see
how we can get the solution of this ODE.
So, on substitution, we will get this expression. And then finally, we will have this
expression. And this is nothing but a ordinary differential equation. And we will get the
solution of something like this. And this constant value can be calculated by using the initial
conditions. So, at T = 0, this exponential of 0, it will be 1. So, C = θli.
So, if you substitute here, then what we will have, so we will have this kind of solution of the
ODE. Now, this expression is very important. So, we need to find out the Tl value at different
time. So, if we start, say for example, say morning 3 o’clock, we have started something and
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we are interested to know the Tl value after every 1 hour; say, 4 o'clock, 5 o'clock, 6 o'clock.
Then know, we need to use this expression for calculation of temperature at different times.
Because these values will be constant. And T is, for this case, it will be 1 hour. So, from that
we can calculate, what will be the value of Tl, since we know Tli and Ta.
Now again, we can relate this qu and qload with respect to inlet and outlet fluid temperature.
 C p Tfo T fi  m
So, qu  m  C p T fo  Tl  . And qload  m
 load C p Tl Ti  . So, Tl maybe Ta. So that
way, we can relate this qu and qload in terms of inlet and outlet fluid temperature.
So, if we recall the expression, if we substitute then we will get this expression. And this
expression you will get first and then if we substitute these values, then it will be something
like this. And then finally, our expression in terms of this fluid inlet and outlet temperature, it
will be something like this.
So, with this knowledge, let us solve one numerical problems on this well mixed tank when
temperature is fixed. And also, one more observation; sometimes what happens, this qu and
qload maybe 0 when no heat is required. Then this qload = 0. If no useful heat gain is there from
the collector array, then this will be 0. Then what happens?
When Tfo < Tl, the flow through the collector will be stopped, and ṁ = 0 and qu = 0. So, this
the condition at which qu = 0, if Tfo < Tl. And when no energy is required on the load side;
that means qload = 0 and ṁload = 0. So, these conditions are required to understand the different
situations.
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So, this problem goes something like, a well mixed water storage unit, means that Tl, if you
consider is Tl, Tl is constant for 1 hour duration, contains about 3100 kg of water. And is
provided with auxiliary heating of 3 kW. So, this 3 kW auxiliary heating is given here. So,
figure x shows the configuration of the system. So, ṁ is the mass flow rate from the collector
and introduced in the tank.
So of course, this is insulated tank and no heat loss is taking place, ideally. Of course,
practically, some heat loss will be there. And this makeup water line is here, and it goes
something like this and it is a ṁload.
So, data for useful heat gain from the collector ambient temperature and rate of withdrawal to
the load on a particular day from 3 o’clock to 12 o'clock are as follows. So, this data is given.
So, qu = 0 from 3 to 4, because collector will be off at that time, no solar radiation will be
there, so this qu = 0. So, till this 7 o'clock qu = 0, and Ta how it varies it is given here, and
ṁload is given because system is on.
Assuming that the auxiliary heater switch on when the temperature in the tank falls below 45
o
C. The makeup water at 24 oC enters at the same rate as the rate of withdrawal to the load.
So, means that is entered at 24 oC and this same rate, this heat is collected. And this value,
overall heat transfer coefficient multiplied by area is given as 60 kJ/hr oC. And now, we need
to calculate the hourly variation of Tl from 3 to 7 hour starting with the value of 50 oC at 3
hours. So, at what time does the auxiliary heater switch on?
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So, we need to find out the time, when this auxiliary heater need to turn on. This is quite
interesting problem and very very practical. And we need to assume the specific heat of the
water remains constant, because temperature variation is not much and neglecting the heat
capacity of the tank material.
So here, we are not considering the tank material even though, it requires some kind of angles
to hold the structure. So, we are not considering that. Of course, we can consider, so just so
we need to add this component in the heat capacity part. But now, for the time being, we are
not considering it.
Now here, in this case, the heat capacity of the liquid can be calculated by (ρCpV)l = (ṁCp)l,
because ρ×V is nothing but mass. Since mass is known to us, so that is why, ρ×V=m is
considered in this problem. So, this m is 3100 multiplied by specific heat is 4.18, so it is
comes around 12958 kJ/oC.
So, what is given to us? The temperature at 3 a.m. is 50 oC. So, what we need to calculate? At
different times, at 4 a.m., 5 a.m., 6 a.m., and 7 a.m. So, in order to find out temperature at 4
a.m., so first we need to calculate what is load. So how to calculate the load?
 load C p Tl  Ta  . Tl is the liquid tank temperature and Ta is the ambient temperature.
qload  m
And if you consider this range, 3 to 4 hours, qload can be calculated something like this.
Because this value is known to us, 200 kg/hr and 4.18 is the Cp value and this is the
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temperature difference. 50 is the Tli; initially, it is given as 50 oC, so 50 is considered here,
minus 16 is the ambient temperature. So, this is found to be 28424 kJ/hr.
Now what is next? We know the solution of this problem is something like this and we can
substitute the values. So, at this time, qu = 0, so because of that qu = 0, here not considered.
And qload we have calculated, we have substituted here. And (UA)t is given to us, this is 60,
and (Tl – Ta) = 16, and this values are known, because Tli = 50. And we can substitute the
values here. And this is also known UA, ρCpV, these values are known. And this t = 1 hour,
so this will be about 0.99538.
So, only unknown is Tl. So, this calculation is 4 a.m. So, Tl at 4 a.m. will be 47.56 oC.
Similarly, we can do the calculations, for 5 a.m., what will be the temperature? So, for 4 to 5
hours, qload the can be calculated based on the data given to us. And also, we can use the
similar expression and we can get the value of temperature at 5 a.m., which is equal to 45.46
o
C.
So, this is very close to 45. So, we need to find out at what time our heater has to be turn on.
So first, we need to calculate in the next step, what will be the Tl at 6, then we have to rectify
it, the correct values of Tl at 6. So here, so after corrections, what we get is 43.79. So, what I
mean to say, when we do the calculation for Tl at 6, then we have to confirm that, know what
is the temperature. Once it is found that, it is less than the temperature 45 oC at which heater
has to be turn on, then it is confirmed that we need to turn on the heater after 5 hours.
So that way, we need to find out what will be the value of Tl exactly at 6 a.m. while
considering the 3 kW heater when it is turn on, 3 × 3600, this will be kJ. So that, we need to
add or which will be hour. So, that you need to add in the qu part and then we have to do the
calculation. And once you do the calculation, then what we will get, a value Tl at 6 a.m. will
be 43.79. So, then at 7 a.m., similarly, we can do the calculations and the value found to be
42.59 oC.
So, what we got now, Tl at 4 a.m. is 47.65 oC; at 5 a.m. 45.46 oC; at 6, 43.79 oC; at 7, 42.59.
So, it is confirmed that heater has to be turn on in between 5 to 6. Then we have to find out
the exact time, at what time we need to turn on the heater.
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So, the temperature 45 oC has to be in between 5 to 6 hours and we need to find out the qload
by using this expression between 5 to 6 and it is found to be about 25252.22 kJ/hr. So, we can
find out the time.
So now, these values are known. All these values are known because this is 45 Tl, Tli = 45.46;
previous values we need to consider and then from that we can calculate what is the value of
T, which is equal to 13.50. So, this heater will be remained turn on after 5 hours 13.30
minutes. So, once we are done with this, then we can calculate the timing, means what is the
temperature for Tl 6 and Tl 7.
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So now, let us consider the case for stratification in storage tank. This water tanks may
operate while significant degree of stratification due to the density difference, that is, with the
top of the tank hotter than the bottom. This allows hot water to be delivered to the load and
cold water to return to the collector.
Normally, what happens in case of flat plate collectors, when storage is there, so in the
storage in the upper portion hot water will be there, in the lower portion of cold water will be
there. So, if we can take the hot water which is required say at say 45 oC, so at 45 oC, it is
closer to the utility and maybe ambient, maybe 20 oC or 30 oC, which is at the bottom, which
can be circulated in the flat plate collector.
So that way, if this temperature is significant or temperature difference is significant, that is

required temperature and then ambient temperature, so then this stratification is very, very
important. And this plot shows the variation of density with temperature and variation of
specific heat with temperature. As we can see, density is decreasing with increasing
temperature, but specific heat is increasing with increasing temperature. That means if we
have to operate at higher temperature, then mCpV will be higher or that way, our losses will
be more.
Now, if we analyze this thermal stratification process, so we can analyze by making two
different well stirred tank, or well mixed tank. Normally what happens, when we are talking
about stratifications? If we take a single tank, so maybe in the upper portion having higher
temperature and this is the lower temperature. So, analysis is very complex. So, in order to
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make the analysis very, very simple. So, it is divided into two part. Then upper part is the hot
part, this is something like this, of course, this is a insulated tank. And this is normally
installed near to the utility point, because Tl is the required temperature or Tl1 is the required
temperature. And this is the lower part.
So here in this case, these are the arrays of flat plate collectors and it is introduced here and it
fills the hot water. And then in goes down and finally, this Tfi is nothing but input to the flat
plate collector. So, these two are well mixed tank and utility is near to this upper tank, which
is delivered at a temperature of Tl1 which is higher than this Tl2.
So, we can use this kind of expression for solving Tl1 and Tl2. So finally, we can get solution
for Tl1 and Tl2. So in this case, only what we have considered, fluid is introduced from the top
of this arrangement. So what happens here, this is Tfo > Tl1. So, this phenomena will active
when Tfo > Tl1, then this will be receiving the heat. This tank is receiving the heat from the
source. And if Tfo < Tl1, no heat flow will be there from the source.
So, we can make this kind of arrangement here also. We can have some kind of inlet in this
portion also. So, under the conditions, we have to use different approach for calculation of, or
development of the conditions for usability. So, what benefit we will get by doing this? Heat
losses from the tank are reduced and these collectors operate at a lower temperature level and
delivers a higher collector efficiency.
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So, now come to the phase change material. Here what we can see in the first figure, so this
dotted line shows the sensible heat storage system. So, there is no change of phase. So, if we
look into this blue colored line, so first, this is similar to the sensible heat storage and then
phase change will be there. So this may be, if you consider, say, ice at -15 to 0, it will go
something like this; from 0 to 0, solid to liquid, and it will go something like this. And then
from 0 to maybe 50 or 60, it will go something like this. So, that is how it works.
And this plot shows the enthalpy versus temperature. So, if no phase change is there, then it
will go something like this and if there is a phase change at certain temperature, so this much
of enthalpy rise will be there. This is something called latent heat of fusion. And then again, it
will go something like, and this part was solid and other part is liquid.
So now, the kind of material which is used for phase change applications, it has got some
kind of properties. So, these properties are something like, a melting point in the temperature
range of the application for which it is being considered. Say, for drying of paddy, we need to
maintain at, say, 60 oC. So, accordingly, we need to find out, which PCM best for depth
temperature range.
So, at that temperature range, that has to melt so that that latent heat of fusion can be
transferred to the paddy for drying. A high value of latent heat of fusion is always important
or required. A small volume change during the phase change is important because if we make
a tray and if volume change is taking place significantly, then it will be very difficult to
accommodate. So, this is one of the very important properties of a phase change material.
A negligible amount of super cooling or super heating for phase change to occur, this is also
important. The properties should be stable and should not degrade after repeated cycle. Like
this cycle involves melting and solidification. So, this includes high thermal conductivity,
low vapor pressure and non corrosive. So, these properties are very important for a phase
change material.
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What are the benefits and drawbacks of PCM? So, this benefits includes higher storage
density than sensible heat, smaller volume, smaller temperature change between storing and
releasing energy. So, drawbacks are high cost, corrosiveness, then density change, low
thermal conductivity, phase separation, and incongruent melting, that is not uniform, melting
is there, then super cooling; before it reach, the cooling is also taking place.
So, this table shows the properties of PCM used for thermal comfort in buildings. So, these
are the different types of PCM used for building. Suppose we need to maintain at, say, 20 oC
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or 21, then we need to go for this kind of materials, butyl stearate. So, where melting point is
about 19 and then heat of fusion is about 140.
So that way, we can decide, the kind of material to be used for a specific application. This
table shows different scopes of utilizing the material based on the availability and we can
have different configurations for using this PCM. This may be horizontally we can feed it, so
gas introduced here and then PCMs are placed in the tubes, so heat exchange will takes place
and finally, we will have different heat at outlet and then at the inlet.
And also, we can have this kind of configurations. So, gas inlet is from the top and it moves
around the tubes and then gas can be collected at the bottom and PCMs are placed inside.
And also, there are different components, different compounds which are normally used to
for phase change applications. So, it’s a exhaustive list what you can see here. So, different
compounds; this is inorganic compounds, then we will have organic paraffin, which include
paraffin wax and poly-glycol E600. Then, we will have organic non-paraffin compounds,
palmitic acid, then capric acid, and caprylic acid, and then we will have aromatics.
So, you can see the range of melting temperatures and then heat of fusion. So, based on the
requirements, we can select the best material to meet the demand.
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Now, let us pay attention about organic PCM, what are benefits and demerits. So, it melts
concurrently, and chemically and physically stable and high heat of fusion in case of organic
material. And drawbacks are more expensive and flammable, and low thermal conductivity in
solid state. And lower heat storage capacity per volume. And leakage during phase transition.
These are some of the drawbacks.
And how to mitigate those drawbacks, we have options or solutions. The solutions are
something like metallic filters, then metal-matrix structures, we can make; fin tubes, we can
make; encapsulation is a solution and preparation of form-stable material using porous
supporting matrix. So, these are the solutions to use organic PCM.
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So, encapsulations is done to prevent reactivity towards environment. Then compatible with
stainless steel, polypropylene and polyolefin. Controls volume, when phase change occurs,
which is very, very important. A large improvement in the heat transfer rates, if we make this
kind of arrangement.
So, this figure shows about the arrangement. Heat transfer fluid inlet, you can see in arrows.
So, these are channels through which the flows and these are the encapsulation. So, PCMs are
contained in this tube, so we can get the heat transfer outlet here. And again, we will have
drawbacks like, for this kind of arrangement, high pressure drop of heat transfer fluid through
the bed and then high initial cost. So, these are drawbacks that this kind of system have.
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And also, there are different other enhancement method like finned tubes. So, this kind of fin,
we can make and we can insert there, to increase the thermal conductivity of the system or
maybe effectivity of the PCM system.
And also, this aluminum filling with VSP 25 and VSP 50 are also seen. This VSP means
Vegetative Storage Protein, and this 25 is 25 kD and this is 50 kD; that is why is the name.
And this kind of matrix, graphite matrix with PCM is also in practice.
And this kind of systems, thermal energy encapsulations, polyolefin spherical capsules are
also available. So, this can be used in packed beds. So, these are introduced there and then air
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is introduced from the bottom and heat exchange will takes place. These are found to be very,
very effective and these are stainless steel balls. And this is polypropylene flat panels and we
have module beams.
There are many configurations based on the applications, which are already in the market.
But we need to compromise, if we use this kind of balls, then pressure drop will be very, very
high.
And we will pay attention about thermochemical storage system. This, the solar energy to be
stored is used to produce a certain endothermic chemical reaction and the products of the
reactions are stored. So, when the energy is required to be released, the reverse exothermic
reaction is made to takes place. This is suitable for medium to high temperature application
only. So, other two what we have discussed, sensible heat storage and latent heat storage
system, we cannot use it for very high temperature. So, this thermochemical energy storage is
specifically for medium to high temperature applications.
And we can see different chemical reactions like methane reacts with water, it converted to
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. So, in this case, this temperature of the forward reaction will
be about 780 and this reverse reaction will be at 610. And also, we can see energy stored per
unit volume of storage is about 209.4 ×103.
So, for other cases also, we can see how it varies. So, for this reaction, so forward reaction
will happen at 1028 oC. And this reverse reaction happens at 590. And for the other reactions,
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we can see forward reaction is at 498 and it is about a 135 for the reverse reaction. Also, we
can see the energy stored per unit volume of storage, which is represented in kJ/m3.
So, the product of forward reaction store thermal energy as chemical energy, which can be
recovered as thermal energy when the conditions are changed to permit the reverse reaction
to occur. So, already we have discussed the examples and this is the way it reacts.
If you consider two constituent (A + B), and if we get energy from the solar collector and it is
converted to (X + Y), two other elements, and that can be that can be stored in a storage tank.
And in the reverse reaction, this X Y Z will reacts with this and then we will have, so this in
the storage tank from that we have to release the energy, so we can get the energy back from
the storage system from X Y, (X + Y) → (A + B) by using this reverse reaction. So, this is
what is shown as the schematic representation of thermochemical storage reactions.
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And there are some criterias for selection of thermochemical reactions for solar applications,
like the forward reaction should occur in the temperature range of the solar collectors use. So,
if we use solar concentrator then things will be different, if we use solar flat plate collector, if
we use solar air heater, then things will be different.
The reverse reaction should occur in the temperature range in which heat is to be extracted.
The reactions in both directions should be fast and completely reversible with no side
reactions, which may produce contaminants, which is very, very important. The energy
absorbed per unit volume of the products stored should be as large as possible and the
product should be in the liquid form.
Two reactions should occur at temperatures which are close to each other. So, in this way the
collector temperature is minimized and its efficiency can be maximized.
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So, we can summarize what we have discussed today. So, we have discussed three different
technologies for solar thermal energy storage, like sensible heat storage, latent heat storage
and then thermochemical energy storage and we have studied different methodologies and at
what condition, we can store what technology, that we have summarized.
Also, we have studied the reliable and affordable energy storage is a prerequisite for using
renewable energy, that we understood clearly. Energy storage, therefore, has a pivotal role in
the future. Thermal energy storage is imperative to make solar energy more reliable and
competitive. Further, research in phase changing material can improve the efficiency of
storage system. And the design of system is also important in optimizing energy storage.
Hope you enjoyed this video. Thank you for watching this video.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Assistant Professor, Centre for Energy
Lecture - 30
Solar Pond
Dear students, today we will be discussing about Solar Pond. Basically, we will study Salt
Gradient Solar Pond.
This Salt Gradient solar pond is an economical way of collecting and storing of solar energy
requiring low-temperature process, and it can provide process heat at a temperature of 70 to
80 oC in an average. So, first let us learn what is solar pond?
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(Refer Slide Time 01:06)
A solar pond is a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy. The
saltwater naturally forms a vertical salinity gradient, in which low salinity water floats on top
of high salinity water. The layers of salt solutions increases in concentration with depth.
Below a certain depth, the solution has a uniformly high salt concentration. So pictorially, it
can be represented something like this. Here, solar radiation is receiving and it transmits
through these layers and receives at the bottom and it is retained, because this salt gradient is
maintained.
So, what is the difference between these solar pond and normal pond? In case of normal pond
what happens, this solar radiation received from the sun, and then, as soon as it receives at the
bottom, so what happens, a convection or convective current is generated. Because of that,
this temperature difference between this top layer and this bottom layer is very, very less.
Here in this case, what happens, salt is applied to reduce this convective current, so that the
amount of heat which is retained at the bottom or received at the bottom can be retained for
other applications. So, this is nothing but solar energy collection and storage. Once we can
heat or we can have high temperature here, we can collect it for applications required for a
particular process.
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(Refer slide time 03:01)
So, let us discuss some of the facts related to solar pond. The first solar ponds were
constructed in Israel in the early 60s by Tabor and his co-workers. A maximum temperature
of 100 oC were obtained at the bottom. Many practical difficulties were encountered and the
work was abandoned. The number of solar ponds have been built all around the world to
utilize the stored heat for providing process heat and generating power.
The largest solar pond was installed at Israel and its covers an area of about 250000 m2. That
heat, what is generated there, is used to generate electricity by using an Organic Rankine
Cycle. Mostly what you can see in this applications, these applications are restricted to
desalinations and brine management. In Australia, they use this kind of system to supply heat
in salt production process in a place called Pyramid Hill.
In India, we have a solar pond at Bhuj, Gujrat. And its covers an area of 6000 m2. And this is
used to supply process heat to a dairy farm. So, this a photograph of the plant which is
installed at Gujrat.
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Now, let us learn the working principle of solar pond. How does a solar pond works? So here,
what is shown, let us consider a pond of depth L, so it is going towards x direction and this
the depth of the pond L. And let us consider, the concentration of the top layer is C1 and
concentration on the bottom layer is C2. So, there is a concentration gradient. So, C1 < C2,
concentration of brine.
Now, if I am interested to see the variation of density and temperature at this concentrations,
how it will look like? So, it will be something like this. So, this vertical axis shows the
density and then horizontal axis shows the temperature variation. So, if we consider this C1 is
the concentration for the top layer and C2 is the concentration for the bottom layer. So, here
ρ1 and T1 is the density and temperature at point P where this C1 meets. And then ρ2 and T2
are the density and temperature at the bottom layer.
And there will be something like this kind of profile of variation of density with respect to
temperature. So, we can have multiple points in between this top layer and bottom layer, and
then we can find out, what will be the exact values of this density at particular temperature.
So, what we can understood here, no convection will occur so long as the slope of the curve
PQ is positive. So, if this curve is positive, so convection will not occur. So, there will be a
concentration gradient, so which is required for a solar pond.
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(Refer slide time 06:41)
d
Now, mathematically, we can represent this  0 ; that means what, density at the bottom
dx
layer is always more than the just above layer. So, this ρ, density of the brine solution is a
function of concentration and temperature. So, we can apply the total differentiation
     
d    dC    dT . Then if we divide the above expression by dx, so it will be
 C T  T C
something like this.
d
Now, if we apply the equation one, then is equal to this portion, which is greater than 0.
dx
dC
Now, if I am interested to develop the expression in terms of , the concentration gradient
dx
d
along the depth, then we can develop it, will be something like this. So, this equation
dx
may be A, I can write here.
Or in a very involved way, if we consider the momentum diffusivity, then thermal diffusivity,
and mass diffusivity, this is the mass diffusivity. Mass diffusion will be there, because if salt
is there at the bottom, so salt is here and then mass diffusion will takes place. Because of that
we need to consider this mass diffusivity D and this υ is momentum diffusivity and this α is
thermal diffusivity. So, this is thermal, mass, and this is momentum, momentum diffusivity.
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dC
So, this value as per the experimental observation, it is found to be 1.15. So, > 1.15
dx
times this expression, to be precise. Normally, this is also considered as 2. So, if we have to
make a design, so some kind of margin we have to maintain. So, this expression, need to be
dC
multiplied by 2. Then what we can get, the stability criteria.
dx
So, calculation of minimum concentration gradient required for maintaining a given

concentration gradient at a particular level in a solar pond can be calculated by using either of
this equations. So, this is very, very important. So, once this stability criteria is established,
then it is found that things will work perfectly as designed.
(Refer slide time: 09:23)
So, let us take an small example about this concentration to understand in more deeper sense.
Like sodium chloride is used as a salt in a solar pond. Estimate the minimum concentration,
that is, kg of salt per kg of water required at the bottom, if the concentration at the top is
given as 0.02 and the temperature difference of 65 is given and that has to be maintained.
Assuming the concentration and temperature profiles are straight line and take the average
     
value of   , and   to be - 0.5 kg/m3 oC , and 650 kg/m3 respectively. Then we can
 T C  C T
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calculate the minimum concentration. We know the stability criteria, something like this
   dT
 
dC  T C dx .

dx   
 
 C T
dC
 0.5 dT
So, we can substitute the values given in the problem. So, this is  dx and then
dx 650
dC is something like this with simplification. And then (C2 - C1) is the concentration at the
bottom part minus top. And then, we can have this expression, and finally, what we will get
C2 = 0.02 kg of salt per kg of water. So, this is how we can calculate the concentration
gradient required for this kind of analysis.
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Now, let us learn the working principle. So here, as we understand now, in case of solar pond,
there are three layers; upper layer is called upper convective zone or sometimes it is called
surface convective zone, and middle layer is a non-convective zone. The bottom layer is
called lower convective zone, where this part is the storage anode connection and middle part
is something like insulation, so that no convection current is generated, and most of the heat
what is fallen here is lost to the environment.
These are the heat. Some kind of evaporation losses will be there and then heat interaction
from the ambient is there. So, it is shown that the energy is falling from the sun and is
received at the bottom. And then this convection current is resisted by this salt gradient.
So, let us learn one by one. This surface convective zone or upper convective zone is very,
very less thick. So, each about 10 to 20 cm and concentration is uniform and temperature is
also uniform. Because of that, we can have just a line here, so concentration and temperature
is something like constant. And in the non-convective zone, half of the depth of the pond
normally considered as this non-convective zone.
So if it is, total depth is 1 m, 0.5 m is for non-convective zone. And temperature and
concentration increases with depth. So, this variation will be something like this. So,
temperature and concentration will vary in this zone. And this zone act as insulating layer and
reduces heat losses in the upward direction. Role of this zone is very, very crucial for
successful operation of a salt gradient solar pond.
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And the third zone is lower convective zone. This part is the lower convective zone, where
temperature and concentration is constant. And this part is, serve as main heat collection as
well as thermal storage medium. So, heat will be stored here and then from the here, heat has
to be collected. By installing some kind of heat exchanger or maybe Organic Rankine Cycle,
if electricity generation is the prime activity.
So, this is the pond. So, this the upper temperature and concentration. And what happens
here, sometimes we need to provide fresh water here to maintain the salinity gradient. So,
when we provide fresh water, along with this salt is also moves. Salt is also moves, and then
in order to use this salt again, then we need to have a separate plant to evaporate the water
present, and then we can separate salt and water, and then that salt can be used here again to
maintain the salinity gradient.
So, this depth is typically 2 to 3 m and here, this black coloured things, what is shown, this is
nothing but a thick durable liner, normally composed of low-density polyethylene or LDPE
or high-density polyethylene HDPE or woven polyester yarn, which are attached at the
bottom in order to reduce the heat losses. And the, the kind of salt used for this kind of
arrangement is magnesium chloride or maybe sodium chloride. And this concentration varies
from 20 to 30 % at the bottom to the 0, at the top. This concentration is to be maintained.
The temperature of the lower layer may rise to as high as 95 oC in summer. For winter, it is
about 60 oC. And this salt requirement is about 50 g/m2-day, which is really a significant
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amount if we consider for a yearly operation. So, that is why this evaporation of this water
when freshwater is added and then reuse of the salt is very, very important.
The annual collection efficiency varies from 15 to 25 %, which is less than the flat plate
collector. And cost per square meter is much less than the flat plate collector. So, this is a
very, very economical way of collection and storage of thermal energy.
And this arrangement, what is shown here is use of solar pond for power generation. So, here
what happens, collection and storage will be there and then we can circulate cold brine and
then hot brine will move out and there will be heat exchanger. Heat will exchange from this
hot brine to the organic fluid used in the secondary cycle. So, this may be ammonia.
So, this organic fluid takes the heat from the brine and it is evaporated and then it is expanded
in the turbine and electricity can be generated. And this eject of this turbine is cooled by
using a condenser, cooling tower assembly. And, of course, here we need a pump to circulate
the fluid again and again in the closed-loop. So, this pumps, here also we need a pump. So,
this figure shows the working of a solar pond for power generation application.
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Now, let us analyze the performance of a salt gradient solar pond. So for that, we need to
understand the transmissivity based on reflection and refraction at the air-water interface.
Because we have air and water, this is the pond and we have air here and we have water here.
So, this is the air-water interface. So, we need to know the transmissivity based on the reflect
on reflection, and also transmissivity based on refraction.
Already, we have studied cases when there is air and glass in case of flat plate collector. So,
what happens, the incident beam falls on this transparent cover, and then it is reflected, and it
is refracted. So, we know the relationship between θ1 and θ2 by using the Snell’s law. Same
principle can be applied here. So, if we know the reflective indices of water with respect to
air, which is nothing but 1.33.
So, if we know this 1.33, and θ1 is known, then θ2 can be calculated. So, same principle what
we have followed for design of a flat plate collector can be applied here. And also, we know
these two components of polarization. So, if we know this two components of polarization for
reflection, so this is ρ can be calculated. And then, if we know ρ, then again, we can use the
same methodology for calculation of τr. So, this is transmissivity based on reflection and
refraction and this τrI and τrII are the two-component of polarization.
Now, here people have done lot of research and they have found these kind of observations.
So, by varying these angles of incidence from 0 to 70, and then this θ2 can be calculated
because n2/n1 is known that is 1.33. So, if we do this this, so kind of data can be generated
and we can get the values of τr at different incidence angle. So, as you can see, when incident
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angle is increases, so this τr is reduces. So, it is more significant if we go beyond 75, and at
90, it is almost 0. So, at higher angles, it is not encouraged.
For angles of incidence from 0 to 60, the loss due to reflection is small, that is 2 to 6%. For
large angles, the loss is large. So, which is not interested because these are associated with
low values of radiation.
Now, let us analyze on transmissivity based on absorption. As we know, this expression

Bouger’s law, dI  I dx , and this K is the constant. This is known as extinction coefficient
and we can have a solution of something like this. So, we can get the value of transmissivity
based on the absorption by using this expression. But this cannot be used directly here
because this K, extinction coefficient is a strong function of wavelength.
So, this wavelength has been considered by authors like Nielsen and Rebl, and they found
K jx
this kind of correlations.  a  e , x is nothing but the depth of the water. And this Aj
values at different conditions were calculated, these are the fitting coefficients. And this A1 is
valid for this range of wavelength, and A2 is valid for this range of wavelength. So, similarly,
A3 and A4 are valid for a range of wavelength.
So, if we combine this A1, A2, A3, A4, and if we analyze critically, it is found that about 77.6
% of radiation is accounted corresponding to wavelength of 0.2 to 1.2. This is 0.2 to 1.2 μm.
And this balance 22.4 % corresponds to the radiation wavelength greater than 1.2 μm, which
is absorbed near the surface 1 to 2 cm from the surface.
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Also, we can use this kind of correlation which is very, very simple, developed by Bryant and
Colbeck. So, this is the expression where x is the depth of the water, which is in meter and
this is valid for x has to be greater than 0.01 meter. And this expression is valid when solar
radiation is falling normal to the horizontal surface.
So, if it is inclined, then we need to express the correlation something like this. It will be
x/cos θ2. So, we must know what is θ2. So, these expressions need to be applied for
calculation of transmissivity based on absorption.
Now, let us take an example, it goes something like; a 2 m deep solar pond is built in
Guwahati. Its latitude is given 26o 8ʹ. The values of global and diffuse radiation measured on
a horizontal surface on 15th May at 13:00 local apparent time or solar time are 900 W/m2 and
200 W/m2 respectively. Calculate number 1, flux reflected from the water surface; number 2,
flux entering the water, and number 3, solar flux at a depth of 0.01, 0.5, 1, and 2 m.
So, on May 15th, n = 135, we can calculate it. And ϕ = (26 + 8/60), it will be degree now
26.13o. So, if we know n, then straightaway we can calculate, what will be the declination?
So, δ can be calculated by using this expression. And now, next step, we need to calculate
what is θ1. So, this θ1 is related with this expression and ϕ is already known, δ is known here.
And ω, here it is 13:00 local apparent time, means -15.
So, we can substitute those values here and we can find out what is θ1. So, θ1 will be about
15.667o. So, once we know θ1, then we can calculate what is θ2, by using the equations. So,
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sin 1  2
 , so this is 1.33. So, θ2 is about 11.715. So, we can use the chart to know this ρb
sin  2 1
for beam radiation and for diffuse radiation. This is for diffuse radiation, θ1 = 60 we have
considered, and θ2 = 40.62, and ρd = 0.059. From where we got this? We got this from this
table.
So, as you can see, this is 15. So, θ1 is about 15.67, it is close to 15. And then θ2 is about
11.71. So, it is very close by, so we can take a value of 0.020 for ρ. And for diffuse radiation,
since we can consider, so when solar radiation is falling at an angle of 60o, so that can be
considered as diffuse radiation. That is why, this θ1 is considered as 60. So, under that
condition, θ2 will be 40.63, and then we can get a value of ρ = 0.059. So, with these values,
we can calculate the flux reflected from the water surface.
So, this is flux reflected from the water surface. So, how we can calculate? We know this ρb
know and ρd, and Ib is known because Ig is given. Ig is given as 900 W/m2, so what will be Ib?
So, Ib = (900 – 200) because Id is given as 200 W/m2. So, it will be 700 W/m2. So that way,
we can get what is Ib. Ib b  I d d  700  0.2  200  0.059  25.8W m2 .
Now, this flux entered the water, that means this is reflected back. So, 900 is the amount of
solar radiation, that is global radiation falling on the solar pond. So, (900-25.8), it will be
874.2 W/m2, which is entering in the water. Now, we need to calculate the transmissivity
based on the absorptions. So, we can use these equation, so which is known to us now. So,
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once we substitute the value of θ2 and x for a particular case, so we can calculate what will be
the reflectivity based on the absorption.
So we can, we can develop this chart and equations are known, so if we consider for beam
radiation, it will be τab. So, θ2 = 11.715o and if we do that calculation, it is found to be 0.7262.
Then at x = 0.5, it is 0.4135; x = 1, it will be 0.3583; x = 2, it will be 0.3028.
Similarly, for diffuse radiation, this is τad and θ2 = 40.63, because θ2 is required here. And
different values of x we can calculate what is τad. So, these are the values we got for diffuse
radiation. What is the next step? So, next step is to calculate the solar flux at various depth.
So, what will be the solar flux at x = 0.01, x = 0.5, x = 1, and x = 2 m.
So, this the expression we can use and these values are known to us. So, τrd, how to calculate?
Because ρb is known, then ρb(1- ρb) = τrb. So similarly, (1- ρd) = τrd. So that way, we can
consider and we can calculate and it is found to be something like this. So at various depth,
the solar flux received will be something like this. So, we can plot it, how this solar flux is
varies at different depth.
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So if we plot it, so what kind of conclusion we can draw? So, we can develop this kind of
plot. So, this is water depth is here, and then solar flux is in the horizontal axis. So, if we say
900 is, W/m2 is the incident flux, and then after considering the reflection, it will be 874
W/m2 is entering into the water. And then what happens? It reduces, and then finally, the
amount of solar flux received is about 200 something. So, which is calculated in the last slide,
so it is when it reaches about 260.86.
Now, if we see for this case, it is considered that the surface convective zone or upper
convective zone is about 10 cm, and radiation absorbed in the wavelength is about 1 to 2 μm.
And about 269 W/m2 is 30 % of the incident energies absorbed in the solar convective zone.
Since we have considered 10 cm, so that much of energy we can deduct from the amount of
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energy what is available. So, that much of energy is absorbed in the solar surface convective
zone, and this energy is almost entirely lost to the surroundings and this is the reason for low
collection efficiency.
So, this energy is almost entirely lost to the surroundings and this is the reason for low
collection efficiency. And this flux, which is penetrating to the bottom of the pond is about
261 W/m2, which is about 31 % of the incident energy. So that much of energy is utilized for
generation of hot water or may be generation of electricity.
Now, we are interested about temperature distribution and collection efficiency. So, if we
consider these layers, this is surface convective zone, non-convective zone, lower convective
zone. As you know, this temperature and concentration is constant in this zone and then there
is a variation of temperature and concentration in the non-convective zone. Again, it is
constant in the lower convective zone or where collection and storage taking place.
So, this the profile and we if we represent this l1 is the thickness of the surface convective
zone and l2 is the depth from the surface to the end of the non-convective zone, and L is the
depth of the pond. So now, how to proceed for investigation of temperature distribution and
collection efficiency?
So, for an exact solution, one has to solve the appropriate differential equation for each zone,
and then matching condition has to be used at the interfaces between the zones and satisfy the
boundary conditions at the top and bottom surface of the pond. And assumptions are
something like, the upper convective zone and the lower convective zone are assumed to be
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perfectly mixed layer at uniform temperatures, which changes only with time. And second
assumption is the lateral dimensions of the pond are large compared to the length. And this
temperature varies only in the vertical direction and properties are constant.
So, if we develop the differential equation for non-convective zone, it is represented

something like this. So, this dI/dt is the solar radiation, which is absorbed in the pond. And
this is the amount of energy which is stored, and this is the conductive heat transfer in the
non-convective zone. And this I can be represented by using this expression, already this is
done in the problem, what we have discussed.
Now, we are interested about energy balance for upper convective zone and lower convective
 dT 
zone. So, this is the expression for upper convective zone. So, this  l1 C p  1  , this
 dt  x l1
represent the rate of change of energy contained in the surface convective zone of thickness
 T 
l1. And this K   , is the rate at which heat is conducted from the non-convective zone.
 x 
And this [(I)x=0 – (I)x=l)], this is the solar radiation absorbed in the thickness l1 and this part is
the rate at which heat is lost from the top surface by convection, evaporation, and radiation.
So, from the top, if we draw this something like this, so from the top, we will have
conduction losses, evaporation losses, and then radiation losses or conductive losses, this is
convective losses, not conduction losses. Now, if I am interested for lower convective zone,
so equation will be something like this. So, this part shows about rate of change of energy
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content in the lower convective zone of thickness (L - l2) and this is the rate at which heat is
conducted in from the non-convective zone.
So, this is the conduction part and this is the solar radiation absorbed in the thickness l2 and
 Tg 
this K g   is something like that at which heat conducted out of the ground underneath.
 x 
And qload, so where, this in the lower convective zone, this load is like our utility. This qload,
this rate of useful heat extraction is represented by qload/Ap. So, these are need to be studied
critically to investigate the performance of a salt gradient solar pond.
And also, we can develop the annual collection efficiency and extraction temperature, which
is function of pond depth. So, this figure shows about the variation of annual collection
efficiency with pond depth. So, this is something like this. So, as pond depth increases,
annual collection efficiency actually increases and this mean extraction temperature is
decreases with increase in pond depth.
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So, there are applications of solar ponds, like we can have combine system of thermosiphon
and thermoelectric modules to generate electricity from solar ponds. So here, what happens,
this is the thermoelectric part. This temperature difference is utilized to generate electricity
and this is the collection and storage part, from useful heat gain can be extracted and applied
as per the application.
And here, what we can see is the electric power generation from solar pond using Organic
Rankine Cycle. So, here is the low salinity layer, then gradient layer, then concentrated layer.
What happens here, so sometimes, we have to apply freshwater and then when we have to
take this saline water out and it contains saline or, say, salt and that has to be separated and
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that can be again applied in the other layers to maintain the salinity gradient. And the amount
of heat what is collected from this lower convective zone, that is used for generation of
electricity by using Organic Rankine Cycle.
And this one of the applications which is used for generation of distilled water. So, this is the
solar pond and hot water is supplied to this solar still and here, what happens, evaporation
and condensation takes place. First evaporation, because of this temperature difference, again
condensation will be there and that can be collected. So, distillate can be collected by using
this system and this is nothing but a active solar system integrated with a solar pond.
And there are some operational shortcoming of solar ponds like wind-induced waves. If wind
is there, means there will be waves. So what will happen, there will be mixing of layers. So,
if wind is very, very high, it is not good for the solar pond. And effect of rain is important. If
mild rain is advantageous. If it is heavy rain, then it is not advantageous. So, dilution will
takes place, because salt will, salt will be diffused from the bottom and then it will be diluted.
So, the concentration gradient will not exist. And then biological growth will be there.
Sometimes, if it is a stagnant water, then biological growth, algae, will be developed. So, this
needs to be cleaned periodically to increase the transmissivity. And fouling due to dirt and
leaves, because leaves falls and it accumulates at the bottom and that reduces the efficiency
of the solar pond. And effect of bottom reflectivity is also important and it reduce the
reflectivity to increase the collection temperature.
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And there are another kind of solar pond called solar gel pond. And these gel pond, what
happens, a thick layer of polymer gel floats on the lower convective zone and act as non-
convective zone. This gel is nothing but 98.3% water and 1.7% polyacrylamide, has a very
good optical and thermal insulating properties.
And this project demonstrated at New Mexico, where surface area considered about 400 m2
and depth considered was 5 m and a small concentration is necessary to float the gel on the
top of lower convective zone has been observed. The gel was kept in thin transparent plastic
bags made from Tedlar and floated on the salt solution. The thickness of the gel is about 0.6
m and is designed to supply a minimum of 1 GJ heat per day at 70 oC.
So, if we compare this solar gel pond and salt gradient solar pond, so it is advantageous,
because evaporation loss from the surface are eliminated, then maintenance requirement
reduces and the environment hazards associated with handling salt are eliminated. So, these
are the advantages of solar gel pond.
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So, solar ponds across the globes, so these are some of the installations. Like solar pond
installed at Israel, its capacity is 150 kW as shown here. And second figure is for solar pond
in Gujrat in India, and third photograph is for ORC operated solar pond on Alice Springs in
Australia.
So now, we can summarize what we have discussed today. We have discussed fundamentals
and working principles of solar ponds, which is very, very important, and economical way of
collecting and storing solar thermal energy. And also, we have studied the temperature
profiles and energy balance at different layers, because it composed of three layers, surface
convective zone, then non-convective zone, and lower convective zone.
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And maximum temperature during summer and winter are reported to be about 95 oC and 60
o
C respectively in India. And we have also discussed some of the operational shortcomings
and type of solar ponds and applications. On the top of it, we have studied the stability
criteria, how to calculate the minimum concentration to operate a salt gradient solar pond. So,
thank you very much for watching this video. Hope you have enjoyed this video.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Assistant Professor, Centre for Energy
Lecture 31
Tutorial: Solar Pond Power Plant Design
Dear students, today we will be discussing a tutorial on Thermal Energy Storage. In the tutorial,
we will be specifically discussing on the Solar Pond Power Plant Design.
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So, straight away, we can take the analytical solution for the annual average temperature
variation in a solar pond, which was given by Rabl and Nielson. So, this is the relationship like
TIII  Ta . So, what does it mean, TIII which is equal to annual average temperature in the lower
convective zone and Ta which is nothing but annual average ambient temperature.
Kj
And H g is nothing but in annual average global radiation then K j 
'
, where θ2 is the
cos  2
angle of refraction corresponding to an effective angle of incidence taken on the equinox day, at
14:00 hours local apparent time at the location under consideration. And l2 is the depth of the
pond at the bottom of the non-convicted zone and qload is nothing but annual average heat
extraction rate and k is nothing but thermal conductivity of water.
So, this is the area, so we need to find out the area, if we know other parameters. And Kj values
are already discussed and we will be using those values in solving one of the numerical
problems. Aj values also given to us at different wavelengths, so straight way we can use it. And
τr values has to be calculated at incidence angle, which is specified for the particular location.
So, this analytical solution is normally used for space heating applications and this analytical
solution is one of the simplest solution and is useful for calculating the average performance and
also, it is useful for estimation of area of a solar pond for a given requirement. So, for a given
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location, heat load and annual mean extraction temperature, there is an optimum value of l2
corresponding to which, the pond area is minimum. So, that we need to calculate, because it is
one kind of optimization problem. At what blend we will get the optimized parameters, okay?
So, if we can fix it up, then accordingly we can design other parameters.
So, without delay, we can start a numerical exercise. The exercise goes something like; a solar
pond located in a place having latitude and longitude are 28o 35ʹ North and 77o 12ʹ East, is to be
used for supplying the heat energy input for a low temperature Rankine cycle power unit using
ammonia as working fluid. The unit develops an output of 18 kW, has an energy conversion
efficiency of 8 %.
So, Rankine cycle efficiency is given as 8 % and requires its energy input at an annual mean
temperature of 82 oC. So, I will draw the pond and I will designate which location we want 82
and what is 8 % efficiency. Use the Rabl and Nielsen analysis to calculate the pond area for
values of the depth l2 varies from 1 to 3 m. And we need to show that area is a minimum for a
particular value of l2 and we need to plot the variation of area versus depth of the pond.
The radiation and ambient temperature data of the place given are as follows like, annual average
daily global radiation is 19520 kJ/m2-day and annual average ambient temperature is given as 25
o
C. So, we can use the analytical solution given by Rabl and Nielsen. So, this correlation we can
use.
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So, first let us draw the solar pond. So, we will have sun here, sun ray will fall and we will have
this kind of pond. So, there are 3 layers already we have known. So, this first layer is known as
surface convective zone and second layer is known as non-convective zone and third layer is
known as lower convective zone. And this is applied to reduce the heat losses, of course, this has
to be some kind of insulation kind.
So, solar radiation is falling here and data given to us is something like TIII , which is nothing but
82 oC right. So, what is this temperature? So, maybe we can think of this kind of heat exchanger
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here. And we will think this kind of heat exchanger okay. And this is connected to here and here
we want 82 oC okay. So, already this is given and we will have this Rankine cycle.
In the Rankine cycle, what happens, we need some kind of working fluid, ok. Since, this is a low
temperature operation, then we need some kind of refrigerant or organic fluid. So, what we will
get, this is 18 kW. So, this is turbine, this is condenser, this is pump Wp, so pump work is
neglected here and this is the heat exchanger. So, this hot water goes in the heat exchanger and
exchanges heat with this organic fluid and then fluid will be evaporated or refrigerant will be
evaporated like ammonia, what we have used in this setup or maybe other refrigerant R22 can
also be used.
So, it will evaporate and pressure will rise and will expand in the turbine and electricity will be
generated. So, it is given that 18 kW electricity is generated in this setup and this is a condenser
and pump and it circulates again and again. So, I will now write down, what are the information
given to us. So, this efficiency, Rankine cycle efficiency, so ηRC, which is given as 8 % and
ambient temperature, which is average of the air, it is 25 oC.
And also we know, the annual average global radiation which is given to us, annual average
global radiation global radiation, which is designated by H g which is given as 19520. So, what is
given, we can see here 19520 kJ/m2-day. This is kJ/m2-day. So, we can convert it to W/m2. So, if
will do that, then what we need to do?
So, 19520 ×103, it will be J now, then it is in days so, it is 24 hours and then 3600. So, this will
give Hg in W/m2. So, this is something like 225.92 W/m2, right. So, this is important, we need
manier times this information and also we know power output, which is equal to 18 kW, right
and efficiency of the Rankine cycle is also given it is a 8 %. So, ηRC which is equal to 0.08,
which is equal to, this is power output to the input energy.
So, input energy or power input or I will write it as P input. So, this is nothing but q load or annual
average heat extraction. So, this Pin or P input which is equal to, qload will represent, which is
nothing but P output, which is power output and this will be something like 0.08. So, if we
substitute the value of power output to be 18 kW and this is 0.08, so this will be equal to 225
×103 W.
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So, this is nothing but annual average heat extraction. This is annual average heat extraction. So,
this, we can represent like qload. So, qload is known now and Hg in W/m2, is also known to us.
Now, what we will do, we will calculate θ1. So, that means, let us calculate the values of the
effective angle of incidence and refraction. So, this angle of incidence which is represented by θ1
and this is represented by θ2. And these two values, have to be obtained on the equinox day. So,
equinox day, equinox day, that means δ = 0 and at 14:00 hours, okay 14:00 hours which is LAT,
local apparent time.
And also we know the expression, expression for angle of incidence for horizontal surface and
that has to be for horizontal surface. So, this is something like
cos  sin  sin   cos  cos  cos  . So, if we substitute, say maybe, one we can write, the value
of δ = 0 then equation 1 implies, cos θ is equal to, so here sin 0 is 0, so this expression will be 0,
then this will be cos ϕ then cos 0 is 1 so, it will be cos ω. So, this may be equation 2.
Also, we can calculate the latitude, the latitude ϕ, we can calculate from the given data,
(28+35/60). So, which will be equal to 28.58o and what will be the ω? So, this has to be
calculated 14:00 hours local apparent time, so that means, every 1 hour so, if we consider this
and this is solar noon so, this is 12 hours. So, every 1 hour so, this side means 11 o'clock if we
consider then this will be 15o and this will be positive.
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So, other side, so it may be 13 hours so, it will be 15o, but it is minus; because afternoon. And at
14:00 hours, so it will be -30. So, that is how, it is -30o. So, ω is also known, then ϕ ω is known
and we can use the equation to find out what is θ and this θ is nothing but θ1. So, equation 2
implies, then cos θ, this θ is nothing but θ1, okay.
So, cos 28.58 ×cos (-30). So, if we do the calculation, then θ1 is found to be 40.49o. Now, what
we need to do? We need to find out τr, at this condition.
So, already you know, the expression here what we have shown. So, this τr so, this need to be
calculated. So, let us see, how this can be calculated at that angle?
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So, already we know the Snell’s law and we know this chart. If we know the angle of incidence,
then from that, we can calculate what will be the τr. So, from this Snell’s law, what we can write,
sin 1
will be nothing but the ratios of refractive indices, which will be something like and n2 or
sin  2
μ2 okay. So, maybe n2 I can write here, n2/n1 which is nothing but 1.33.
Because this is the surface convective zone and this is the interface between air and water or
liquid. So, we know the refractive indices and from that, we can calculate the ratio which is equal
to 1.33 and here already we know θ1 and we can calculate what is θ2. So, sin θ2 = sin θ1/1.33 and
from here, we can calculate what is θ2. So, this θ2 = 29, because this will be sin-1 of this value.
So, if we calculate it, it will be 29.22o. And also, we can calculate what is cos θ2, because this
will be requiring in order to calculate Kj. So, this is something like 0.8727 okay and why this is
important? Because we need to calculate Kj′, which is equal to Kj/cos θ2, which is angle of
refraction. So, this Kj, Kj will vary from 1 to 4 means K1, K2, K3, K4. So, everything we need to
consider. So, let us prepare for that, 87 then 27. So, these values are also calculated now.
Now, we need to calculate τr. So, we need to use this table and as we can see 22.92 is θ2 and then
θ1 what we already got is, so I will write θ1 here, θ1 already we have calculated, it is 40.49o. So,
we know the values at 30 and 45. So, we need to calculate at 40.49. So, how to calculate it; by
using interpolation.
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So, by using interpolation, so τr, this is τr at 40.49o which is equal to, first what is data, so this
data this two data are required. So, from for 30 to 45, it is decreasing. So, we have to use
0.979  0.973
negative sign, 0.979  40.49  30 . So, if we do the calculation, then τr = 0.9748.
45  30
So, who is, in between these two okay. So, this τr value at 40.49o is something like this. So, we
need this value for calculation.
Now, we have been given, so this we need to apply, that is why, I kept it here and what is given
thermal conductivity? So, thermal conductivity, k is given which is equal to 0.648 W/m K. Now,
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we know this expression, analytical solution and straight way, we can use the calculator data and
given data. So, using the data, the data, this equation maybe we can write as 3 okay.
0.9748  225.92
So, we know the value of TIII so, this is 82  25  and now, we need to use many
0.648
parameters here.
A
          0.648 225  10 
3
A A A l
So,  1' 1  e k1l2  2' 1  e k2 l2  3' 1  e k3 l2  4' 1  e k4 l2
' ' ' '
2
 .

 K1 K2 K3 K4   Ap 
So, if we simplify it, then what we will have? So, quickly I can write it, so (82 -25)=
347222.22
57   339.85 .
Ap
Now, we will substitute, and these values are known to us, these values are known to us and of
Kj
course, we know this Kj′ is, already we have done. Let us show what is this? K 'j  . So,
cos 2
that way we know what is Kj here and these values A1, A2, A3, A4; all the values are known to us.
Kj Kj
So, Kj will be we have which is nothing but .
cos  2 0.8727
So, these values are already given, so we can use those values. So, if we use those values, then
this will simplifies something like, I will first expression I will show, then later on we will
straightway use our spreadsheet,
 
 0.237  
0.032
l2  0.193  
0.45
l2  0 .167  
3
l2  0.179  
35
l2 
 0.032 1  e
0.8727   0.8727   0.8727   0.8727 
  0.45 1  e   3 1  e   35 1  e  .
        
 0.8727 0.8727 0.8727 0.8727 
So, so, once we do the calculation, then what we will get, let us write the expression.
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So, it will be something like 57  347222.22 147.79 . This is very long calculation. So, we can also
Ap
try, so if we now calculate Ap = 3824.53 m2 okay. So, what we got when l2 = 1 m, okay. So, in
this expression, we got the data and then we have substituted l2 = 1 m. So, once we have
substituted l2 = 1 m, then what we got, Ap = 3824.53 m2.
So, we need to do the calculation for l2 = 1.5 m, l2 = 2 m, l2 = 2.5 m then l2 = 3 m. Then, we can
find out, at what depth we get the minimum area. So, that means, at that minimum area, we will
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get the 18 kW of power from this solar pond power plant. So now, let us use spreadsheet here, so
that you can get the idea, how this can be calculated and we need to plot as well.
So, I have done this calculation in this spreadsheet and these values A1, A2, A3, A4, these are
fixed; K1, K2, K3, K4 are fixed. Then we use A1/K1, A2/K2, A3/K3, A4/K4 then we use that
expression what we have just now made it. These are the expressions and we have multiplied
with it then we got the data. Now, this calculation if we substitute 1 here, l2 = 1 then what
happens, see 2822 but in our calculation, what we got is 3824.
So, this may be some kind of error we made during the calculations and there might be some
round off error and all. And, if we substitute say 1.5, so, maybe 1.5 see what happens so, it is
3543.097, this is 3543.09 approximately it is 7. Then we will change the value to 2 and see what
happens, we get a value of 3503.984. So, which is something like 3503.983617 to be precise, and
again we can change to 2.5.
Let us see that, what happens? 2.5 and it comes to be something like 3534.529. And again we
can change the values of l2, which is equal to 3. Let us take 3 here and see what happens. So, we
got a value of 35921.31 or so, okay. So, if we take the values now and try to draw it, then see
what happens here okay. So, vertical axis shows the pond area and this horizontal axis shows the
depth in m. So, with increase in depth, so this l2 means; what?
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So, here so, this is the pond. So, this is the surface convective zone, then this is non-convective
zone and this is the lower convective zone. So, maybe I will surface convective zone. So, this l2
is nothing but, this is l2, okay.
Here what happens, minimum is found to be at l = 2 meter. So, it is decreasing and then
minimum, we found that too and then again it is increasing. And also sometimes, if we are
interested about process heat application, then we can calculate the collection efficiency, which
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is annual collection efficiency. So, depth we have and then area we know and then we can
calculate, annual collection efficiency.
So, I can write it here, how this annual collection efficiency can be expressed, annual collection
qload
efficiency, collection efficiency. So, which can be expressed as c  . Since, we know the
I  Ap
optimum values, maybe any values we can take, maybe for l is equal to 1 or 2 or maybe 3, then
we can see what will be the value of annual collection efficiency.
225  103
So,  28.42 % . So that way, we can calculate the collection efficiency.
225.92  3503.98
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Now, let us go back again to the spreadsheet and develop the chart which shows the variation of
annual collection efficiency with respect to depth. So, at l = 1 m, we get 26.05 %, 1.5 m, we get
28.1 % and at depth 2 m, we get about 28.42 %, what we have shown in the presentation and if
we increase depth to 2.5 then its efficiency decreases. See at 3, it is 27.72 so, we have to go for
this value.
So, l2 = 2 m is the optimum value for maximization of annual collection efficiency as well as the
performance of the solar plant. So, that is how, it is shown here. So, it is starting from 1 and it is
increasing and then it reaches a maximum at 2 and then decreases. So, this depth is optimum, and
this surface area is the optimum surface area for getting the maximum performance.
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So, thank you very much for your attention. Hope you have learnt, how to design a solar pond
power plant and this kind of problems are very, very practical. So, thank you very much for your
attention.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Center for Energy
Lecture 32
Emerging Solar Energy Technologies
Dear students, today we will be discussing about emerging solar energy technologies which
includes emerging cell technologies, photovoltaic thermal technologies, solar fuel
technologies. Under emerging cell technologies, we will have perovskite solar cells, organic
solar cells, dye-sensitized solar cells and quantum dot solar cells. So, attempt of the
researcher is to increase the conversion efficiency at lower cost for these solar technologies.
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So, we will move on. So, first come to the perovskite solar cells. So, this perovskite is
calcium titanium oxide, CaTiO3 mineral and it was discovered in 1839 in the Ural Mountains
of Russia and named after the Russian mineralogist, L. A. Perovski, so he is here. He is the
guy who has first invented. The ability of halide perovskite to convert electricity to light was
initially discovered in 1990s in the LED configuration; while light to electricity conversion
was reported almost two decades later.
A perovskite solar cell use organic-inorganic metal halide perovskite as photon absorber
layer. The term perovskite is used to describe a group of compounds characterized by the
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general formula ABX3. So, if you see this figure, from that it can be concluded that what is
A? A is an organic cation; its chemical formula is something like CH3NH3+ and B is a metal
cation or inorganic cation.
So, it’s may be Sn2+ or may be Pb2+ and X is a halide anion; may be Cl- or Br- or maybe I-.
So, if we see, its chemical formula will be something like this. It is a perovskite is a
semiconducting compound with a direct bandgap of 1.55 eV. So, why it is so important? We
must know the properties of CH3NH3PbX3. So, let us see the properties. So, this perovskite is
a strong absorption across the visible range of solar spectrum.
It is a long carrier diffusion length of 1 µm. It has weak excitation binding energy of 45 meV.
A low charge recombination rate.
The device structure of PSC, that is perovskite solar cell is derived from the dye sensitized
solar cell which is abbreviated as DSSC; where the dye material is replaced with perovskite
material. In 2009, PSC started with an efficiency of just 3.8 %. So, this PSC has recorded an
efficiency of 22.1 % in 2017. You see, how fast it attains a very high conversion efficiency.
So, that is why this PSC is one of the fastest advancing solar technology.
So, what are different techniques used for making these perovskite solar cells? May be spin
coating, may be spray coating, may be dip coating or may be vapor deposition technique.
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What are the advantages of the solar cell? So, this method of preparation is easy and it has
high Voc, so it is about 1.1 volt. What are the problems to be addressed in order to utilize this
perovskite for large scale application?
Instability in atmosphere or humidity is a primary concern and cell area requirement would
be large compared to other solar cells and this lead, Pb is toxic. So, this figure shows the
structure of perovskite solar cell. As you can see, we will have this electrode, gold, then HTL
is hole transport layer and then we will have electron transport layer and then we will have
compact TiO2 then TCO anode and then glass. So, this kind of configurations is present in
case of perovskite solar cells.
So, if we see the rising efficiency trend, what we can see, it has got quick momentum to
achieve a very high conversion efficiency. So, it was started in 2009 and see how fast it
attains more than 20 % power conversion efficiency. And also we can see, current density
versus voltage, so this blue color line is for forward scan and red color line is for reverse
scan. So, what we can see here, it’s conversion efficiency is about 22.1 %.
So, there are many configurations what we can see and also we can see the conversion
efficiency starting from 2009. So, in 2007, it attains an efficiency of 22.1 %.
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And this figure shows the comparison of the perovskite solar cells with other solar cell
technologies. So, vertical axis shows power conversion efficiency and horizontal axis shows
years. As you can see, the development of all those solar cells, they are very steadily
increasing; but if we look into the perovskite solar cells, you see, the rate of increase of
power conversion efficiency with time is very very high.
And this slide shows the maximum photon energy utilization for common single junction
Voc
solar cells. If we compare this perovskite solar cells and if we have , that is bandgap in
Eg
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percentage and with respect to perovskite, what we can see, this perovskite is having very
good photon energy utilization compared to other solar cell material, except gallium arsenide
as we understand, it is having very high conversion efficiency, but cost is very, very high.
So, what we are looking for, we need high conversion efficiency at lower cost as far as third
generation solar cells are concerned.
So, we will see now what happens in case of dye sensitized solar cells. So, in case of dye
sensitized solar cells, it consists of four components. First component is semiconducting
electrode, second component is dye sensitizer then third component is redox mediator and
fourth component is counter electrode. These are the four components we require for dye
sensitized solar cells.
So, if we need to know how it works. A dye sensitized solar cell is a low cost solar cell
belongs to the group of thin film solar cells. It is based on a semiconductor formed between a
photo sensitized anode and an electrolyte, a photo-electrochemical system.
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So, what are the advantage of this dye sensitized solar cells? It is having lower production
cost, it has got design opportunities, it is flexible, it’s a light weight and feedstock available
to reach terawatt scale, lot of raw materials are available for this kind of cells and bi-facial
cells capture light from all angles. So, that is very good advantage of this kind of solar cells
and it outperforms competitor for indoor application.
Now, let us learn quickly what is quantum dot solar cells? So, quantum dots are extremely
small size semi conductor material. It is also known as artificial atoms; it is a nanoparticle.
The size of the dot determines the bandgap. The quantum dot is a zero dimensional system,
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where electron motion is confined in three dimensions. How it works? The light rays enter
through the transparent electrode of a quantum dot solar cell on to a light absorbing layer of
dots in order to generate electron-hole pair.
The charged particles then separate and eventually travel to their respective electrodes
producing electric current, so which is shown in this figure. The transparent cover and then
solar radiation has to be observed and then electron has to be separated. So, we can learn this
figure as well. So, since we have learned many things about, how this semiconductor works,
so there is no point of discussing the things here again.
So, this is a transparent glass cover, it travels and it absorbs, because that has to be absorbed,
then hole and electron pair will be generated and then if electric field is generated by
providing external voltage, then we can generate electricity.
Now, what are the advantages of this quantum dot solar cells? Due to their tuneable property,
quantum dots are integrated in various types of solar cells to increase the power efficiency.
They are used as alternative to molecular dyes in dye sensitized solar cells and cost of
fabrication is significantly lower in this case of solar cell. And these nanoparticles which is
used here in quantum dot solar cells, proved to be promising candidate for scalable high
efficiency and low cost solar cells.
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Now, come to the PVT collectors, what is the need of this PVT collectors and what are the
difficulties associated with PV collector? So, before we start with the difficulties and then
probable solutions, let us have a look about the importance of this part of the system. That
solar energy is the most prominent renewable energy sources due to its availability around the
globe which is clearly understood by now.
The annual energy potential from solar energy is about 23,000 TW yearly and this solar
photovoltaic technology is widely accepted everywhere. And this figure, what we can see
with time, the rise in solar photovoltaic energy generation, we can see here. It is huge in
2008, it is about 177 GW of energy which is already produced by solar energy. Now, this
spectrum is also familiar to you, it shows the radiation intensity versus wavelength.
So, this wavelength, visible range is used for PV conversion and this is the structure of the
PV if we cut the PV module and we will have this kind of things; like we will have first glass
then we have transparent conductive oxides, TCO metal grids and then we will have solar
cells and then we will have back metal contact then tedler. And then solar radiation is
received here in this absorber or in the solar cell where the solar cell is located.
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And some part of radiation is reflected back and there are some losses like convective losses
and radiative losses, and from the bottom also heat losses will be taking place; so the amount
of heat goes off is significant.
So, what are the shortcomings of PV modules? So, this figure shows the power versus
temperature. As you can see here, with increase in temperature this power decreases, that is
power means this power delivered by the PV modules or PV cells. And this figure shows the
effect of temperature on this open circuit voltage and short circuit current. At the same time,
we can see the variation of power with respect to the voltage.
So, if you follow this blue line which is at 0 oC, so Voc is maximum. When temperature
increases from 0 to 25 then 25 to 50 then 50 to 75, we can see the change of Voc. Since we
know that this power developed by the PV cell or module is a function of open circuit
voltage. So, if this decreases, then power delivered by the PV cell or module decreases, so it
is a concern.
So, how to reduce this effect? If we can do something by providing cooling effect to maintain
the temperature, at say 25 oC, then what we are expected; we are expected higher conversion
efficiency. So, problem is increasing temperature of the module means decreasing electrical
efficiency. For single crystalline silicon cell and polycrystalline silicon cells, this efficiency
decreases about 0.45 % per degree increase in temperature.
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And for amorphous silicon, it is about 0.25 % per degree increase in temperature. So, how to
overcome the issues faced by usual PV modules? So, one option is by providing cooling
effect, by using some arrangement at the beneath of the PV module. So, this is a PV module.
At the back side, if we make some kind of arrangement which provides some kind of cooling
effect, that actually increases the utility of thermal energy as well as increases the electrical
conversion efficiency.
So, this photovoltaic thermal system is a combination of photovoltaic panel and thermal
collector for cogeneration. So, by doing this what we can get, we can get improved electrical
efficiency as well as we will get some kind of useful heat gain, which can be applied for
different applications. So, for example, the space heating and domestic hot water generation
together constitute nearly 50 % of global thermal energy consumption.
So, if we can make this kind of management, so we can of course, contribute here for
providing hot water by using the same PV technology, if we insert one channel just beneath
to the PV module.
So, the experimental electrical efficiency increases from 9.8 % to 12.5 % by providing
cooling effect in the PV module. So, if we consider this is a PV module, so some fluid is
injected just beneath of the PV module and hot fluid can be taken out from the other end and
that can be used for different thermal applications and by doing so, what we can get, we can
increase the electrical conversion efficiency.
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This is another structure, that is called Honeycomb heat exchanger. So, this structure what
happens, thermal efficiency without Honeycomb is about 27 % and with Honeycomb, it is
reported to be 87 %. So, this is the PV module and this just beneath of the PV module.
Another configuration is graphite filled PV/T. So, here electrical efficiency with graphite is
found to be about 7.25 % whereas without graphite, it was about 6.46 %.
Also impinging jets for cooling PV has been reported in many of the literature; it is found
that air is introduced in one end of the PV and collect from the other end and this provides a
cooling effect to the PV and as reported, an overall efficiency of 54.5 has been achieved by
doing this configuration.
So, what we have done here at IIT Guwahati? So, we have purchased one PV module and
then we have done something just beneath to the PV module and we tried to see how this can
be used as a PV/T module. So, for this arrangement, for calculation or to investigate the
performance of this module, what we have done, we have made some kind of arrangement
like we have a pump attached with a flow meter, so that regulated amount of fluid can be
injected through the tubes which is placed beneath of the PV module.
And then we will have IV tracer, then temperature gun, then pyranometer, and then data
acquisition system to monitor the temperature at different locations. So, this is the photograph
of the experimental facility what we have developed at IIT Guwahati and the kind of
instruments used and then their measuring parameters are shown in this table, like
pyranometer is used for global radiation.
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And thermocouples and data acquisition systems are used for fluid inlet and outlet
temperature, PV surface temperature, absorber temperature, ambient temperature and PV
analyzer is used for maximum voltage measurement and IV curve tracer is used for maximum
current measurement and temperature gun is used for cell temperature.
Also we have developed one indoor facility because every time we will not get the amount of
solar insolation required for testing. So, we have developed a setup so that we can perform
the experiments in the lab itself. So, these lights are installed at a particular light, that was
optimized and then PV module to be tested is installed here and then other measurement
techniques are installed.
And then we will have data acquisition system to measure all those parameters. And of
course, we have IV analyzer from where we can get Vm, Im, I and these two, Ts and Ta as
well. So, once we know these parameters, then we can calculate the performance of the PV/T
collector at different irradiance. And this is the actual setup photograph what we have
developed for the performance investigation of PV/T module.
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Also we have to know how to calculate electrical efficiency? So, once we know this Vm and
Im and then amount of solar radiation which is falling on the collector and then area of the
collector, so this is the area of the collector and this G is nothing but W/m2 and this is in volt,
in ampere and this is in m2. So, W/m2 × m2 is W and at that top also, it is W.
So, both numerator and denominator will be W, so finally it is a dimensionless. So, by using
this equation, we can calculate what will be the electrical efficiency of the PV module. And
then we can calculate thermal efficiency, once we know this inlet and outlet temperature of
the fluid and specific heat of the fluid and then mass of the fluid which is circulated through
the tubes, then we know what is qu and this part is always known to us, because we have
pyranometer and area is fixed.
So, from that we can calculate what is thermal efficiency and if we have to say about overall
efficiency or energy efficiency, it is a combination of both electrical efficiency as well as
thermal efficiency. So, if we add it, it will be something like this. And next may be, we are
interested about exergy efficiency of a PV/T. So, how we can calculate it? So, Exout and
Exin , so what is Exin ?
So, Exin can be calculated by using this expression and Exout compose of two things,
electrical and thermal. And again, electrical part, we can use this expression and for thermal
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part, we can use this expression. So, once we know this temperature values and then qu, from
there we can calculate what is exergy for thermal part and if we know Vm and Im, we can
calculate what is exergy in the electrical part. So, by doing this calculation, we can calculate
what is the exergy efficiency of a PV/T module.
Also there is emerging technology if we develop some kind of substance which can provide
uniform temperature and that too stable. So, that is a very good idea. So, already we have
initiated this kind of work. So, work is something like we have collected some kind of
biomass. So, for our case it was water hyacinth and then we have pyrolyze it at certain
conditions, temperature, heating rate and then holding time.
And we have generated biochar and we have added this biochar with paraffin wax and we
have maintained some kind of proportions and finally we have done some kind of analysis
and what we got, is a very good composite material for energy storage. So, this material was
applied in the PV/T collector. So, we can see here, how we applied this and finally we get
this kind of configurations.
And we have tested in both indoor and outdoor experiments. And it is found that, this is
giving a very good result as far as stability and control of temperature is concerned. So, this
two figures shows some kind of properties which is investigated for this analysis.
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Now come to the solar fuel technology. So, this solar fuel technologies use sunlight, water,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen from the air to produce fuels. Solar fuels technologies are
analogous to natural photosynthesis, where plants make fuels from sunlight. The solar energy
can be captured and stored directly in the chemical bonds of a material or fuel and then used
when needed.
These chemical fuels in which energy from the sun has been stored are called solar fuels.
What is new here is not the fuel themselves, but the way that we can see energy from the sun
to produce them. The word fuel is used in a broad sense, it refers not only to fuel for transport
and electricity generation, but also feedstock used in industries.
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Now, have a look into this figure, so which represent solar fuel technology. So, what we can
see here is, sunlight is used to split water into H2 and O2. So, if we consider H2O which splits
and convert H2 and O2. So, energy required for this reaction is given by Gibbs free energy
and it has a value of G = 237.2 kJ/mol. So, this hydrogen can be used as a transportation fuel.
Also another way of storage of solar fuel is something like if we can store methane, which is
easier than hydrogen. So, already we know the water shift reaction or water gas shift reaction
something like, H2 + CO2 → H2O + CO. So, this gas mixture is known as synthesis gas and
that can be refined to finally obtain methane. So, finally what it will have, CO react with H2,
it will form CH4 + H2O.
So, this CH4 can be stored. So, whenever required so this methane will combust or we have to
provide oxygen, sufficient oxygen for combustion, so it will generate CO2 + H2O. So, what
happens now here, this sunlight is used to produce carbon based fuel from CO2 and H2O. So,
here it is shown here, so once we have this carbon based fuel, that can be combusted and we
can produce energy out of it; or maybe we can generate fertilizer, plastic, pharmaceuticals,
synthetic fuel for transportation.
So, here in this case what happens, hydrogen and simple carbon based fuel are used as raw
material or feedstock by many industries. So, what I mean to say here, so we can split
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hydrogen and that can be used as transportation fuel, or we can generate methane and that can
be combusted and again we can generate lot of product out of it. So, solar fuels if we talk
about then hydrogen which can be stored.
And then second component is methane like carbon based fuel such as methane or may be
carbon dioxide or may be methanol. So, these two can be stored and that can be applied
wherever required for different applications.
So, this artificial photosynthesis in which systems made by human beings mimic the natural
process. So, already we know what happens when sunlight falls. In presence of sunlight,
water and carbon dioxide converted to oxygen and fuel. This is something like glucose which
is stored in the plant matter. So, reverse what we need to do for artificial photosynthesis.
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So, what are the advantages of solar fuel technology? Hydrogen or carbon based feedstock
such as carbon monoxide and methane could be produced from sunlight, water and carbon
dioxide. So, this would provide an alternative to natural gas, oil and coal as raw material.
Solar energy would also replace fossil fuel derived energy in the production process, what we
can understand now.
So, if we pay attention about artificial photosynthesis, what happens, so this process mimics
nature with inorganic semiconductor materials that are able to split a water molecule into
oxygen and hydrogen using the energy of sunlight. So, input is sunlight and then we have
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artificial photosynthesis then product is solar fuel like hydrogen or may be carbon based fuel
and finally we have transportation fuel or raw material for industry or may be electricity
generation.
What we have already understood and this is the pathway of artificial photosynthesis from
sunlight to fuel. So, what are challenges in artificial photosynthesis? So, first challenge is
integrating the different processes and materials involved, from capturing and channeling
sunlight for producing chemical fuels. And then second challenge is identifying inexpensive
catalyst to drive different aspect of the process. And third challenge is developing ways to
avoid the system degradation.
So, now let us discuss about water splitting. So, what happens for storing solar energy as
chemical energy in the form of hydrogen, water splitting can be used. So where, H2O → H2 +
O2. So, already we have discussed, the energy required for this reaction is given by Gibbs
free energy and it has a value of about 237.2 kJ/mol. This solar water splitting, the energy
required for water splitting is come from sun.
So, there are different methods of water splitting. So, one is electrolysis of water and other
one is photo electrochemical water splitting.
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So, now let us learn about electrolysis of water. So, this method is known as Hofman
Voltameter lab scale method. What happens, there are three tubes. First tube is cathode and
then this tube is anode and in between we will have water reservoir. So, this has to be filled
with time and initial energy required will be supplied from this solar array. So, at the anode
reaction will be, H2O → ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e- and this will be in the electrolyte.
And this will retained in the anode and at the cathode, 2H+ + 2e- → H2. And overall reaction
will be something like, H2O → ½ O2 + H2. So, here cathode material is Pt and has an overall
potential of about 0.07 V and anode material is Ni and overall potential of about +0.56 V and
here is the cathode is -0.07 V.
So, if we combine these two voltages here and here; the over potentials, we can understand
that the typical over potential is usually around 0.8 V. For an over potential is of 0.08, then an
efficiency of around 60 % will be there in that conversion system. And if we consider the PV
conversion efficiency is 18 %, then solar to hydrogen efficiency will be multiplication of 0.18
and 0.6; what we will get is about 10.9 %.
So, if we have over potential of 8 V and under that condition, we will get an efficiency of 60
% for the internal process. And then if we consider PV efficiency of 18 %, then overall
efficiency will be 10.9 %.
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And quickly let us learn what is photo electrochemical water splitting. So, the photons reach
the surface of the photo electrode, this is a photo electrode which is made of a photoactive
semiconductor. It creates electron hole pair. The electrons and holes will be separated by an
electric field and both will be used in the two half reactions involved in the overall water
splitting process. To generate the required electrical field, a voltage source is required.
And this voltage source is nothing, but solar PV energy. The photo electrode can be either an
anode or a cathode which is shown here. So, this is about bandgap of this photo
electrochemical water splitting process. So, you can see the bandgap of different level.
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So, requirements for semiconductor material for this photo electrochemical water splitting
are, it has to absorb the light, that is incident on its surface. The charge carrier transport inside
the material and the separation into the two electrodes must be efficient. It has been estimated
that materials with an energy bandgap close to 2.1 eV have the potential to split water.
The energy level of the reactions have to be located somewhere in the energy bandgap of the
semiconductor. To further enhance the reaction, a catalyst may be added to the
semiconductor surface. It is important to use materials that are photo chemically stable and
relatively cheap.
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And also have a look about the IV characteristics curve of this system. So, this is the current
density and this is the open circuit voltage and if you see it goes something like this. So, this
cross section point is considered and this is the current density and this is the potential. And
this is the operating point of the system and the overall solar to hydrogen conversion
J ph 1.23V
efficiency can be expressed something like this,  STH  .
Pm
So, this is the current density which is mA/cm2 and we will have this 1.23V and P is the
irradiance arriving at the PEC. So here, this conversion efficiency is a function of current
density. So, higher the operational current, that is current density, the more hydrogen is
produced and the higher device efficiency. So, if we can increase this value, then it is
expected to get higher overall solar to hydrogen conversion efficiency.
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So, there are some challenges in large scale production of solar fuels. What are the different
challenges, is the efficiency. So, how to increase the efficiency of those systems; then
durability, so lifetime has to be increased. And third point is cost effectiveness. So, how to
reduce the cost of the system.
So, let us summarize what we have discussed today. Primarily we have discussed emerging
cell technologies which includes perovskite solar cell, organic solar cells, dye sensitize solar
cells, quantum dot cells. And also we have discussed photovoltaic thermal technologies, what
is the need, what is the importance of this kind of technologies for enhancing the electrical
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efficiency. And also we can get thermal energy out of it. And also we have studied the
different techniques for harvesting solar energy as a solar fuel. So, thank you very much for
watching this video.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Center for Energy
Indian Institute of Technology – Guwahati
Lecture 33
Solar Energy Applications
Dear students, today, we will be discussing about solar energy applications. Basically, we
will be discussing about solar thermal applications.
Start with solar distillation followed by solar cookers, solar refrigeration and air conditioning
systems, solar space heating and cooling, solar thermal devices for low medium and high
temperature applications. So, without delay let us start solar distillation and what is the need
of solar distillation. So, before we understand the need, let us study few important issues.
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First issue is water crisis. As per World Health Organization, around 2.1 billion people across
the globe do not have access to clean water and approximately 844 billion do not even have
access to clean potable water. And second important issue is pollution and health. With
growing surface water pollution, arsenic and fluoride contamination in groundwater posing a
series health threat.
And third issue is salinity. Increasing salinity of the groundwater may pose another serious
threat, especially in Asian countries. So, there are many purification methods normally
adopted like RO purification, ultrafiltration, ultraviolet purification and activated carbon filter
purification; these are common in the market. So, these methods are costly and energy
intensive what we can see.
So, now we need a solution which can be affordable by the rural mass. So, we need a
technology for that. So, now we can realize the need of a low cost solar distillation system,
which is known as solar distillation. This solar distillation can become a useful process in
rural and remote areas suffering from acute water crisis due to the contamination of
groundwater and the surface reserves either by natural or by anthropogenic reasons.
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So, now let us discuss about principle and classification of solar distillation. Solar distillation
is a process of producing purified liquid by evaporating the liquid and condensing its vapor.
The solar distillation follows hydrological cycle of nature. So, this solar distillation can be
classified broadly into two classes; passive solar still and active solar still. Again this passive
solar still can be classified into two categories, called conventional single slope solar still and
conventional double slope solar still.
Again further, this conventional double slope solar still can be classified into two categories;
symmetric and non-symmetric. Under active solar still, we will have two categories; high
temperature distillation and nocturnal distillation. And under high temperature distillation
again, we have two categories, one is auxiliary heating distillation and other one is distillation
with collector or concentrating solar collector.
So, what are the different elements of a solar still? Like we need incoming solar radiation
from where energy is coming and that will be utilized for evaporating water from a solar still
then water evaporation, production from brine then condensation of water vapor. So, finally
we need to collect the condensate. So, what we can see here in the figure, so this is nothing
but a typical solar still which is of this class; like conventional double slope solar still and it is
a symmetric one.
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So, what we can see here, it is a symmetric, because if you cut it here, so both side will be
similar or identical we should say and this is glass cover. Sometimes plastics are also used for
this purpose. So, sunray or energy from the sun comes here and strikes the brackish water. Of
course, we will have an absorber plate at the base of this solar still and above it, we will have
brackish water.
So, we need to maintain some height, say 5 to 6 cm from the water level to the start of this
slope. So, when solar radiation is falling in the solar still, what will happen? This water
present in the solar still will evaporate and it will strike on this glass cover. So, as soon as it
strikes, what will happen? It will slip because when solar radiation is received here, so may
be what we can water temperature here and maybe we can say it is ambient temperature.
So, this Tw is more than ambient temperature and this will evaporate and strike on this glass
cover and it will slip off and finally this can be collected in the collector point. So, while
analyzing, there are many components involved in this solar still. Because there will be
losses, from the top of the glass cover. It may be radiation losses and then it may be
convective losses.
And same amount of energy which is going through this glass cover and striking on this
absorber as well as this water, it will evaporate and then it will condense; because
temperature here in the glass cover is different than what is outside the glass cover. And
finally this condensate can be collected for different applications. This may be applied for
removing heavy metal present in groundwater or may be this water can be used for battery
used in solar PV system, because we need distilled water for batteries.
Also we can see here, this is thermal resistance diagram showing the different losses. So, up
to here, this is Tg is glass, so this is the glass cover and then above it, there are some losses
convective and radiative losses and then evaporation losses will be there and then from the
bottom, we will have bottom losses. So, this information are required while we are interested
about heat transfer analysis, which includes overall top loss coefficient, overall bottom loss
coefficient and finally overall total loss coefficient.
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Now, let us study the performance analysis of solar distillation. So, if we are interested about
hourly distillate yield per m2 from a solar distillation unit, then we can use this expression.
So, this is the hourly distillate output which is in kg/m2-hr. So, this is the expression. If we
know evaporative heat transfer coefficient from the water surface to the glass cover and then
water temperature and glass temperature and if we know this latent heat of evaporation.
Then straightaway we can calculate hourly distillate output. So, sometimes we might be
interested to know daily yield. So, if we are interested for daily yield, then we have to sum up
the distillate generated per hour. Now as far as thermal efficiency is concerned, we can apply
this expression for investigation of thermal efficiency of a solar still or distillation unit. This
Qe is the useful heat gain and A is the area of the collector and I is the solar intensity.
So, we can expand this Qe  mv C pw Tsat  Tw   mv L ; because latent heat of evaporation or
vaporization need to be considered in the study. So, since we know the values of all this
temperature and mv which is nothing but distillate output and here mv is in kg/s. So,
dimensionally this will be dimensionless and η will be in percentage. So, in Indian climate,
output of this solar distillation unit various from 5 L/m2-day which is in summer.
And in case of winter, a very low value of distillate output has been observed which is less
than 1 L/m2-day. So, there is a need of investigating the different operating parameters which
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influences the performance of a solar distillation. Of course, we need to know the other
design parameters.
So, now we will study, the influence of design and climatic parameters on the performance of
solar distillation. So, what are the design parameters? First is physical properties of the
material used in the construction, orientation of the still. So, we have to be very particular
about the orientation of the still, tilt angle of the cover, space between the cover and the water
surface; if it is very large then it will be very difficult to evaporate.
So, we need to optimize the height between the cover and the water surface, then base
insulation, absorptance transmittity or transmittance properties and effect of salt
concentration then effect of water depth and black dyes. Because black dyes are applied to
maximize the absorption of solar radiation. So, normally this brackish water these are saline
water, that is why it is called salt concentration or it tells about salt concentration.
And what are the different climatic parameters which influences the performance of solar
distillation like solar insolation which is primary, then ambient air temperature, wind speed,
humidity and sky conditions.
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Now, let us move to the box type solar cooker. So, what is solar cookers and what are
different components? So, as we can see, by using solar energy we can cook food. So, the
device used for this purpose is nothing, but solar cooker. So, here we can see different
components like we will have blackened aluminum trays here and then we will have this kind
of pots. These are cooking pots, where rice and all is introduced and it is packed.
And these are glass cover and then reflector mirror. So, solar radiation falls here directly and
some of the solar radiation which is striking on this reflected or reflector mirror is also
contributes in rising the temperature of the substance which is placed in the trays and
sufficient number of insulations are provided to reduce the heat losses. So, in this kind of
systems, a maximum of 100 oC can be obtained.
So, this kind of cookers are suitable for cooking of variety of food items where solar radiation
is significant. So, it is suitable for a non pressure boiling type of cooking. The maximum
cooking temperature is approximately 100 oC. The cooking period is generally between 11
am and 2 pm under clear sky conditions throughout the year. The inner area of the box may
be about 0.36 m2. The body is made of light weight fiber reinforce plastic, which is known as
FRP material.
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So, there are community type solar cookers. What happens here, there are set of reflectors.
So, solar radiation received in the reflector, it is reflected to this surface and where intense
heat is generated and pot is placed here for cooking. And this is called secondary reflector
here after receiving the energy from the large reflector. So, this kind of systems are quite
popular in community cooking in different places.
So, for example, its capacity varies. So, for example, this solar cooker can be employed for
cooking of food for group of people like about 15,000 persons per day. So, number of
reflectors required is about 106 to meet that kind of demand and each of the reflector is
having an area of 9.2 m2 and this reflector material is acrylic mirror. So, this reflector
materials and this output is something like 4,000 kg of steam per day at 180 oC and 10 bar.
So, that much of steam is generated and that much of steam is capable to prepare cook for
person like about 15,000 per day. So, one more invention is cookers with storage. So, what is
the disadvantage of this kind of community cooker? We cannot store energy. So, this is valid
when sufficient solar radiation is received at the particular location and only day time
cooking is possible.
But if people are interested about cooking at night by using this kind of solar cooker, then this
kind of technology will not work. So, we need some kind of storage device when excess
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energy is generated and that can be utilized at night for cooking of foods. So, that falls under
advanced cooking or advanced cooker with storage.
So, let us pay attention about thermal analysis of solar cooker. So, in a solar cooker the initial
operation is transient before attaining a stagnation temperature of 100 oC. Because it will
maintain at 100 oC. Hence, quasi-steady state thermal modeling is performed in this case and
there are some assumptions. So what are assumptions? Like there is on stratification in water
column, that means temperature is uniform in the vessel throughout.
The bottom of the cooking pot is in contact with the inner surface of the cooker, that we can
understood now. The physical properties of the cooking material and the water are the same.
So, these are the assumptions used for the analysis of solar cooker. So, if we are interested to
develop energy balance of the solar cooker, we can write straightaway. So, this is the amount
of energy utilized and this is the amount of energy received and this is the amount of energy
lost from the cooker.
So, solar collector efficiency factor is normally considered to be 0.85. So, this is F′ is
something called solar collector efficiency factor. With a very involved way, we can simplify
this expression to this expression. So, we have not done anything, just we have reorient some
of the expressions so that our analysis becomes easier. And after integrating the above
equation with initial conditions at t = 0 and Tw = Two which is the initial temperature.
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So, we can develop this expression which is very very straightforward. So, we can get this
kind of expression, and we can define time constant which is to 

MC w . Also we can
F ' Ap U L
express this expression in terms of t. So, after what time it will be steady state. So, we can
modify this expression and it will be something like this. So, if we know these values Tw, Ta,
IT, UL, (τα)av, that is absorptivity and transmissivity average term and to, we can calculate the
time at which it will attain quasi steady state position.
Now, let us take an example to understand what we have discussed now. Calculate the time
taken for the water at 45 oC to boil in a solar cooker with the following specification. So, (ατ)
= 0.7 and F′ =0.85, UL = 6 and AP = 0.36 m2, (MC)w = 4 × 4190 J/ oC and Ta is given as 20
o
C, Two = 45 and Tw is 100 and IT is 1000.
So, when it says 1000, that includes both the component. One component is coming from the
reflector, it is reflector and another component is directly falling on the absorber. So, here
may be it is reflector may be 600 and may be here is 400. So, (600 + 400) = 1,000 W/m2 is
the total amount of radiation received by the blackened surface of the solar cooker. Now
straightaway we can calculate what is time constant first.
So, we know the expression for to, then we can substitute those values which is given to us in
this problem and what we can get the value of to = 9129 s and then we can calculate the time.
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So, time taken for water to boil. So, if we substitute then what we will get, this will be
something like this and it will be about 1 hour. So, in 1 hour time, we can cook the food, if
the initial water temperature is 45 oC.
Now, let us discuss something about solar desiccant cooling. So, here what happens, we have
to use some kind of descant like silica gel and air is introduced and moisture is trapped then
we have to have heat exchanger and then we need to use humidifier and while coming back
then we have to use solar collector; because we have to regenerate the material used for
desiccant. So, what happens air is dried when passing through a desiccant like silica.
Then water is sprayed into the air as it evaporates, the air is cooled and humidified, such that
it guarantees optimal interior conditions. So, here interior conditions and while coming back,
air that leaves the interior is heated up using a solar collector, what you can see here. The hot
air stream through the desiccant, this hot air and this is a desiccant. So, hot air streams
through the desiccant and hence the desiccant is dried and can be reused for absorbing
humidity. So, for regeneration, this solar collector is used here.
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So, now we will discuss two very important technologies for utilization of solar thermal
energy for providing refrigeration and air conditioning. So, first let us study aqua ammonia
system. So, here in this system there are four components; generator represented by 1
condenser 2, evaporator 3 and then absorber here. And you can see, the pressure at the
generator is 10 then condenser is 10, evaporator is 1 and then absorber, this is in atmospheric
pressure.
And temperature you can see for generator is 120, condenser is 40 and evaporator is -5 and
absorber is 40. So, from this table, what we can conclude, so we need a source of energy
which is close to 120 oC. In condenser, cooling will be there, so temperature drop will be
there. This evaporator is the key thing, because this temperature we are going to maintain in
the evaporator where space cooling is required or refrigeration effect is required.
And then absorber is at 40. So, let us see the schematic of this plant. So here, what happens,
these are the solar collectors. So, this are connected in series and parallel based on the
requirement of the temperature and this 1 represents the generator, then 2 is condenser, 3 is
the expansion valve and then this is the evaporator, where space cooling is required. And then
we will have this absorber.
And then we will have liquid pump and it will pump back to the generator. So, in this case, in
aqua ammonia system, we will use ammonia and water solution here. Here, aqua ammonia
solution will be there, so why ammonia, because boiling point of ammonia is about -33 oC,
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which is very soluble in water and this principle is applied in cooling of room or cooling of
space.
So here, ammonia is the refrigerant and then water is the absorbent. So here, ammonia and
water is mixed when heat is supplied from the solar system, so heat is used to evaporate the
refrigerant. Because this boiling point of ammonia is -33 oC. At very low temperature, it will
evaporate and very high pressure, it will move on through this line and it will introduce in the
condenser where water is provided for cooling.
But it happens at high pressure about 10 bar and then in the expansion valve, what happens,
pressure will be reduce from 10 bar to about 1 bar. But you must know, here vapor will
move, but after condenser, we will have liquid. But pressure will be remained fixed, but when
it flows through the expansion valve, then what will happen, pressure will reduce to 1
atmosphere and then it pass through this evaporator where space need to be cooled.
What happens, this latent heat will be applied for cooling. So, this hot air or energy
associated with hot air will be used here and then cooling effect will be provided. Then low
concentrated solution will pass through this system and then it will pump to this generator
again and it will work in a close loop. So, this kind of system can be applied for both
refrigeration and air conditioning.
As you can see here, we can maintain temperature up to -5 oC. So, what are the advantages
associated with aqua ammonia system, let us discuss. This aqua ammonia system can provide
both air conditioning and refrigeration; that is the first thing and second thing is refrigeration
has low molecular weight and therefore higher heat of vaporization; and third advantage is
absorbent is water, is not toxic and inexpensive.
It also has some disadvantages, as the absorbent water is volatile; a rectifier unit is required to
separate and drain it out. This is one additional thing we need to do as far as aqua ammonia
refrigeration system is concerned, a comparatively a high pumping power is required to pump
working fluid from absorber pressure to the generator pressure. The ammonia is inflammable
and toxic.
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So, special precautions are required for ammonia. Now, let us learn something about lithium
bromide water absorption cooling system.
Here what happens is reverse. So, in the earlier case, ammonia was refrigerant and H2O was
absorbent and now it is reverse. Lithium bromide is absorbent and H2O is the refrigerant.
Also we can have a look about the components and its working pressure. You can see the
significant difference. In serial number 1, if you consider generator, you can see, pressure is
about 0.1 atmospheric at low pressure.
So, if we can maintain at low pressure then at lower temperature, we can get the evaporation
of water. That is why, its temperature is 90. At serial number 2, condenser, pressure is
maintained at about 0.1 and temperature varies from 30 to 40 and evaporator, pressure is
very, very low, 0.008 atmosphere and see temperature is 4. So, this is the reason why you
cannot use it for refrigeration.
At serial number 4, we will have absorber. Again its pressure is about 0.008 and temperature
varies from 30 to 40. So, let us have a look about the working. So, this is the solar collector,
from where heat energy is generated by utilizing solar energy; and this component is known
as generator. So, here since it is maintained at lower pressure, so it will evaporate at around
90 oC.
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Then it moves to the condenser, so cooling will be there; then it will be converted to liquid
and then in the expansion valve, it will expanded and pressure will be reduced, and then it
goes to the evaporator, where space need to be cooled. And again it goes to the absorber and
again it will be pumped to the generator through this heat exchanger. So, there are some
advantages of utilizing this lithium bromide water absorption cooling system.
What are the advantages? The system is comparatively simpler. It works at comparatively
higher COP, less pumping power is required due to low pressure. The refrigerant has high
latent heat of vaporization, lithium bromide absorbent is non volatile and therefore avoids the
need of rectifying equipment which is necessary in ammonia water cycle. Water lithium
bromide solution is non toxic and non flammable.
So, these are the advantages associated with lithium bromide water absorption cooling system
and disadvantages are, this system can be used for air conditioning only. So, lithium bromide
water solution is corrosive. That is very, very important and it requires high vacuum
condition. Again we need to invest some kind of devices, or some kind of system for
maintaining the vacuum and it requires water cooled condenser to attain temperature
corresponding to air conditioning. So, as in the refrigerant in water.
So, let us take an example which has already been installed in Ahmadabad. So, for a capacity
of 20 tonnes refrigeration, the amount of solar collector required and investment required can
be seen here. So, solar collector type is heat pipe evacuated tube collectors and collector area
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is about 280 m2 is required for 25 tonnes of refrigeration and heat storage tank capacity is
about 5,000 L and area covered for cooling is about 227 m2.
Indoor air temperature is about 18 to 19 oC and hours of operations per day is 9 hours and
cost of the plant is 58 lakh which includes solar unit is 40 lakhs and air conditioning unit is
18 lakhs, which are costly system.
So, now let us discuss about solar vapor compression refrigeration system. So, we can use the
solar thermal technology for vapor compression system also. So, what we can see here, there
are three loops. The first loop is for solar, second is for rankine and third is for refrigeration.
So, solar radiation is falling in the collector and hot water is generated and this hot water is
utilized for generating electricity by using rankine cycle or this is called organic rankine
cycle, ORC, because organic fluid is used here.
Like Freon or ammonia, that kind of fluid and then this electricity, what is generated, is used
to run this compressor of the vapor compression refrigeration system. And it has many
components, compressor then we have condenser, expansion valve and then evaporator. And
the evaporator is installed to a place where space to be cooled. So, if this collector is
generating access energy then storage can be done.
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So, once storage is done then this stored energy can be utilized when sun is not available and
perform the similar work for generation of electricity and finally providing refrigeration
effect.
So now, let us discuss about solar space heating. The sunlight can provide ample heat light
and shade and induce summer time ventilation into the well designed home. The passive solar
design can reduce heating and cooling energy bills, increase spatial vitality and improve
comfort. Inherently, flexible passive solar design principles, typically accrue energy benefits
with low maintenance risk over the life of the building.
So, there are some considerations for passive building like sun tempering, shading, heat
storage, natural cooling and natural lighting. So, sun tempering means orients most of the
homes glazing towards the south. A glazing area of up to 7 % of the building floor area
normally considered for this purpose. And of course, all other parameters need to be seen
while designing a passive building.
Also let us pay attention about thermal comfort in heating season. Normally, there are four
time zones people have classified to know the energy distribution. From 10 am to 5 pm,
sunlight enters south facing windows and strikes the thermal mass inside the home and
converts solar energy to heat energy. From 5 pm to 11 pm, no solar energy is there. Here,
what happens, this stored energy is utilized from 11 pm to 6:30 am. Minimal backup heating
is needed, sometimes electrical systems might be required to maintain the comfort.
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From 6:30 am to 10 am, the cool early morning hours are the toughest for passive solar
heating system to provide comfort. So, for this, there is a need to do research. How this can
be maintained? Or may be alternate material which can store more energy and that can be
provided when required.
Now see about passive solar architecture. So, let us study first this Trombe wall, which is
very, very famous for maintaining room comfort. So, what happens here, components are, we
need double glazing, we need a storage wall. This may be concrete wall or may be stone wall
or that kind of material which can store more thermal energy. That means, heat capacity of
the material should be more.
That kind of material should be used and of course, black paint has to be done in order to
maximize the solar radiation absorption. So, this is the room, we need to maintain the room
temperature at a suitable level. So, these are the vent, these vent, this vent, this vent; these are
very, very important. So, what happens, our primary target is to maintain comfortable
temperature inside the room.
Here what happens, cold air is introduced and it move up, because of this density difference.
And then, since this wall is received solar energy through this glass cover and then we will
have reflectors, so that it can be maximized and it move up and goes in. So, amount of air
required to circulate can be controlled by using this vent, can control it and also amount of
water to be introduced can be controlled here.
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So that way, room temperature can be controlled at a suitable level. So, in day time, even
though, this air is circulated, this wall is also radiating and also convection heat transfer take
places. But at night, these two vents are closed. So, only this wall will radiate and convective
heat transfer will take place to maintain the temperature of the room. So, also sometimes, if
we do not want more heat to introduce, then this damper can be used to control it.
Now we can see one more configuration, where we can maintain summer ventilation. So,
what happens on a summer day, it was too hot, so we have to remove the hot air from the
room. So, if you consider this is the room and glazing is here as solar radiation is falling here.
So, this cold outside air we have to see, where to maintain this vent; because cold air has to
introduced. If hot air is introducing, then our purpose will not solved.
Cold air has to be introduced through this hole and it will pass through and then it will move
through this hole and it will goes off from the room. By doing so, we can maintain the room
temperature at a suitable level. Also, we have one more configuration, so this is for space
heating by using solar air heater and pebble storage. You can see here, these are the rocks and
pebbles.
So, as you know this heat capacity of this pebbles are very, very high; so those pebbles can
store more energy per unit volume. So, solar radiation is falling here and this is the absorber
plate of the solar air heater and then air is coming from the room and it goes through this line
and it passes through the channel between the glass cover and the absorber plate and through
this damper, it will introduce here in the living room.
So that way, this energy can be distributed and room temperature can be maintained as per
requirement.
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So, the kind of methodology what we have discussed, these are passive systems. We do not
have to spend any energy or running any motors or running any blowers. So, now we will
discuss some other technologies where we need to apply some kind of devices like pumps,
motors et cetera to maintain the room temperature at a suitable level. So, this configuration is
for space heating system using liquid flat plate collector.
So, this is a liquid flat plate collector and what we can do, we can store energy here,
whenever we have excess energy and based on the requirement, this stored energy can be
utilized by connecting a secondary line and heat exchangers. So, this A is for collector
system, then B is storage tank, then C is pump, then D is auxiliary heater, this is auxiliary
heater, if the storage is not sufficient, then we can provide an auxiliary heater for providing
heating effect as per requirement.
And will have heat exchanger, this is the heat exchanger, because heat has to be exchanged.
Cold air introduced, pass through the heat exchanger and then finally hot air is supplied and
that is maintained as per the requirement or the suitability of the owner. Also, we will have
one more configuration known as unglazed transpired collector, that is UTC. So, here what
happens, we will have a wall which is blackened.
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And then this is a transpired collector and air is flowing through this perforated glass and we
will have fan here. So, what happens, fresh air will move because of this density difference
and it will pass through this; what is called distribution duct and it is distributed in the living
space. So, A here is unglazed transpired collector and B is the wall. It is blackened surface
and we will have, what is called fan, this is the fan unit and this is distribution duct.
So, this can be controlled the amount of air to be circulated in the room based on the
requirement. So, electronics are also involved. So, that can be controlled and this kind of
system has already been in practice for several years in many western countries. So that way,
room temperature can be maintained in active mode.
Also, we will discuss about something about hot water generation with storage tank. So, by
using this flat plate collector, we can generate hot water and we can store in insulated tank
and whenever required that can be collected. So, we can get temperature close to 120, 130
based on the number of collectors used and connected in series and parallel. And also we can
go for parabolic trough collector for generation of hot water which can be applied in many
processes like in dairy farms and process heat for other applications.
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Let us learn the low temperature power generation cycle using liquid flat plate collectors. So,
here what happens, we can have a flat plate collector and also we can boost the temperature
by using this booster reflector. We can increase the temperature and generated hot water can
be stored in a storage tank and by utilizing a heat exchanger and using a secondary cycle, we
can generate electricity.
So, this cycle working fluid is normally like Freon and other organic fluids are used. So, this
is circulated in this loop. So, when this fluid come into contact with this hot water, it will
evaporate and pressure rise will be there, which will be expanded in the turbine and by
connecting a generator, we can generate electricity and then eject of this turbine has to be
condensed and it will be circulated again and again in a close loop.
So, as you can see here, this temperature before entry to the turbine is 30 and the condenser is
35. So, this kind of systems, so if you consider this loop, this conversion efficiency is about 7
% to 8 %. In case of this collector system, its efficiency about 25 %. So, if we talk about this
overall efficiency, it will be about (25% × 8%), so it will be about 2 %.
So, what we can see here, even though these configurations are not so efficient, but
practically these are very, very important, because this kind of systems are not emitting any
greenhouse gases and we can decide based on the requirement.
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Also, we can use solar thermal energy for water pumping. So here, similar configurations we
have. So, we have flat plate collector, we have storage tank and of course, we need to have a
heat exchanger to exchange the heat from the water to the working fluid used in the organic
rankine cycle and we can generate electricity. So, once we have generated electricity, that can
be used to pump water and part of the water can also be used to condense the fluid coming
out from the turbine.
And this water pumping can be applied in irrigation and other systems, where pump work is
required. So, why this kind of system is quite attractive, because more irrigation water is
required in summer, when solar energy is available. The intermittent pumping is not caused
any difficulty, because solar radiation is fluctuating, so that is intermittent. So, this
intermittent pumping is not caused any difficulty.
So, excess energy can be stored, may be pumping water to a higher elevation and whenever
required, that can be channelized and re energy can be generated. So, for small scale, say
about 200 W to 5 kW solar PV powered water pumping are quite successful, but for large
scale, say in the range of 1 kW to 200 kW, solar thermal pumps are economical with superior
performance, that we should keep in mind. For large scale, we should go for solar thermal
pumping system and for moderate requirement, we will go for solar PV powered water
pumping set.
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So, as far as medium temperature power generation cycle is concerned, we can go for
cylindrical parabolic concentrating collectors. Or we can say, this is solar collector field and
here, we will have this 1 is for preheater, 2 is for steam generator, 3 is for super heater and
then we will have regenerator, then it will go to the turbine and then we will have generator
and then we can distribute the energy in the grid line and we must have a condenser here.
And then for condensing, we need cooling tower. And this is circulated again and again. So,
this is a schematic for functioning of a cylindrical parabolic concentrating collector. So here,
we can generate thermal energy as well as electrical energy. So, maximum temperature we
can go up to 400 oC, for this kind of system.
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Also, we have learned about central tower receiver power plant. So, these are high
temperature applications, so we can go more than 400 oC; may be 700 oC, 800 oC, that kind
of temperature we can go and we can generate electricity by using this thermal energy. So, as
we have already studied this kind of technology, maybe I will just briefly tell about the
functioning of this kind of technology.
So, solar radiation is received by these heliostats and is reflected to this receiver and in this
receiver normally what happens, this cold salt is introduced and it is heated up and that is
collected and by utilizing heat exchanger, we can extract the heat and this should run in a
conventional rankine cycle and we can generate electricity. So, that is what it is shown, these
are the heliostat.
Solar radiation falls here, is reflected to this point and then this salt is circulated and heated
salt is collected and then heat exchange will be there and then we will have this conventional
rankine cycle rankine cycle for electricity generation.
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Now what are the limitations of this thermo-mechanical systems, let us study. The efficiency
of the collector system decreases as the collection temperature increases. While the efficiency
of the heat engine increases as the working fluid temperature increases, this is interesting.
The conversion efficiency is low, in this kind of system. A part of thermal energy is lost
during the transportation of the working fluid from the collector to the heat engine.
The solar collectors are more expensive than engine, that we must agree. A very large area is
required as we can realize now. Due to the intermittent nature of solar energy, storage of
thermal energy is also required and with time, this storage material degrades. So, that is a
concern, for this kind of thermo mechanical system.
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So, now let us summarize, what we have discussed today. We have discussed solar
distillation, what is the importance of solar distillations and how performance of solar
distillation can be investigated and it is working. We have also discussed solar cooker, we
have discussed the analysis and also we have solved one numerical problem to understand the
facts. We have learned passive cooling system.
Solar refrigeration and studied the various applications of solar thermal energy, like for low
temperature pumping, medium temperature pumping, electricity and process heat generation
and high temperature is for electricity generation. I hope you have enjoyed this lecture. Thank
you very much for watching. Thank you.
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Dr. Pankaj Kalita
Centre of Energy
Lecture 34
Module – 12: Solar Energy Applications: Tutorial
Dear students, today we will discuss a tutorial on analysis of COP of absorption refrigeration
cycle and test procedure and performance analysis of a PV/T collector.
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Let us consider the theoretical COP of an absorption cycle first. Let me draw the flow diagram of
a vapour absorption refrigeration plant. So, we will draw this plant first, then it will be generator.
So, solar collector will generate heat and it will go here; again, it will come back to the solar
collectors, there are many collectors.
And then we will have a condenser here. So, we have to supply some kind of fluid to cool the
refrigerant. So, we have to remove the heat maybe Qc and we have to add heat from the solar
collector, which is nothing but QG, because this is generator. And we will have expansion valve
and then we will have evaporator. Then from evaporator, it will go to, what is called absorber.
So, this is absorber and we have to circulate fluid to extract the heat of the solution. So, this QA
has to be removed and here this QE, that much of energy which is nothing but absorption of heat
from the atmosphere.
And then we will have heat exchanger here and maybe we will have pump here. So, strong
solution will have to move up and we have a valve here and it will go down. So, I will write what
are the components? This is Wp is the pump work and this is also known as aqua pump and we
will have strong solution here, strong solution and we will consider aqua ammonia solution. So,
ammonia vapour will be here which is at higher pressure and this is condenser, already known to
us. This is condenser and here cooling water will be circulated, cooling water to condense the
vapour.
And then this is expansion valve, expansion valve, where pressure will be reduced from certain
atmosphere to very low pressure. So, here it is QE and this is evaporator and here, brine solution
or sodium chloride is introduced. So, maybe sodium chloride in water, this is evaporator, heat
exchanger, this is ammonia vapour, it is a low pressure. So, we have already discussed the
working of vapour absorption refrigeration cycle in the earlier classes, where we have learn that
the absorption refrigeration system is a heat operated unit which uses a refrigerant, that is
alternatively absorbed and liberated from the absorbent.
So, here in this case, refrigerant is ammonia, when you talk about aqua ammonia refrigeration
system and water is absorbent. So, we will start with this generator, so this is generator, so what
happens, heat of this solar collector, which takes the heat and then this ammonia will be
vaporised at high pressure and that has to be condensed in a condenser by circulating cooling
water and then this liquid refrigerant pass through this expansion valve where pressure is reduced
802
significantly. And then we have this evaporator where space need to be cool. Here, sodium
chloride in water, that solution is used and heat is taking from the atmosphere.
And then, this low concentration of ammonia which introduced in the absorber where water
actually comes down and mixes with this ammonia vapour and then here what happens is, heat
of the solution has to be carried away; because this has to be maintained at constant temperature.
Then what happens? It will become very strong solution, so ammonia concentration will be more
and that has to be pumped through this heat exchanger to this generator.
So, it works in a loop. So, as you know, this boiling point of ammonia is less than that of the
water, the ammonia vapour is given off from the aqua ammonia solution at high pressure here.
And this weak solution returns to the absorber through this pressure reducing valve. So, this is
important. So, now what we will do, we will do the analysis for calculation of theoretical COP of
an absorption system.
So, let us draw the figure first. So, if we consider a source here, source which is at temperature
T1. Already we know the source is giving heat to the generator, so we also know what term
represents amount of heat which is given to the generator, which is QG. So, it goes to generator,
so I will write this is generator, generator and then it goes to condenser, condenser, then we have
absorber I will write, absorber and we have evaporator.
And here, we need to maintain this region, this region need to be cooled. And from condenser
and absorber, we take out heat Qc and then we have QA. So, if we make this is a sink, sink at T2
and this is the region we can take; TR is the temperature need to be maintained for the
refrigeration purpose. So, here this dotted portion is nothing but absorption unit, so this is
absorption unit, absorption unit.
So here, what we can see, QG is the amount of heat we have given to this generator and QC is the
amount of heat, which is carried away and QE is the amount of heat we have taken from the
atmosphere and then QA is the amount of heat which is given off, that is heat of the solution;
because we need to maintain a constant temperature, this absorber.
So, source is T1 and then region temperature is TR and sink is QC + QA. We are considering
something like this. Now, let us develop the expression by taking the help of first law of
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thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics; what will be the maximum coefficient of
performance of an vapour absorption refrigeration cycle?
By the first law of thermodynamics, we know, it is a energy balance. QG, + QE = QC + QA. So, let
this equation be 1. And by second law, second law of thermodynamics, we have, (ΔS)source +
(ΔS)sink + (ΔS)region ≥ 0.
So, entropy has to be ≥ 0. So, locally entropy may decrease or increase, but resultant entropy
should always increase. That is the second law of thermodynamics in terms of entropy. Now,
when we are taking heat from a source then what happens, then entropy will decrease, because
randomness of the molecule will decrease. Something like, we can give an analogy, if we
consider a silent library and the busy street, so when we sneeze in a silent library, what will
happen? Then there will be lot of destruction, there will be lot of molecular disorderliness,
because of that there will be rise in entropy.
If we sneeze or same level of sneeze, if we make in a very busy Street, then the rise of entropy
will be not much. Again when we take heat from a high temperature source, then entropy will be
negative, entropy will reduce. So, that is how, source is at high temperature, so the amount of
 Q 
heat we are taking is   G  plus sink is getting the heat. So, there will be rise in entropy
 T1 
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because when you are dumping heat, then what will happen; there will be lot of chaotic motion,
like we are sneezing in a silent library.
 Q  QA 
So, under that condition, we can see  C  . So, sink temperature is maybe at T2 and then
 T2 
 Q 
here, again we are taking heat from the atmosphere, then this will be negative,   E  . So, this
 TR 
will be something like this. So, we can name this equation as 2. Now, using equation 1 in
QG QG  QE QE
equation 2, we have,    0.
T1 T2 TR
T1  T2 T T
So, if we simplify it, then it will be something like  QG  R 2  QE  0 . So, again if we
T1 T2 TR T2
T2  TR T T
simplify it,  QE  1 2  QG .
T2 TR T1 T2
So, again we can simplify, so what will happen, it will be QE, so I missed one here, it will be QE.
QE T1  T2 TR
So, this   . So, if we are interested about COP, coefficient of performance, that
QG T2  TR T1
is maximum or maximum coefficient of performance, COP max  T1  T2  TR .

T2  TR T1
T T
So, again we can simplify, something like COP max  TR
 1 2 . So, what is this now.
T2  TR T1
These two parameters, so what does this indicate? This is something like, ideal ideal coefficient
of performance of a refrigerator refrigerator. So, that is working between T2 and TR. And what is
this? This is the ideal thermal efficiency. This ideal thermal efficiency of a heat engine. I will
write HE which indicate heat engine working between T1 and T2.
So, what we have evaluated, so when we are interested about COP of a vapour absorption
refrigeration system which is nothing but multiplication of COP of a refrigerator working
between T2 and TR and ideal thermal efficiency of an heat engine working between T1 and T2.
So, that gives the maximum theoretical efficiency. So, now what we will do, we will take one
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example and try to see what will be the maximum COP of a vapour absorption refrigeration
cycle.
806
So, our problem goes something like an aqua ammonia absorption refrigeration system, heat is
supplied to the generator from an array of solar collector at 120 oC, the temperature to be
maintained in the refrigerator is -10 oC and the ambient temperature is 30 oC. Estimate the
maximum COP of the refrigerator. So, we need to solve this problem now. So, here what is T1?
T1 is nothing but source temperature, which is 120 oC, then we have to convert to K. So, (120 +
273) = 393 K.
So, what is T2 here? T2 = 30 oC, 30 oC which is the sink temperature. So, (30 + 273), which is
nothing but 303 K. And then TR is given, so we need to maintain the region temperature at -10
o
C. So, (-10 + 273) = 263 K. So, if we know these three temperatures, then we can calculate the
maximum COP.
T1  T2 TR
So, we know the expression for maximum COP, COP max   . So, if we substitute this
T2  TR T1
temperature values, so COP max  393  303  263 1.5 . So, maximum COP of a vapour
303  263 393
absorption refrigeration system is found to be 1.5, which is very less if we compare with vapour
compression refrigeration system.
Now, if we are interested about actual COP, this is the maximum what we have calculated now.
So, if we say the actual COP is 40 % of the maximum COP. So, if the actual COP is 40 % of the
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maximum COP, then what will happen? COP if we had actual then it will be (1.5 × 0.4), which
will be about 0.6. So, actual COP will be about 0.6. Again, if we consider, say refrigeration load
is say about 20 tonnes, so if we say QE is something like 20 tonnes, then how much heat is
required?
So, solar collector is here, solar collector I will write C, then we have to transfer some kind of
heat drive which is QG, so if evaporator a load is about 20 TR, ton of refrigeration, then how
much heat is required? If we need to calculate, then how we will proceed? So, if you consider QE
= 20 tons, so that means 1 TR is, how much in kJ/hr? It will be (20 ×14000) kJ/hr.
So, we can convert it to kW, if we divide the expression by 3600. So, (20 ×14000)/3600, then
what we will get. the value of QE = 77.77 kW. So, that way we can calculate what is QE and then
if we need to calculate QG, how to calculate? We know actual COP is nothing but QE/QG, so this
QG will be something like QE/(COP)actual. So, if we substitute this value, QE = 77.77 kW and
COP = 0.6; then what we will get, it is about 129.629 kW. So, that much of energy is required to
provide refrigeration effect of 20 TR. So, that is how we can do the calculation about the heat
required to run the refrigeration system.
Now, let us discuss the performance analysis of a solar PV/T collector. It includes test procedure,
performance parameters and then example.
808
So, here what we have seen, one experimental setup schematic and one photograph. So, here this
is the PV/T collector need to be tested. So, we have a test plate, so we can fix the unit at a
particular tilt, and we make all the arrangements of measurement. So, you can see the actual
picture how we have a mounting structure and all the measurement facilities. So, what are the
instruments required for measurement of solar radiation, we need a pyranometer. So, this is the
pyranometer.
So, pyranometer is here, so pyranometer will give us the global radiation and also we need to
measure fluid inlet temperature, fluid outlet temperature, PV/T surface temperature, then
absorber temperature, then ambient temperature. So, for measurement of this temperatures, we
have a data acquisition system, which is a very sophisticated data acquisition system. So, we
need the sensors and that has to be connected. So, this is something like this, so we can get the
data in every second, what is the variation.
And of course, we need a PV analyzer which actually tells about the IV characteristics at
particular time. So, from that, we can calculate what is the maximum voltage, what is the
maximum current. Also we have used 1 temperature gun, to know the cell temperature. So, here
solar radiation is falling here and then this is the collector we need to be tested and we have to
circulate known quantities of fluid, the mass flow rate is constant and then fluid inlet temperature
is constant and then outlet temperature can be measured and we need minimum solar insulation
of 700 W/m2 for these parameters, we followed standards.
809
So, let us see how we can move to what is called indoor experiments. The one what I have
shown that is a real-time experiments and what I am showing here is the test facility which is
developed inside the laboratory. So, this figure shows the schematic and this figure shows the
photograph. So, here we will have anemometer to see the wind velocities, because wind velocity
also need to be controlled while performing the experiments and we have light source. We have
given the sufficient light like simulation of our sun and we will have pyranometer to see the
radiation intensity and we have this fluid tank with heater. So, we need to regulate the inlet fluid
temperature; that is why we need this regulation tank and then mass flow rate is fixed.
So, under that condition, we have measured all the variables, like what is the Vm, what is Im,
what is surface temperature of the cell, what is ambient temperature, what is fluid inlet
temperature, what is fluid outlet temperature. So, photograph can also be seen here. So, this is an
indoor test facility.
810
So, we have followed the following test procedure to derive thermal efficiency curve, like
minimum requirements specified in EN 12975-2 is to generate performance and we have
performed the experiments when solar radiation is more than 700 W/m2. And to compare the
thermal efficiency of different collectors, the flow rate should be kept at the same value and
initial temperature we control, in the range of 25 to 45 oC.
So, we have performance parameters which need to be calculated like electrical efficiency. So,
how do we calculate electrical efficiency? Once we know Vm, Im, for a particular set of
811
experiments and we know the collector area and then amount of solar radiation which is falling
on the collector then from that, we can calculate the electrical efficiency. And for thermal
efficiency, we need to calculate the useful heat gain and then amount of solar radiation received
by the collector.
 
 C p dT , dT  Tfo  Tfi , so this is nothing but useful heat gain and this is the amount of
So, this m
radiation received by the collector. Then from that, we can calculate what is the thermal
efficiency. So, once we know both electrical and thermal efficiency, then we just edit, which will
give you energy efficiency and fourthly, what we are interested about exergy efficiency of a
PV/T collector.
So, which can be expressed by exergy output to the exergy input. So, if we need to find out the
exergy input, then we need to follow this expression. So, which is a function of this ambient
temperature, sun temperature, then we will have amount of solar radiation received and then
collector area. So, once we know these parameters, then from that, we can calculate what is
exergy input and when we talk about exergy output, there are two components, that is electrical
component and thermal component.
For electrical component, we can calculate this exergy output = Vm × Im and for thermal exergy
output, we can get from this expression. So, QE is the useful heat gain which is already known to
us, in this calculation and Ta is known and Tfo is known; then from that we can calculate what is
exergy output for thermal. So, we will combine this and then we divide the expression with
exergy input then what we will get is the exergy efficiency of a PV/T collector.
812
So, let us take one example like calculate the average electrical, thermal, energy and exergy
efficiency from the given set of data. Consider mass flow rate as 0.015 kg/s and also plot various
parameters against the time of the day. So, this is data what we have generated in our
experiments. So, this is the timing and solar radiation is given here, so this is global radiation and
we have used pyranometer and then ambient temperature is recorded and fluid outlet temperature
is also recorded and fluid inlet temperature is here and then output power is known from the IV
tracer.
So, normally what we do, when we test a solar collector, we normally perform the experiments
during these hours 11:30 to 13 hours or 1 pm. Because during that time, we will get maximum
exposure to the sun. So, our primary data will be this for performance analysis, but also we can
see, what happens, if we perform the experiments from 9 to about 3:30 pm. And we need to
consider the surface temperature of the sun is 6000 K and area of the collector is about 0.67 m2.
So, what I will do first, I will do one calculation and I will show you, then we will use one
spreadsheet to calculate all the parameters for a single day, starting from 9 am to 15:30 hours.
813
So, first let us calculate what is electrical efficiency for 11:30 am. So, here if we take the value of
Pm, which is Vm × Im, so these are the maximum voltage and maximum current. So, here it is
71.2 and Ac = 0.67 and G value which is solar radiation is about 870. So, if we calculate it, it is
found to be about 12.21 %. So, the next case, what we will do, we will calculate the thermal
efficiency.
0.015  4.18 103  39  32.3

So, this is at 11:30 am, th   72.06 % .
0.67  870
So, I am just showing one calculation, then we can use the spreadsheet as there is no point of
doing all the calculations here. So, when we talk about energy efficiency, energy efficiency
which is nothing but 1 plus 2. So, here we are adding but sometimes you cannot add it, because
quality of both the form of energy is different. So, it will be something like 84.27 %. And the
next what we will calculate, is about exergy efficiency of a PV/T collector.
814
So, now we will calculate one by one. So, let us first calculate exergy output, so which is nothing
but Vm × Im. So, this value is a Pm, Pm is already given which is nothing but 71.2 plus we will
 33.6  273 
have Qu, so we will write, E xout  71.2  Q u 1  . So, here we will add Qu,
 39  273 
Q u  m C p T  0.015  4.18  103  39  32.3  420.09 .
So, here you can see the unit, so your m is in kg, so here J/kgK, this is K. So, this is coming right
and this is mass flow rate, so J/s is W. So, this will be in watt. So, here if we substitute the
values, then it is found to be about E xout  78.47 W . So, exergy output. So, this is known now.
So, now what we need to calculate is exergy in. So, we can use this expression, so straight away
 4  33.6  273  1  33.6  273 
we can substitute the values here, so E xin  0.67  870  1      .
 3  6000  3  6000 
So, if we do the calculation then exergy input is found to be about 543.19 W. So, this is exergy
input. So, now what we will do, we will substitute this value and this value in this equation, so
78.47
exergy efficiency will be ex  14.44% . So, we need to multiply 100 to get in
543.19
percentage, so this is the exergy efficiency. So, once we know these values of temperatures and
then solar insulation and then maximum power, then from that we can calculate all those
815
efficiencies. Now, what we will do, we will go to the spreadsheet and see how we can generate
the plot and do the calculation.
816
So, all the values are calculated here for 9 am, 9:30, 10, 10:30 till 15:30 and we can see the
efficiency, electrical efficiency, thermal efficiency, energy efficiency, and exergy efficiency. So,
if we take out these values from here and we can make a separate table and we can generate this
kind of plot. So, maybe we can see the variation of efficiency with respect to the solar radiation
then what happens and then again we can see, the variation of all the efficiencies at different
times.
So, with increase in time what happens, there is increase in efficiency till mid of the day then it is
decreasing. All the plots showing the similar pattern, but electrical efficiency is lower compared
to thermal efficiency. So, by utilizing this PV/T technology, we can harvest both the energy,
electrical energy as well as thermal energy.
So, that is why, it is shown. So, otherwise this energy heat energy would have been wastage, so
we could not tap this energy. So, by attaching something at the beneath of the PV collector and
then circulating fluid, so of course, there are some configurations such as beneath of the PV. So,
water is circulated in those tubes, normally we have used some kind of tubes and from that
actually, we can harvest this thermal energy. And this thermal energy can be applied for many of
the applications. So, once we generate this plot, then we can take from here and we can use it
here, because this problem is asking about the plot.
817
So, we can have this kind of plots finally. And these are the results what we got from the analysis
and this electrical average efficiency is 11.67 throughout the day, average thermal efficiency is
about 60 %, average energy efficiency about 71 % and average exergy efficiency is about 13.32
%. So, this way we can do the analysis and investigate the performance of a PV/T collector.
818
So, in summary what we have done, we have investigated the COP of absorption refrigeration
cycle and theoretical COP also we have calculated and we have discussed the test procedure of a
PV/T collector and also we have studied the performance of a PV/T collector with an example.
So, I hope you have enjoyed this video. Thank you very much.
819
THIS BOOK
IS NOT FOR
SALE
NOR COMMERCIAL USE
(044) 2257 5905/08

nptel.ac.in
swayam.gov.in

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INDEX

S.NO TOPICS PAGE.NO

1 Lec 1: Energy Scenarios 3

2 Lec 2: Overview of solar energy conversion devices and applications 24

4 Lec 4: Solar radiation and sunshine measuring instruments 78

5 Lec 5: Geometry, angles and measurement - I 97

6 Lec 6: Geometry, angles and measurement - II 114

7 Lec 7: Estimation of radiation under different climatic conditions 134

8 Lec 8: Estimation of radiation in horizontal and inclined surface 149

9 Lec 9: Fundamentals of PV cells 173

10 Lec 10: Semiconductor physics 194

11 Lec 11: Performance characterization of PV cells 215

12 Lec 12: Photovoltaic modules and arrays 236

13 Lec 13: Components of standalone PV system 265

14 Lec 14: Design of standalone PV system 290

15 Lec 15: Functioning and components of PV system 313

16 Lec 16: Design of a grid connected PV system 342

18 Lec 18: Basics of thermal collectors 391

19 Lec 19: Basics of heat transfer 419

20 Lec 20: Solar collector losses and loss estimation 444

21 Lec 21: Analysis of flat plate collector 467

22 Lec 22: Influence of various parameters on the performance of LFPC 499

23 Lec 23: Testing and application of LFPC 522

25 Lec 25: Testing and application of solar air heaters 576

26 Lec 26: Fundamentals of concentrating collectors 603

27 Lec 27: Concentrating collector technologies and working principle 634

28 Lec 28: Tutorial : Concentrating Collector 667

30 Lec 30: Solar pond 708

31 Lec 31: Tutorial : Solar pond power plant design 732

32 Lec 32: Emerging technologies 748

33 Lec 33: Solar energy applications in cooking, desalination, refrigeration

(Refer Slide Time: 1:01)

(Refer Slide Time: 1:42)

Now, what is the unit of power? It is watt.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:57)

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In thermal infrared wavelength varies from 10 μm to 1 mm and it is mostly applied in heating

(Refer Slide Time: 29:02)

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